LESSON 11.

GREAT BRITAIN A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY The United Kingdom is one of the few developed countries of capitalism where a constitutional monarchy has survived with its ages-old customs, traditions and ceremonies. The British constitution, unlike that of most other countries, is not contained in any single document: there is no written constitution. It was formed partly by statute, partly by common law and partly by conventions. It can be altered by Act of Parliament, or by general agreement to create, vary or abolish a convention. A thousand years ago, before the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Saxon kings consulted the Great Council or Witan (an assembly of the leading wisest rich men from various districts) before taking major decisions. When the Norman Conquest took place the Witan disappeared and William I and his successors held Great Councils of the great feudal nobles instead. In 1215 the nobles forced king John to accept Magna Charta (the Great Charter) which was aimed to limit some of the powers of the king. In 1265 Simon De Montfort summoned the first parliament. Since then the so-called British constitution has evolved as a result of countless Acts of parliament. A constitutional monarch is one who can rule only with the support of parliament. The Bill of Rights (1689) was a major legal step towards constitutional monarchy. It limited the powers of monarchy to a great extent, especially on governmental, fiscal and other matters. Since 1689 the power of parliament has grown steadily, while the power of the monarch has weakened. Today the monarch reigns, though she does not rule. Being a constitutional monarch the Queen acts on the advice of her prime minister and does not make any major political decisions. In Britain they look to the Queen not only as their head of state, but also as the 'symbol of their nation's unity'. The Queen personifies the State, she is head of the executive, an integral part of legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all armed forces, the 'supreme governor' of the established Church of England the Anglican church and the personal Head of the Commonwealth. The United Kingdom is governed by Her Majesty's Government in the name of the Queen. Anglo Saxon Norman Tudor Stuart Witan Great Council Parliament. Although the Queen is deprived of actual power, she has retained many important, though formal, functions. These include summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament; giving royal assent to Bills passed by both
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Houses of Parliament; appointing every important office holder, including government ministers, judges, officers in the armed forces, governors, diplomats and bishops and some other senior clergy of the Church of England; conferring peerages, knighthoods and other honours. She appoints the Prime Minister (usually the leader of the political party which commands a majority in the House of Commons) to form a government. As head of State the Queen has, in international affairs, the power to declare war and make peace, to recognize foreign states and governments, to conclude treaties, etc. She gives audiences to her ministers and other officials at home and overseas, receives accounts of Cabinet decisions, reads dispatches and signs innumerable State papers; she is informed and consulted on every aspect of national life. The royal family is the principal aristocratic house in the country closely connected with other members of the hereditary aristocracy and with big finance interests. It is one of the biggest landowners in Britain. The royal family also serves as a custodian of British standards and values, intervening when the propriety of British life seems threatened. One of the main tasks of those defending the monarchy is to preserve and strengthen conservatism, to obscure class-consciousness of the masses. Today the monarchy is also one of the great tourist attractions. Over threequarters of all expenditure arising from maintaining the royal family come from taxpayers. Today the Civil List covers the expenses of the Crown which according to 1982 figures exceed 4 million pounds (including allowances to members of the royal family) a huge sum for the British taxpayers. As has been noted, the monarch embodies the unity of the Commonwealth. It was in the course of the decline of the British Empire that the ruling circles in the country began to attach more and more importance to the Commonwealth of Nations as a suitable institution to promote British neocolonialist policies. It was not until after 1931 that the British Empire became known as the British Commonwealth of Nations and later simply the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth is an association of 49 independent states with a combined population of over 1,000 million. Commonwealth members are a representative cross-section of mankind in all stages of political and economic development. Along with Britain and such developed countries as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, it includes large developing countries as India and Nigeria, and tiny islandic states as Nauru (population a mere
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8,000) lost in the ocean expanses. The interrelations between the Commonwealth countries are very complicated and contradictory. The Commonwealth does not formulate central policies on, say, economic or foreign affairs. Nevertheless there is considerable consultation and cooperation between the member states. Consultation takes place through diplomatic representatives known as High Commissioners, meetings of heads of Government, specialized conferences of other ministers and officials, expert groups, and discussions at international conferences and the United Nations. Trade and cultural exhibitions and conferences of professional and unofficial medical, cultural, educational and economic organizations are other ways in which frequent contacts are made. Heads of Government usually meet every two years. Proceedings are usually in private with an informal exchange of views. On international affairs no formal decisions are taken and no attempt is made to formulate specifically Commonwealth policies, although, on occasion, common views on matters of major international concern are formulated and reflected in the communique issued at the end of the meetings. For example, the 24th Conference of the Heads of State and Government of the Commonwealth countries was held in India, in New Delhi in December 1983. The Commonwealth conference stressed the ever increasing role of the newly-emergent states in international affairs today. First and foremost, it emphasized the constructive role of India as a leading non-aligned country. Most participants of the conference sharply condemned the deployment of American missiles in Western Europe, they rejected the concept of a 'limited' nuclear war as preached by the United States, US occupation of Grenada. The forum called for holding an international conference on the question of proclaiming the Indian Ocean a peace zone. The Commonwealth Secretariat provides the central organization for consultation and cooperation among member states. Established in London in 1965, headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the heads of Government, and financed by member Governments, the Secretariat is responsible to Commonwealth Governments collectively. The Secretariat promotes consultation, disseminates information on matters of common concern, and organizes meetings and conferences. Of the remaining British dependent territories most are scattered groups of islands situated in different parts of the world. They are as follows: Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands (disputed territory claimed
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by Argentina and called the Malvinas) and Dependencies, Gibraltar (claimed also by Spain), Hong Kong (to be handed over to China in 1997), Montserrat, Pitcairn Island, St Helena. Progress Test Questions and Assignments 1 Give a short survey of the development of the so-called British constitution and of constitutional monarchy with facts based on your knowledge of history. Outline the major functions of the monarchy today. Find in the map of the world the remaining dependencies of Great Britain. Write a brief account of the origin and nature of the Commonwealth. PARLIAMENT AND ELECTIONS When they speak of the British Parliament they usually mean the House of Commons. It is this House that is elected at a Parliamentary election. This reflects the leading role of the House of Commons though there is the other House in Westminster Palace, the House of Lords. Westminster is often referred to as 'Mother of Parliaments'. But British public opinion is getting more and more concerned about the process of the shift of real power to Whitehall, a tendency of a decrease of the role of legislative organs as compared to that of executive. The most important ministries and departments of the civil service are in Whitehall, the broad street which leads down to the Houses of Parliament in Westminster. Just as the name 'Westminster' is often used to mean 'Parliament', so 'Whitehall' often means 'the Government' or 'the civil service'. The British civil service suggests to many British people bureaucracy government by paid state officials rather than by persons elected by the people. The electoral system of Great Britain encourages the domination of the scene by two major political parties. The whole of the United Kingdom is divided into 650 electoral districts, called 'constituencies', of approximately equal population, and each constituency elects one member of the House of Commons. Practically no person can stand any chance of being elected except under the name of a party, and a little chance except as a candidate backed by either the Labour or the Conservative Party. In every constituency each of these two parties has a local organization, whose first task is to choose the candidate, and which then helps him to conduct his local campaign. The choice of the candidates is often more important than it may seem to be at first sight. At least a quarter of the constituencies in Britain can be regarded as 'safe seats' for the Conservatives, and the same proportion for the Labour Party. In these places the person who has the nomination for the
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dominant party is almost sure of being elected to Parliament. If a person is elected to the House of Commons in a 'marginal seat' by a small majority, he knows that if the trend of public opinion at the next election is against his party he is quite likely to lose his seat, and that nothing he can do for his constituents will save him. The ruling classes make use of different means to push their people to the supreme organs of power. One of them is an artificial alteration in the boundaries of the constituencies or the disappearance of a constituency altogether. A member of Parliament in a safe seat is unlikely to be in any danger at all unless he offends the leaders of his own local association. So long as he votes with his party in Parliament, and does not express opposition to his party's policies, he is unlikely to be rejected by the association. Now when an important bill is presented to leader of the Conservative party Margaret Thatcher became the first Prime Minister for 160 years remaining in this position a third term. Distribution of seats in the House of Commons after the 1987 General Election Presiding Officer checking name of voter Clerk issuing Voting Slip Voter receiving ballot paper Voter in polling booth Voter in polling booth Voter putting slip in Ballot Box (locked) Police Officer preserving law and order A polling station. Parliament, members must vote in line with party orders. But if they rebel, they run the risk of being kicked out of their party. Hence too much obedience to the party line gives too much power to the Cabinet and to the prime minister. British subjects and citizens can vote provided they are aged 18 or over, resident in the United Kingdom, registered in the annual register of electors for the constituency and not subject to any disqualification. Voting is on the same day (usually a Thursday) in all constituencies, and the voting stations are kept open from seven in the morning until nine at night. The elected MPs represent 650 constituencies in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The size of the constituencies varies, the average being about 60,000 electors. Although there is no limit to the number of political parties, in effect, Britain has a two-party system of government, since the
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Conservative Party and the Labour Party dominate and the system is unfair to other political parties. The last Liberal prime minister was the Welshman, Lloyd George, whose defeat in 1922 marked the end of Liberal power. Since that time few Liberal MPs have been elected. In a British election the candidate who wins the most votes is elected, even if he or she does not get as many as the combined votes of the other candidates. This practice is known as the notorious majority electoral system. A typical example is the result in the June 1987 General election when the Conservative party gained a third successive victory receiving the support of less than half of those who took part in the election. A quarter of the electorate ignored the election altogether. The table illustrates that the Conservative party with the minority votes (42.3 per cent), as compared to the combined votes received by the rest of the parties, won an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons (375). But taking into account those who failed to come to the polling stations, it becomes clear that the Conservatives, though having sound reason to rejoice, gained the support of only about one-third of the British people eligible to vote. The Number of seats Party As a % of those who voted Conservative Labour Liberal-Social Democratic Alliance 22.6 22 42.3 30.8 375 229

Others

4.3

24

100 650 Total It is often argued that the British system of election is so unfair that it ought to be changed, by the introduction of a form of proportional representation. This is an election system which seeks to give minority
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parties representation in Parliament. It aims to give each party a proportion of seats in Parliament corresponding to the proportion of votes it receives in an election. For example, a minority party receiving 5 per cent of the votes at a general election should get 5 per cent of the seats. As soon as the results of a General election are known, it is clear which party will form the Government. If the party which had a majority of seats in the House of Commons has a majority again in the new parliament, then the Government does not change; but if the majority changes from one party to the other, the defeated Prime Minister usually resigns at once, and the Queen appoints the leader of the new majority in his place. The new House of Commons then meets. Progress Test Questions and Assignments Account for the tendency to a decrease of the role of Westminster (Parliament) as compared to that of Whitehall (Government) an indication to restrict democratic methods of government. Give some account of the electoral system of Great Britain referring particularly to the domination of the political scene by the two major parties Conservative and Labour. Explain what is meant by the terms 'constituency', 'safe seat', 'marginal seat'. Show how unfair is the notorious majority electoral system in Great Britain. Summarize in writing the process of choosing candidates and voting. HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT Parliament is the supreme legislative authority in Britain. The three elements of Parliament the Queen and the two Houses of Parliament (the House of Lords and the elected House of Commons) are outwardly separate, are constituted on different principles, and they meet together only on occasions of symbolic significance, such as a coronation, or the State opening of Parliament when the Commons are summoned by the Queen to the House of Lords. The Parliament Act 1911 fixed the life of a Parliament (the House of Commons) at five years, although it may be dissolved and a general election held before the end of this term. It can make, unmake or alter any law. If both Houses agreed, it could even prolong its own life beyond the normal period of five years without
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consulting the electorate. The maximum life has been prolonged by legislation in such rare circumstances as the two world wars. In practice, however, Parliament does not assert its supremacy in this way. Its members bear in mind the common law which has grown up over the centuries, and have tended to act in accordance with precedent and tradition. The powers of the Crown in connection with Parliament are subject to limitation and change by legislative process and are always exercised through and on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament. The life of Parliament is divided into sessions. Each session usually lasts for one year and is usually terminated by prorogation, although it may be terminated by dissolution. Each session begins and ends most often in October or November. Parliament is usually dissolved by proclamation either at the end of its fiveyear term or when a Government requests a dissolution before the terminal date. The average number of sitting days for the House of Commons in a normal session is about 175, divided into the following periods: one from November till Christmas (about 40 sitting days), one from January to Easter (about 50 sitting days), and one from about the beginning of June until about late July or early August (40 to 50 sitting days). During most sessions the House of Lords sits on about 140 days. The periods when Parliament is not sitting are popularly known as 'recesses', although the correct term is 'adjournments'. Since the beginning of Parliament, the balance of power between the two Houses has undergone a complete change. The continuous process of development and adaptation has been greatly accelerated during the past 70 years or so. In modern practice the centre of parliamentary power is in the House of Commons, but until the twentieth century the Lords' power of veto over measures proposed by the Commons was, theoretically, unlimited. The Parliament Act 1911 curtailed the veto of the Lords to a period of two years for Bills passed by the Commons in three successive sessions, and abolished the veto altogether over Bills dealing exclusively with expenditure or taxation. These limitations to the powers of the House of Lords were further strengthened by the Parliament Act 1949, which reduced the delaying powers of the Lords from two years to one year for Bills passed by the Commons in two successive sessions.
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The arrangement of seating in both Houses of Parliament reflects the nature of the party system. Both debating chambers are rectangular in shape, are overlooked by galleries, and have at one end the seat of the Speaker, in front of which stands the Table of the House, and at the other end a technical barrier, known as the 'Bar' (two bronze rods normally kept retracted). The benches for members run the length of the chamber on both sides. Intersected by a gang-way, the benches face each other across a broad area known as the 'floor of the House'. The benches to the right of the Speaker are used by the Government and its supporters; those to the left are occupied by the Opposition, and members of any other parties. In the House of Lords, there are also the bishops' benches and a number of cross-benches for peers who do not wish to attach themselves to any party. Leaders of the Government and the Opposition sit on the front benches of their respective sides to the Speaker's side of the central dividing aisle with their supporters. The backbenchers, the ordinary members of Parliament, sit behind them, occupying the seats behind the front benches. In the House of Commons, where there is room for only 350 MPs on the benches backbenchers may also sit in the side galleries, which can accommodate a further 90 members. In both Houses the galleries also provide accommodation for visitors, the press and government and parliamentary officials. Each House has its Leader. The Leader of the House of Commons is the member of the Government primarily responsible for organizing the business of the House, and for providing reasonable facilities for the House to debate matters about which it is concerned. One of the functions of the Leader is to announce the following week's programme to the House. The Leader may also move procedural motions relating to the business of the House. In the absence of the Prime Minister, the Leader of the House of Commons acts as the spokesman of the House on ceremonial and other occasions. The Leader of the House of Lords has similar functions in the Lords and is regarded as the main Government spokesman in the House. Outside Parliament, party control is exercised by national and local organizations. Inside Parliament, and particularly in the House of Commons, it is exercised by officers known as 'Whips'. There are Government and Opposition Whips in both Houses of Parliament, but the Whips in the House of Lords are less exclusively concerned with party matters. On the Government side in the House of Commons the Chief Whip is Parliamentary
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Secretary to the Treasury. There are other Government Whips, including the Deputy Chief Whip and five Assistant Whips. The Government Chief Whip, who is directly answerable to the Prime Minister and the Leader of the House of Commons, is responsible for settling the details of the Government's programme of business, for estimating the time likely to be required for each item, and for arranging the business of the individual sittings. Duties which are common to the Whips of all parties include keeping members informed of forthcoming parliamentary business; ensuring the attendance of members and their party vote; providing lists of members to serve on select and standing committees. The Whips are also responsible for conveying upwards to the party leadership the opinions of their back-bench members. The Government Whips in the House of Lords often act as Government spokesmen in the House. In the House of Lords, the office of Speaker (the Lord Chancellor) carries with it no authority to control debate. Members of the House of Lords do not address themselves to the Lord Chancellor during debates, but to their fellow members in the House. If, during a debate, two peers rise to their feet at the same time, the House itself determines who shall speak: the Lord Chancellor has no power to decide which peer shall take the floor. In the Commons, on the contrary, the Speaker has full authority to give effect, promptly and decisively, to the rules and orders of the House. The Speaker of the House of Commons presides over the House of Commons. In debate all speeches are addressed to him, and he calls upon members to speak. If he rises to give a ruling upon a doubtful point, or for any other reason, he must be heard in silence, and while he is on his feet no other MP may remain standing. It is the function of the Speaker to guard against abuse of procedure or any infringement of minority rights; and to allow or disallow a closure motion (to end discussion so that the matter may be put to the vote). He also has certain powers to check irrelevance and repetition, and save time in various other respects. In cases of grave and continuous disorder, he has power to adjourn the-House or suspend the sitting on his own initiative. Voting in the House of Commons is carried out under the direction of the Speaker, whose duty is to pronounce the final result. In the event of a tied vote (when an equal number of votes is cast) the Speaker must give his decisive vote.
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A vote is taken by means of a division (that is to say the separation into two lobbies of the members who wish to vote for or against a question). Members voting 'Aye' go out of the chamber into the lobby on the right of the Speaker, while those voting 'No' pass into the lobby on his left. Members' votes are recorded by four OPPOSITION PARTY GOVERNMENT PARTY Chief Government Whip Opposition Whip Party Members Opposition Party Cabinet ''Shadow" Cabinet Members Government Liberals and Independents: Vote "Aye" or "No" o o Division of the House of Commons. Speeches: In Parliament Party Conferences Local Constituency, local debates Radio, T.V. Meetings: In Parliament Party Meetings Constituency Special Interests Consultation: In Parliament Constituency "clinics" Groups (Chambers of Commerce, pressure groups etc.) Correspondence: With Constituents Pressure Groups Government Departments Ombudsman Responsibilities of an MP. clerks (whose records are printed the following day in the official 'Division Lists1, and also recorded in 'Hansard') and four tellers (two MPs from each side of the House) of whom one for the 'ayes' and another for the 'noes' are placed in each lobby to check each other in the telling. The voting procedure in the House of Lords is similar to that in the Commons except that the Speaker or chairman has an original, but no casting vote. The House of Commons is an assembly elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 650 Members of Parliament (MPs), Members of the House of Commons hold their seats during the life of a Parliament (normally 5 years). They are elected either at a general election, which takes place after a Parliament has been dissolved and a new one summoned by the Sovereign, or at a by-election, which is held when a vacancy occurs in the House as a
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result of the death or resignation of an MP or as a result of elevation of a member to the House of Lords. The two Houses of Parliament, the Lords and the Commons, share the same building, the Palace of Westminster. The present buildings of the Palace were erected between 1840 and 1852, to replace older buildings which had been destroyed by fire in 1834. Parts of the Palace, including the Commons Chamber itself, which were badly damaged in an air-raid in 1941, have been rebuilt since 1945. The Commons occupy the north part of the Palace. The part of the Palace of Westminster used by members and officials of the House of Commons includes some hundreds of rooms (the library, restaurants, committee rooms, etc.). The House of Commons meets in Westminster from Mondays to Fridays throughout the year, except when Parliament is in recess. The hours of sitting for normal business are: Mondays to Thursdays from 2.30 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. and Fridays 9.30 a.m. to 3.00 p.m. On ordinary occasions, MPs, who also have much committee, party and constituency business to attend to, are not expected to be in constant attendance in the debating chamber. When any special business is about to be taken for instance, if a vote on some legislative or other matter is pending steps are taken to secure their presence. At other times, there may be more or fewer members present, depending on the speakers and the subject for debate. Some MPs leave the House altogether for a few hours, but the majority remain within its precincts so as to be able to reach the voting lobbies within a few minutes. The chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker. This office has been held continuously since 1377, and its powers have been exercised with complete impartiality since at least the middle of the nineteenth century. Other parliamentary officers of the House of Commons are the Chairman of the Ways and Means and one or two Deputy Chairmen all of whom may act as deputy Speaker. These officers are elected by the House on the nomination of the Government and, like the Speaker, they neither speak nor vote in the House other than in their official capacity. The House of Commons has six administrative and executive departments: the Department of the Clerk of the House, the Department of the Serjeant-atArms, the Department of the Library, the Department of the Official Report, the Administration Department and the Refreshment Department.
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The Clerk's Department advises the Speaker and MPs (including ministers) on the practice and procedure of the House. The Department of the Serjeant-at-Arms deals with order and security in the precincts of the House, ceremonial and communications, and with accommodation matters. The Department of the Library provides MPs with every kind of oral or written information that they may need in connection with their parliamentary duties, including books and documents. The library maintains sophisticated indexing systems and press cuttings services. The Public Information Office of the House of Commons is administered by the Department of the Library. The Department of the Official Report is responsible for reporting all the sittings of the House and its standing committees, and producing the Official Report. The reports are commonly known as Hansard (after the name of the family of printers and publishers who published parliamentary papers in the nineteenth century). The Administration Department provides certain common services and coordination for all departments in the administrative fields of finance, establishment and general staffing matters. The Refreshment Department makes available eating and drinking facilities to members and staff of the House, whenever the House is sitting, no matter how late that might be.

s Mr Speaker p Press Galleries H Hansard Reporters 0 Government Officials' Box (advisors Ministers)

T D Ma L to B

Table of the SA House Despatch Boxes Mace Lines Bar of the House M G

Serjeant Arms Members' Galleries Visitors' Galleries

at

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C Clerks House

of

the X

Cross Benches

The Chamber of the House of Commons. Lords Spiritual Bishops Hereditary Peers Life Peers Peers of the House of Lords. The six administrative departments of the House are under the supervision of the House of Commons Commission, composed of MPs, and chaired ex officio by the Speaker. The House of Lords consists of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual (26) are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and the 21 senior bishops of the Church of England. The Lords Temporal consist of all hereditory peers and peeresses (792), who have not disclaimed their peerages, all life peers and peeresses (348) created by the Crown under the Life Peerages Act 1958, and Lords of Appeal (law lords) (21) created life peers to assist the House in its judicial duties. In 1987 there were 1,187 members of the House of Lords. Temporal peerages, both hereditary and life, are conferred on the advice of the Prime Minister and are usually granted either in recognition of service in politics or other walks of life or because the Government of the day wishes to have the recipient in the House of Lords. During the session the House of Lords meets on Tuesdays and Wednesdays at 2.30 p.m. and on Thursdays at 3 p.m. Monday sittings at 2.30 and Friday sittings at 11 a.m. take place as business demands. Not all peers with a right to sit in the House of Lords attend the sittings. Average daily attendance is about STRANGERS' GALLERY The Chamber of the House of Lords. 290, but more may attend when some matter in which they have a special interest is under discussion. The majority of ministers are members of the House of Commons. The House of Lords usually includes about 15 office-holders, among whom are the Government Whips who act as spokesmen for the Government in debate. The number of Cabinet ministers in the House of Lords varies, usually between two and four out of a total of about 20. In addition lo its parliamentary work, the House of Lords has important legal functions, being
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the final court of appeal for civil cases in the whole of Britain, and for criminal cases in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Theoretically, all Lords are entitled to attend the House when it is sitting as a court of appeal, but in practice and by established tradition, judicial business is conducted by the Lords of Appeal. Progress Test Questions and Assignments Give an outline of the composition of the House of Commons and say how members are elected, commenting on their work place and the organization of their work. Discuss the office of the Speaker considering its main prerogatives in the House of Commons. Examine the main functions of other (besides the Speaker) parliamentary officers in the House of Commons. Give some account of the administrative and executive departments of the House of Commons commenting briefly on their work. Account for the composition and organization of work in the House of Lords. Comment on the main functions of the officers and their offices in the House of Lords. Explain in writing what is meant by the term 'the supreme legislative authority'. LEGISLATIVE PROCEEDINGS For a law to be enacted it must be approved by the Queen in Parliament. That is a Bill (a draft law) must be presented and go through all the necessary stages in both Houses of Parliament and the Queen must signify her approval (which is a formality). The Bill then becomes an Act and comes into force on the day in which it receives the Royal Assent, unless some other date is expressly provided. Most Bills are public Bills involving measures relating to public policy. There are also private Bills which deal solely with matters of individual, corporate or local interest. Public Bills can be introduced by a Government minister or by a private member. Most public legislation is in practice sponsored by the Government. Before a government Bill is finally drafted there is normally considerable consultation with professional bodies, voluntary organizations and other agencies interested in the subject matter. Proposals for legislative changes are sometimes set out in Government 'White Papers' which may be debated in Parliament before a Bill is introduced. From time to time consultative documents, sometimes called 'Green Papers', are published
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setting out for public discussion of major government proposals which are still at the formative stage. Public Bills can be introduced in either House. As a rule, however, Government Bills likely to raise political controversy go through the Commons before the Lords. A Bill with a mainly financial purpose is nearly always introduced in the Commons, and a Bill involving taxation or the spending of public money must be based on resolutions agreed by the House, often after debate, before it can be introduced. The process of passing a public Bill is similar in both Houses of Parliament. The various stages through which a Bill has to pass are as follows: first reading; second reading; committee; report; third reading. The stages follow at intervals of between one day and several weeks, depending on the nature of the Bill. In the House of Commons, the report and third reading are usually taken on the same day. The first reading of a public Bill is a formality. The Bill may be presented and read for the first time as a result of the House agreeing to a motion for leave to introduce it, or it may simply be introduced, read for the first time and ordered to be read a second time. Once presented, it is printed and proceeds to a second reading. The stage of second reading provides the first main occasion for a wide debate on the general principles of a Bill, including alternative methods of achieving its purposes and the means proposed for giving effect to its provisions. The Opposition may decide to vote against the Bill on its second reading, or to move an amendment to the motion that the Bill be read a second time. When a Bill has passed its second reading, it is usually referred for detailed examination to a standing committee consisting of from 16 to 50 members. Occasionally the Bill may be referred to a committee of the whole House, which is the entire Commons sitting under another name. This is often the case with Bills of constitutional importance and with parts of Finance Bills which incorporate budget proposals. Very occasionally a Bill will go to a select committee, which has the power to call witnesses. The object of the committee stage is to study the details of a measure. During the report stage the House considers the Bill as amended and makes any further amendments that may be necessary. The report is, in practice, very like the committee stage, except that only the amendments and not the clauses of the Bill are discussed.
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At the third formal reading a Bill is reviewed in its final form, which includes the amendments made at earlier stages. When the Bill has passed its third reading in the House of Commons, it is sent for consideration in the Lords. If the Bill originated in the Lords, it goes to the Commons after the third reading. If the second House amends the Bill, it must be returned to the House where it originated for consideration of the amendments. If it proves impossible to reach agreement, the Commons can make use of their powers under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 to present a Bill originating in the House of Commons for Royal Assent after one year and in a new session even if the Lords' objections are maintained. The assent of the House of Lords is not essential, subject to certain conditions, in the case of 'money Bills'. Bills that deal only with taxation or expenditure must become law within one month of being sent to the Lords, whether or not the Lords have agreed to it, unless the Commons directs otherwise. When a Bill has passed through all its parliamentary stages, it is sent to the Sovereign for Royal Assent. After this the Bill becomes law and is known as an Act of Parliament. The Royal Assent has not been refused since 1707. At the beginning of each session private members in the Commons may introduce a Bill on one of the Fridays in the session specially allocated for unofficial Bills. Private members' Bills are not always debated owing to pressure on parliamentary time, and many of those which are debated proceed no further than second reading. But a few succeed in becoming law each session. Private members' Bills may be introduced in the House of Lords at any time during the session, without notice. The time that can be given to them in the Commons is, however, strictly limited. Private Bills are quite different from private members' Bills. While a private member's Bill is a general public Bill introduced by a member of either House who is not a member of the Government, a private Bill is legislation of a special kind conferring particular powers or benefits on private or sectional interests outside Parliament such as individual local authorities, private companies, nationalized industries or occasionally private individuals. Private Bills may be sometimes in conflict with the general law. A private Bill is introduced through a petition presented to Parliament by its promoter who will be responsible for its costs. Unlike public Bills, private Bills may be carried over from one session to the next.
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Question time in the House of Commons, in its modern usage, is largely a development of the twentieth century. It is a period when for an hour (from 2.30 until 3.30) on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, ministers answer MPs' questions. From forty to seventy questions are asked and answered during the hour each day. Both Houses of Parliament have an organized system of committees which comprises: committees of the whole House, select committees, House of Commons standing committees on public Bills, joint committees of both Houses sitting and voting together, and private Bill committees. Either House may resolve itself into a committee (of the whole House) to consider Bills in detail, clause by clause after their second reading. Proceedings in committee of the whole House are conducted on the same lines as normally followed by the House, except that the committee is presided over by a chairman instead of the Speaker (the Chairman of Ways and Means in the Commons, and the Chairman of Committees in the Lords). Select committees are generally set up to help Parliament with the control of the executive by examining some aspect of administration and reporting their conclusions to the House. House of Commons standing committees include those appointed to examine public Bills at the committee stage, and, in certain cases, at the second reading and report stages. In standing committees the balance of parties reflects that in the House as a whole. Joint committees are committees of members of both Houses, appointed to consider either a particular subject or a particular Bill, or to consider all Bills of a particular description for instance, Bills dealing with statute law revision and consolidation "Bills. The proposal to commit a particular Bill to a joint committee must come from the House in which the Bill originated. The members of a joint committee are usually chosen in equal numbers by the respective Houses. The whole parliamentary procedure of Britain is aimed at creating the impression that it is in Westminster that all important decisions are taken on the initiative of MPs as a result of public debates. Progress Test Questions and Assignments Indicate the main stages for a law to become an Act of Parliament and comment on the types of Bills, which may be introduced in Parliament. What can be understood by the terms 'White Paper' and 'Green Paper'?
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Examine the procedure of passing a Bill discussing broadly the various stages through which a Bill has to pass. What do you understand by the term 'public Bill'? Show your meaning exactly by reference to the following: 'private members' Bill' and 'private Bill'. Briefly outline the system of committees in Parliament. Give a brief summary in writing of the chief parliamentary functions.

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