Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the process of sending and receiving the information between two or more people. This communication can be of three types, which are dyadic communication, public speaking and small-group communication. Dyadic communication is the communication between two persons who interact face to face as senders and receivers. Even telephone conversations come under this type, where two people have a conversation. We can say there are two types of dyadic communications, they are, formal and informal. Formal dyadic communications are serious conversations between family and friends, interviews, confessions or counseling. Informal dyadic communications are chatting between friends and family or lighthearted joking. It is impossible not to communicate, and it is important to remember that not all communication within the dyad is verbal. It is often true that much of our communication is non-verbal. Body language, posture, tone of voice, and facial expressions must also be considered when interpreting messages in dyadic communication or in any other type of communication. Oftentimes, people do not say what they mean and mean what they say. Therefore, it is important to rely on subtle nuances and body language in order to decipher what the communicator is actually saying.Those who engage in public speaking are usually communicating to a particular audience for a particular purpose. For example, a tire salesman speaking to a group of potential customers at a tire convention has a particular purpose in mind: the purpose is to present a persuasive speech that will entice the audience and persuade them to purchase the speaker's particular line of tires. Therefore, as one who may be interpreting the language and message of the speaker, it is important to look for powerful terminology that may influence the audience.Small-group communication often falls under dyadic communication, as members within the small group often communicate in pairs or with partners. Not all communication is verbal, in fact, many communication experts and linguists estimate that 95% of our communication is non-verbal. It is imperative to consider body language, facial expressions, posture, and tone of voice when sending and interpreting messages. More reference links: www.psychology.answers.wikia.com www.orgsci.journal.informs.org

Building Rapport
Establishing Bonds

Building bonds... iStockphoto/mediaphotos "Rapport is the ability to enter someone else's world, to make him feel that you understand him, that you have a strong common bond." Motivational speaker Tony Robbins. Have you ever known someone who has a knack for connecting with people? No matter who this person meets, he or she manages to create a sense of trust and understanding within a matter of minutes. We can intuitively believe that this is a natural gift either you can build rapport like this, or you can't. However, this isn't correct: developing rapport is a skill that anyone can learn, and then use. And it doesn't matter what industry you're in or what position you hold knowing how to build rapport can bring you countless opportunities. After all, when you have rapport with someone, that person wants to help you succeed! So what is rapport? And how you can learn the skills needed to build it? We'll examine all of this, and more, in this article.

About Rapport
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines rapport as "relation characterized by harmony, conformity, accord, or affinity." Put simply, you have rapport with someone when there is mutual liking and trust. Once you've established rapport with a person, he or she is far more likely to be open with you and share information, buy your product, recommend you to others, or support your ideas. And when someone has established rapport with you, you're likely to do the same.

Why Build Rapport?

Building rapport is a skill that you can use anywhere. For instance, you can use rapport to:

Create a positive connection with new or existing team members. Build good relationships with clients or suppliers. Break the ice with new colleagues or with your boss when you start a new job. Get support for your ideas and proposals.

In short, establishing rapport with people can open doors, create opportunities, and lead to excellent relationships. Tip: Rapport is similar to trust, and you can often build trust and rapport simultaneously. However, building rapport focuses more on establishing a bond or connection.

Building Honest Rapport

Clearly, you can build rapport honestly, or you can use it cynically. Good team working, for example, depends on good relationships. Honest rapport-building is great for developing these, and it benefits everyone. However, if you're building rapport to sell someone something that they wouldn't otherwise want, or that will do them harm, then this is cynical and manipulative. Watch out for this type of rapport-building you may encounter it often!

How to Build Rapport

We'll now look at strategies and techniques that you can use to build rapport with others.

1. Find Common Ground

Think of how comfortable you might feel if, while living thousands of miles from where you grew up, you met someone from your hometown. That sense of connectedness creates an instant rapport between two people! When you meet someone new, do your best to find something you have in common. Use openended questions to discover some personal information about the person: perhaps you attended the same school or university, have the same favorite vacation spot, grew up in the same city, know the same people, or root for the same sports team. Remember, any common ground can help establish rapport it can even help to have an interest in someone's life or hobbies, or to share similar beliefs and values.

Tip: It's important to be sincere here; don't make up an interest in something just to create rapport. Not only can this seem desperate; it can dent your credibility!

2. Focus on Your Appearance

How you dress is a key component of making a great first impression and establishing rapport with someone. Your appearance should help you connect with people; not create a barrier. For instance, imagine you're a sales rep calling on a plant supervisor. You're dressed in a welltailored, expensive suit. Meanwhile, the supervisor has been working out on the floor all day; he's dressed in jeans, a worn flannel shirt, and work boots. The difference in your appearance is likely to make him feel uncomfortable and perhaps even slightly resentful. A good rule of thumb is to dress just a little bit "better" than the people you're about to meet. Whenever possible, find out about this in advance. If you arrive and see that you're overdressed, you can quickly "dress down" by taking off your jacket or tie and by rolling up your shirtsleeves.

3. Be Empathic
Empathy is about understanding other people by seeing things from their perspective, and recognizing their emotions. Once you achieve this, it's easier to get "on their level." To be more empathic, develop your emotional intelligence so that you can understand others better. You can also use Perceptual Positions a technique for seeing things from other people's perspectives.

4. Use Mirroring
Mirroring is when you adjust your own body language and spoken language so that you "reflect" that of the person you're talking to. For example, law enforcement professionals apply the mirroring technique when interviewing witnesses, especially those who have been through a traumatic experience. They might mirror the victim's body language, and adjust the volume and tone of their voice to match the victim's. To use mirroring:

Carefully watch the person's body language, including gestures and posture. If the person is sitting down with both hands folded, then copy the person's posture. As the person grows more comfortable with you, he or she may relax and sit back: mirror this change in posture as well. Mirror the other person's language. If he or she uses simple, direct words, then you should too. If the person speaks in technical language, then match that style if appropriate. When you respond, you can also reiterate key words or phrases that he or she used. Copy the other person's speech patterns, such as vocal tone and volume. For instance, if he or she speaks softly and slowly, then lower the volume and tempo of your voice. (Research by the

U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) suggests this is the most effective way to establish rapport. It's very subtle, but it makes the other person feel comfortable and, most importantly, it makes them feel that they're being understood.)

Tip 1: While mirroring is useful in building rapport, don't match every word and gesture. Also, do this on a subtle level being too overt can be counterproductive. Tip 2: Clearly, mirroring can be a very difficult skill to master. Consider using role playing to practice it.

5. Don't Forget About the Basics

In developing rapport with others, you should also use the tried-and-true basics of good communication:

Shaking hands firmly (in cultures where this is acceptable). Looking people in the eye. Smiling. Holding your head up and maintaining good posture. Asking open-ended questions. Being sincere. Facing the other person instead of looking at your computer screen or mobile device.

These basic tenets form the foundation of great communication, and it's hard to establish good rapport without them. Tip 1: Although there will be times when you will need to build rapport with someone quickly, it's best done as part of a longer-term relationship. Tip 2: It's important to use your best judgment when applying these techniques as we've already mentioned, using these techniques incorrectly or dishonestly can actually stop you building rapport with people.

Re-establishing Rapport
Once rapport has been lost, rebuilding it takes time. First, confront why you lost the rapport in the first place. Be humble and explain honestly and simply what happened. If you need to apologize, do so.

Next, focus on ways of repairing any broken trust. Make an extra effort to put in extra work if you need to, and keep your word. Transparency and showing a genuine concern for the other person's needs will go a long way in rebuilding trust and reestablishing rapport.

Key Points
You build rapport when you develop mutual trust, friendship, and affinity with someone. Building rapport can be incredibly beneficial to your career it opens doors and helps establish good relationships with clients, colleagues, and team members. To build rapport, use the following strategies.

Find common ground. Focus on your appearance. Be empathic. Mirror the other person. Don't forget about the basics.

Building rapport is best done in the long-term. But you can use these strategies to build it quickly, if you need to. CLOSING A CONVERSATION (Terminating the Encounter)

Conversations do not just end, rather they must be closed, through an elaborate ritual. One must take into account the fact that conversation endings involve inherent face threats.

Moving to end a conversation may be interpreted to mean that one does not wish for the conversation to continue. This in turn risks the implication that the company of the other is not being enjoyed, which then could imply that the interlocutor is boring, for example, or annoying.

Moving to end a conversation constitutes a risk not only to the other persons (positive) face but also to ones own, because one might thereby be considered rude.

So conversation ending strategies are designed to combat the positive face threat, and to save face.

Ending a conversation can also be rude in ways that do not damage the interlocutors reputation or persona; it potentially constitutes an imposition, by preventing the interlocutor from continuing the conversation, thus constituting a negative face threat.

If the other participant wants to end the conversation, then ending the conversation constitutes negative politeness, by giving him/her the freedom to concentrate on other things. Negative politeness is operative in determining the form and content of conversation ending strategies, as well.

GREETINGS AND FAREWELLS

Greetings provide a way of showing that a relationship is still what it was at the termination of the previous meeting.

Farewells sum up the effect of the encounter upon the relationship and show what the participants may expect of one another when they next meet.

The enthusiasm of greetings compensates for the weakening of the relationship caused by the absence just terminated, while the enthusiasm of farewells compensates the relationship for the harm that is about to be done to it by separation.

Greetings, of course, serve also to clarify and fix the roles that the participants will take during the occasion of talk and to commit participants to these roles, while farewells provide a way of unambiguously terminating the encounter.

Greetings and farewells may also be used to apologize for circumstances that have kept the participants from interacting until now, and farewells for circumstances that prevent the participants from continuing their display of solidarity.

CLOSING STRATEGIES

The Positive Comment (e.g., It was nice talking to you) is the most frequently used conversation ending strategy, and is almost a direct negation of the possible implication that the other is boring or annoying, that goes along with ending a conversation. It states or implies that the conversation was enjoyable. It is thus a device for saving the positive face of the other.

The Excuse (e.g., I better get back to work) removes the implication that one wishes to end the conversation by providing an alternative motivation or explanation for ones potentially face-threatening behaviour.

A closely related strategy is what we call the Imperative to End, which in some way implies that the conversation must end, as in, e.g., Its getting very late.

Many politeness strategies are combined with dispreference markers.

The most common dispreference marker in English is well, combined with silence.

By signalling a dispreference for ending the conversation, one removes the interpretation that one wants to end the conversation.

Well thus functions almost exactly as the Excuse and Imperative to End strategies do with respect to face.

Negative politeness also combines with positive face-saving politeness in the most interesting conversation ending strategy, the Blame, a form of the Excuse in which the need to leave is ascribed to the other: I know youre busy, so Ill let you get back to what you were doing.

The Blame presupposes that the other wants to end the conversation, and construes ending as a polite action on ones own part, as sacrificing ones own desires. It therefore saves ones own positive face, making one seem polite.

At the same time, by placing the impetus to leave on the other, one engenders a face-threat toward oneself, which is now the others responsibility to mitigate, so that he or she can also seem polite.

At the same time, by placing the impetus to leave on the other, one engenders a face-threat toward oneself, which is now the others responsibility to mitigate, so that he or she can also seem polite.

Also presupposing that the other wants to end the conversation is a statement that the Goal of the conversation has been reached, e.g. I think weve talked long enough. It implies that the conversation need not continue.

This construes ending as a desirable outcome for the other, and is therefore a negative politeness strategy. It is also a positive politeness strategy in that it positively evaluates the conversation, which in turn implies that the interlocutor is a worthwhile conversation partner.

Related to it is the Summary, which summarizes the preceding discussion, usually in such a way as to indicate that the conversation has been successful and is therefore complete. If the other participant wants to end, he is now therefore free to leave.

These are negative politeness strategies in that they appear to release the participant from further conversational duty, but they are also positive politeness strategies in that they positively evaluate the conversation as complete and resolved.

Another typical component of a conversation closing is an expression of Thanks for the conversation, e.g. Thanks for calling.

This presupposes that the conversation is an imposition on the other and serves to minimize that imposition in a deferent manner, and is therefore a negative politeness strategy.

It also functions as a positive politeness strategy in that it implies that the conversation was worthwhile and perhaps enjoyable, which means that the conversation partner was as well.

Closings may include making arrangements (e.g., See you Wednesday)

We can call this type of closing the Plan.

There are two reasons for setting up arrangements at the end of a conversation:

First, arrangements may be used to provide an orderly relationship between this encounter and a future encounter as opposed to next encounters being by chance, for example.

Second, by providing for a future encounter, they may propose that the current encounter could be appropriately concluded and that further topics may be reserved for the next time.

The Plan addresses the fact that the display of solidarity is ending but ensures that it will continue in the future.

The Plan also constitutes an indirect strategy for saving the positive face of the other, in that it implies that the others company was pleasant and you intend to meet him/her again.

The General Wish (Have a nice day) is aimed at repairing the solidarity threat posed by ending a conversation by showing that one wishes good things for the other, one expresses solidarity.

It does not imply anything positive about the other individual, unlike the Positive Comment and even the Plan, but it does relate to Brown and Levinsons definition of positive face, as the want of every member of society to be desirable to at least some others It also constitutes a negative politeness strategy, insofar as it is oriented to the practical aims of the other.

Sum up of closing strategies:

Greetings and farewells Positive comment Excuse Imperative to end Blame Goal Summary Thanks Plan, making arrangements General wish Dispreference markers

Unit2

Nonverbal communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style.
(December 2012)

Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between people. Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch, body language or posture, physical distance, facial expression and eye contact, which are all types of nonverbal communication. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.

Contents
[hide]

1 Importance 2 History 3 First impression 4 Posture 5 Clothing 6 Gestures 7 Engagement 8 Across cultures o 8.1 Indigenous communities o 8.2 Nonverbal actions 9 Genetics 10 Proxemics 11 Movement and body position o 11.1 Kinesics o 11.2 Haptics: touching in communication

12 Functions of nonverbal communication o 12.1 Criticism o 12.2 Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication 12.2.1 Complementing 12.2.2 Substituting 13 Clinical studies of nonverbal communication o 13.1 Child comprehension o 13.2 Comprehension of nonverbal facial cues 14 See also 15 Footnotes 16 References 17 External links

Importance
SymbolTable for Non-verbal communication with patients

Nonverbal communication represents two-thirds of all communication.[1] Nonverbal communication can portray a message both verbally and with the correct body signals. Body signals comprise physical features, conscious and unconscious gestures and signals, and the mediation of personal space.[1] The wrong message can be established if the body language conveyed does not match a verbal message. Nonverbal communication strengthens a first impression in common situations like attracting a partner or in a business interview: impressions are on average formed within the first four seconds of contact.[1] First encounters or interactions with another person strongly affect a person's perception.[2] When the other person or group is absorbing the message they are focused on the entire environment around them, meaning the other person uses all five senses in the interaction: 83% sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell, 2% touch and 1% taste.[3]

History [edit]
The first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[3] He argued that all mammals reliably show emotion in their faces. Seventy years later Silvan Tomkins (19111991) began his classic studies on human emotions in Affects Imagery Consciousness volumes 1-4. Rudolf Laban (18791958) and Warren Lamb (1923-) raised body movement analysis in the world of dance to a high level. Studies now range across a number of fields, including, linguistics, semiotics and social psychology. Another large influence in nonverbal communication was Ray Birdwhistell, who "pioneered the original study of nonverbal communicationwhat he called 'kinesics.' He estimated that the average person actually speaks words for a total of about ten or eleven minutes a day and that the average sentence takes only about 2.5 seconds. Birdwhistell also estimated we can make and recognize around 250,000 facial expressions."[3]

First impression [edit]

Main article: First impression (psychology)

A study revealed that students who rated a professor as highly likeable from only a two-second first impression found the class much more enjoyable throughout the semester versus the students who did not."[1]

Posture
There are many different types of posture, including slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, and arm crossing. Posture or a person's bodily stance communicates a variety of messages. Posture can be used to determine a participant's degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator, depending on body "openness".[4] Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person's left side is parallel to the other person's right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or decreases a backward lean also signifies positive sentiment during communication.[5] Posture can be situation-relative, that is, people will change their posture depending on the situation they are in.[6]

Clothing [edit]
Clothing is one of the most common forms of non-verbal communication. The study of clothing and other objects as a means of non-verbal communication is known as artifactics[7] or objectics.[8] The types of clothing that an individual wears conveys nonverbal clues about his or her personality, background and financial status, and how others will respond to them.[3] An individual's clothing style can demonstrate their culture, mood, level of confidence, interests, age, authority, values/beliefs, and their sexual identity. A study of the clothing worn by women attending discothques, carried out in Vienna, Austria, showed that in certain groups of women (especially women who were without their partners), motivation for sex and levels of sexual hormones were correlated with aspects of their clothing, especially the amount of skin displayed and the presence of sheer clothing.[9]

Gestures [edit]
Gestures may be made with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling one's eyes. Although the study of gesture is still in its infancy, some broad categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culturespecific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the hand wave used in western cultures for "hello" and "goodbye." A single emblematic gesture can have a very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive.[10] For a list of emblematic gestures, see List of gestures. There are some universal gestures like the shoulder shrug.[3]

Gestures can also be categorized as either speech independent or speech related. Speechindependent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct verbal translation.[4] A wave or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech-related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech-related gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion. Facial expressions, more than anything, serve as a practical means of communication. With all the various muscles that precisely control mouth, lips, eyes, nose, forehead,and jaw, human faces are estimated to be capable of more than ten thousand different expressions. This versatility makes non-verbals of the face extremely efficient and honest, unless deliberately manipulated. In addition, many of these emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, shame, anguish and interest are universally recognized.[11] Displays of emotions can generally be categorized into two groups: negative and positive. Negative emotions usually manifest as increased tension in various muscle groups: tightening of jaw muscles, furrowing of forehead, squinting eyes, or lip occlusion (when the lips seemingly disappear). In contrast, positive emotions are revealed by the loosening of the furrowed lines on the forehead, relaxation of the muscles around the mouth, and widening of the eye area. When individuals are truly relaxed and at ease, the head will also tilt to the side, exposing our most vulnerable area, the neck. This is a high-comfort display, often seen during courtship, that is nearly impossible to mimic when tense or suspicious.[12] Gestures are "a necessary component to overall effective communication, gestures also play an integral role in communication that is specifically designed to persuade. A more expressive face, as discussed earlier is more frequently associated with greater persuasiveness, so too is a more expressive body, through the use of gestures."[13] Not all gestures are seen as persuasive and this especially occurs when they are out of sync with what the speaker is saying.

Across cultures [edit]

Nonverbal communication can have different meanings according to different cultures. Foreigners may even be confused about universal emotions. "In many cultures, such as the Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while in Asian cultures, the general belief is that it is unacceptable to show emotion openly."[20] In fact,Chinese people value silence more than verbal communication.[21] Gestures, postures, haptics, clothing, eye contact and proxemics all can be understood differently across the world. Gestures vary widely across cultures in how they are used and what they mean. Native Americans did not have a written language for a long time, so they relied heavily on nonverbal communication in which dances, rituals, and ceremonies were vital.[22] Nonverbal communication can be divided into classes. First there is body language which includes gesture, posture, distance, touch, and gaze. Second there is object language which includes signs, designs, and clothing. Finally, there is environmental language which includes color, lighting, space, direction, and natural surroundings. [23]

For example, "sticking out the tongue may be a form of mockery in the West, but in Polynesia it serves as a greeting and a sign of reverence. Clapping is a North American way of applauding, but in Spain and the Orient it is a means of summoning the waiter. Northern Europeans usually indicate agreement by nodding their heads up and down, and shaking the head from side to side to indicate disagreement. The Greeks have for at least three thousand years used the upward nod for disagreement and the downward nod for agreement. [24] In addition, laughter is a sign of amusement normally, but in Africa it is a sign of wonder or embarrassment.[25] There are many manners of waving goodbye: Americans face the palm outward and move the hand side to side, Italians face the palm inward and move the fingers facing the other person, French and Germans face the hand horizontal and move the fingers toward the person leaving.[26] Also, it is important to note that gestures are used in more informal settings and more often by children.[26] Chronemics, how people handle time, can be categorized in two ways: polychronic which is when people do many activities at once and is common in Italy and Spain, or monochronic which is when people do one thing at a time which is common in America.[27] Emotional expression varies with culture.[28] The more individualistic a culture is, the more likely the people will show emotions that are disengaged or emphasize what the self is feeling (anger, disgust, and joy).[28] Showing fear is less likely to occur in collectivistic societies because it shows social withdrawal.[29] Joy is more likely to be expressed in individualistic cultures because it is an expression of ones uniqueness and individuality, whereas in collectivistic cultures, it may disrupt the group with values of interdependence.[30] In addition, Native Americans tend to be more reserved and less expressive with emotions.[31] Finally, frequent touches are common for Chinese;however, such actions like touching, patting, hugging or kissing in western cultures such as America are less frequent and publicly displayed.[32] One common example in the United States, is the gesture of a finger or hand to indicate "come here please". This is the gesture used to beckon dogs in some cultures. Pointing with one finger is also considered to be rude in some cultures and Asians typically use their entire hand to point to something.[33] In mainstream Western culture, eye contact is interpreted as attentiveness and honesty. In many cultures, however, including Hispanic, Asian, Middle Eastern, and Native American, eye contact is thought to be disrespectful or rude, and lack of eye contact does not mean that a person is not paying attention. Women may especially avoid eye contact with men because it can be taken as a sign of sexual interest.[33] The acceptable physical distance is another major difference in the nonverbal communication between cultures. In Latin America and the Middle East the acceptable distance is much shorter than what most Europeans and Americans feel comfortable with. This is why an American or a European might wonder why the other person is invading his or her personal space by standing so close, while the other person might wonder why the American/European is standing so far from him or her.[34] In addition, for Latin Americans, the French, Italians, and Arabs the distance between people is much closer than the distance for Americans; in general for these close distance groups, 1 foot of distance is for lovers, 1.54 feet of distance is for family and friends,

and 412 feet is for strangers.[35] In the opposite way, most Native Americans value distance to protect themselves.[36]

Indigenous communities [edit]

In Indigenous Mayan communities of the Americas, children learn how to partake in adult activities through nonverbal communication. Children are able to learn in this manner due to their exposure to adult activities at a young age. At a young age, children intently observe and listen in on adult activities, and this helps provide them with a running knowledge on how to participate. As a result, when children take on adult activities for themselves the first time they do not need verbal communication in the form of directions from adults.[37] They can learn how to do the adult activity themselves through physically participating in it. In fact, talk acts only as a supplement to engagement in an activity. For instance, when a child engages in adult activities, spoken communication can be used to explore ideas or discuss need-to-know information. Otherwise, caregivers and adults primarily help guide their children through an activity using non-verbal communication such as visual demonstration, gestures, gaze and touch.[37] In Indigenous Mayan communities, when a child needs assistance adults will primarily use illustrative acts in the form of nonverbal communication to guide the child in a successful direction for the activity. For example, a Mayan parent could demonstrate to their child how to hold dough in a manner which allows for smooth flattening when making tortillas. In effect, when the child sees that the dough was flattened from the demonstration, they could try it for themselves and learn first hand how to make it flat. In that sense, by observing a nonverbal demonstration of the activity and trying it firsthand, Mayan children learn how to participate in adult activities.[38] Nonverbal communication is important as a way of learning for children of Indigenous Mayan communities, because it allows for children's autonomy and for horizontal collaboration. Mayan parents do not need to give lots of forceful verbal directives to their children to make sure they are participating effectively. Instead, parents collaborate non verbally with their children to guide them through the activity, and doing so is enough to ensure children do the activity successfully. By communicating nonverbally, parents allow their children to have more individual development during their participation in adult activities.[38] Furthermore, by having nonverbal collaboration, children benefit from the assistance of people who are skillful at the adult practice. The result is that on top of their initial knowledge of adult activities, children's understanding can be further be strengthened through the nonverbal guidance from adult expertise.[38]

Nonverbal actions [edit]

According to Matsumoto and Juang, the nonverbal motions that different people indicate important channels of communication. The author states that nonverbal communication is very important to be aware of, especially if comparing gestures, gaze, and tone of voice amongst different cultures. As Latin American cultures embrace big speech gestures, Middle Eastern cultures are relatively more modest in public and are not expressive. Within cultures, different rules are made about staring or gazing. In some cultures, gaze can be seen as a sign of respect.

Voice is a category that changes within cultures. Depending on whether or not the cultures is expressive or non expressive, many variants of the voice can depict different reactions.[39]

Genetics [edit]
"In the study of nonverbal communications, the limbic brain is where the action is...because it is the part of the brain that reacts to the world around us reflexively and instantaneously, in real time, and without thought."[40] There is evidence that the nonverbal cues made from person-toperson do not entirely have something to do with environment.[3] Other than gestures, phenotypic traits can also convey certain messages in nonverbal communication, for instance, eye color, hair color and height. Research into height has generally found that taller people are perceived as being more impressive. Melamed and Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample of managers in the United Kingdom and found that height was a key factor in who was promoted. Height can have benefits and depressors too. "While tall people often command more respect than short people, height can also be detrimental to some aspects of oneto-one communication, for instance, where you need to 'talk on the same level' or have an 'eyeto-eye' discussion with another person and do not want to be perceived as too big for your boots."[3]

Proxemics [edit]
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted. In addition, the perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures[41] and different settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space. The term territoriality is used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding personal space.[42] Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such territories:
1. Primary territory: This refers to an area that is associated with someone who has exclusive use of it. An example is a house that others cannot enter without the owner's permission. 2. Secondary territory: Unlike primary territory, there is no "right" to occupancy of secondary territory, but people may still feel some degree of ownership of such space as they develop the custom of occupying it. For example, someone may sit in the same seat in church every week and feel irritated if someone else sits there. 3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim over that space, they often extend that claim. For example, it was found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space. 4. Interaction territory: this is space held by others when they are interacting. For example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk around the group rather than disturb their interaction territory.

Movement and body position [edit]

Kinesics [edit]
The term "kinesics" was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved making films of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. Several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, also studied kinesics. Kinesic messages are more subtle than gestures.[43] Kinesic messages comprise the posture, gaze, and facial movements.[44] American looks are short enough just to see if there is recognition of the other person, Arabs look at each other in the eye intensely, and many Africans avert the gaze as a sign of respect to superiors.[45] There are also many postures for people in the Congo; they stretch their hands and put them together in the direction of the other person.[46]

Haptics: touching in communication [edit]

Main article: Haptic communication

A high five is an example of communicative touch.

Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication, and haptic communication refers to how people and other animals communicate via touching. Touches among humans that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching.[4] These behaviors are referred to as "adapters" or "tells" and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator and a listener. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the culture, the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of touch.[47] Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and platonic (such as hugging or tickling). Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the fetus. Human babies have been observed to have enormous difficulty surviving if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and hearing. Babies who can perceive through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to fare much better.

In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but cling strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire feeding apparatus wrapped in soft terry cloth that provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort, were considerably more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958) Touching is treated differently from one country to another and socially acceptable levels of touching vary from one culture to another (Remland, 2009). In Thai culture, for example, touching someone's head may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people communicating and found that touching was rare among the English (8%), the French (5%) and the Dutch (4%) compared to Italians (14%) and Greeks (12.5%).[48] Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking, strangling and hand-to-hand fighting are forms of touch in the context of physical abuse.

Functions of nonverbal communication [edit]

Argyle (1970)[49] put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used for communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations.[50] Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:[51]

Express emotions Express interpersonal attitudes To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners Self-presentation of one's personality Rituals (greetings)

In regards to expressing interpersonal attitudes, humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of nonverbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are considered high-contact cultures.

Criticism [edit]
An interesting question is: When two people are communicating face-to-face, how much of the meaning is communicated verbally, and how much is communicated non-verbally? This was investigated by Albert Mehrabian and reported in two papers.[52][53] The latter paper concluded: "It is suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal, and facial attitude communications is a weighted sum of their independent effects - with coefficients of .07, .38, and .55, respectively."

Since then, other studies have analysed the relative contribution of verbal and nonverbal signals under more naturalistic situations. Argyle,[49] using video tapes shown to the subjects, analysed the communication of submissive/dominant attitude and found that non-verbal cues had 4.3 times the effect of verbal cues. The most important effect was that body posture communicated superior status in a very efficient way. On the other hand, a study by Hsee et al.[54] had subjects judge a person on the dimension happy/sad and found that words spoken with minimal variation in intonation had an impact about 4 times larger than face expressions seen in a film without sound. Thus, the relative importance of spoken words and facial expressions may be very different in studies using different set-ups.

Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication [edit]

When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating. Conflicting Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration.[23]When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions Complementing [edit] Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been shown to be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.[55] Substituting [edit] Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message. People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without verbal communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively communicate a message, verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.[56]

Clinical studies of nonverbal communication [edit]

From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal communication was studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar paradigm.[57] Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State University had subjects observe gamblers at a slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this payoff was read by nonverbal transmission prior to reinforcement. This technique was developed by and the studies directed by psychologist, Dr. Robert E. Miller and psychiatrist, Dr. A. James

Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive ability in heroin addicts[58] and phencyclidine abusers[59] was contrasted with increased receptivity in cocaine addicts. Men with major depression[60] manifested significantly decreased ability to read nonverbal cues when compared with euthymic men. In some subjects tested for ability to read nonverbal cues, intuitive paradigms were apparently employed while in others a cause and effect approach was used.[61] Subjects in the former group answered quickly and before reinforcement occurred. They could not give a rationale for their particular responses. Subjects in the latter category delayed their response and could offer reasons for their choice.The level of accuracy between the two groups did not vary nor did handedness.[62] Freitas-Magalhaes studied the effect of smile in the treatment of depression and concluded that depressive states decrease when you smile more often.[63] Obese women[64] and women with premenstrual syndrome[65] were found to also possess diminished abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed increased abilities.[66] A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found unable to transmit or receive any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[67] Because of the changes in levels of accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized a biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because certain drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and endorphin were considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data, however, the primary cause and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the paradigm employed.[68]

Child comprehension [edit]

An increased emphasis on gestures exists when intonations or facial expression are used. "Speakers often anticipate how recipients will interpret their utterances. If they wish some other, less obvious interpretation, they may "mark" their utterance (e.g. with special intonations or facial expressions)."[69] This specific emphasis known as 'marking' can be spotted as a learned form of non-verbal communication in toddlers. A groundbreaking study, from the Journal of Child Language has concluded that the act of marking a gesture is recognized by three-year-olds, but not by two-year-olds. In the study, two and three-year-old toddlers were tested on their recognition of markedness within gestures. The experiment was conducted in a room with an examiner and the test subjects, which for the first study were three-year-olds. The examiner sat across from each child individually, and allowed them to play with various objects including a purse with a sponge in it and a box with a sponge in it. After allowing the child to play with the objects for three minutes, the examiner told the child it was time to clean up and motioned by pointing to the objects. They measured the responses of the children by first pointing and not marking the gesture, to see the child's reaction to the request and if they reached for the objects to clean them up. After observing the child's response, the examiner then asked and pointed again, marking the gesture with facial expression, as to lead the child to believe the objects were supposed to be cleaned up.

The results showed that three-year-old children were able to recognize the markedness, by responding to the gesture and cleaning the objects up as opposed to when the gesture was presented without being marked. In the second study in which the same experiment was preformed on two-year-olds, the results were different. For the most part, the children did not recognize the difference between the marked and unmarked gesture by not responding more prevalently to the marked gesture, unlike the results of the three-year-olds. This shows that this sort of nonverbal communication is learned at a young age, and is better recognized in three-year-old children than two-year-old children, making it easier for us to interpret that the ability to recognize markedness is learned in the early stages of development, somewhere between three and four years of age. Boone and Cunningham conducted a study[70] to determine at which age children begin to recognize emotional meaning (happiness, sadness, anger and fear) in expressive body movements. The study included 29 adults and 79 children divided into age groups of four, five and eight year olds. The children were shown two clips simultaneously and were asked to point to the one that was expressing the target emotion. The results of the study revealed that of the four emotions being tested the 4-year-olds were only able to correctly identify sadness at a rate that was better than chance. The 5-year-olds performed better and were able to identify happiness, sadness and fear at better than chance levels. The 8-year-olds and adults could correctly identify all four emotions and there was very little difference between the scores of the two groups. Between the ages of 4 and 8 nonverbal communication and decoding skills improve dramatically.

Comprehension of nonverbal facial cues [edit]

A byproduct of the work of the Pittsburgh/Yale/ Ohio State team was an investigation of the role of nonverbal facial cues in heterosexual nondate rape. Males who were serial rapists of adult women were studied for nonverbal receptive abilities. Their scores were the highest of any subgroup.[71] Rape victims were next tested. It was reported that women who had been raped on at least two occasions by different perpetrators had a highly significant impairment in their abilities to read these cues in either male or female senders.[72] These results were troubling, indicating a predator-prey model. The authors did note that whatever the nature of these preliminary findings the responsibility of the rapist was in no manner or level, diminished. The final target of study for this group was the medical students they taught. Medical students at Ohio State University, Ohio University and Northest Ohio Medical College were invited to serve as subjects. Students indicating a preference for the specialties of family practice, psychiatry, pediatrics and obstetrics-gynecology achieved significantly higher levels of accuracy than those students who planned to train as surgeons, radiologists, or pathologists. Internal medicine and plastic surgery candidates scored at levels near the mean.

Analyzing the Occasion

The Nature of the Occasion. Your audience may be one of two: voluntary or captive. A voluntary audience attends the speech event primarily because of interest in the speaker or in the subject. A captive audience is required to attend, perhaps at the explicit instruction of the boss or under threat of a failing grade in a course. Are people interested in learning more about your subject, in taking some positive action concerning it ? Is your subject in line with the reason for the occasion? The nature of the occasion as well as the interest level of the audience often dictate decisions that you will make regarding your speech. The Physical Conditions. Some questions: Will your speech be given out-of-doors or in an enclosed room? Will the weather be hot or cold? Will the audience be sitting or standing, and if sitting, how will the sitting arrangement be? How large will the room be, will you need a microphone? Fixed or lavaliere? Will there be a stage? Audio-visual equipment available? Will there be a lectern? Or will you be able to move around? Will there be special lighting? These and other environmental factors affect the temper of an audience and their span of attention and the style of speaking you will have to employ. For most technical writers, audience analysis is the most important step in planning a target document. In order for a writer's final product to be fully successful, the piece must be aimed toward the intended audience--its knowledge, its opinions, its needs, and its wants. The question then, is how do you determine the knowledge, opinions, needs, and wants of your target audience? These instructions will help you analyze your audience and develop a strategy to target your writing to your audience.

Audience Analysis
Sample Audience Analysis

Conducting an Analysis

1. 1 Know the definition of audience analysis: determining the important characteristics of an audience in order to chose the best style, format and information/arguments when writing or speaking. Understanding the identity, personality and characteristics brought to a situation by the specific type of audience.

2. 2 Know the purpose of audience analysis: Having knowledge of a specific audience allows the writer or speaker to understand the social situation in which he or she writes. It allows the writer to come up with a strategy to adapt arguments to best suit an audience. Conducting audience analysis informs a speaker or writer about the people he or she is talking to. This is important because based on what is found out in the audience analysis a writer/speaker can adjust his work to relate to an audience in the best way possible. It allows a writer/speaker to be able to succeed in their goal of writing or speaking whatever that may be. If a speaker/writer wants to persuade, inform, motivate, excite, scare, warn or cheer up an audience, then analyzing those people to which he/she is talking can allow them to pick the best words, stories, tone, style and delivery to use when writing or talking to that specific group of people.

3. 3 Follow this acronym and answer the resulting questions. Just remember the AUDIENCE.
o o o o o o o o

Analysis- Who is the audience? Understanding- What is the audience's knowledge of the subject? Demographics- What is their age, gender, education background etc.? Interest- Why are they reading your document? Environment- Where will this document be sent/viewed? Needs- What are the audience's needs associated with your document topic? Customization- What specific needs/interests should you the writer address relating to the specific audience? Expectations- What does the audience expect to learn from your document? The audience should walk away having their initial questions answered and explained.

Edit Tips

Analysis/Understanding: Defining the background of the audience aids the writer in determining what information is already understood and what information needs to be included. Nevertheless you will need to add more information so that the audience can understand and reach the conclusion that your document intends. Needs/Customization: If there is more than one audience, you can write sections specifically pertaining to the corresponding audiences, or write in one particular fashion that applies across the board. Similarly, if there is a wide variability in the audience, cater to the majority--write to the majority of the people that will be reading the document. References to other sources with alternative information may need to be included to aid the minority of the readers. Demographics/Interest/Environment: Demographic characteristics of the audience can help determine the style and content of a document. Age groups, areas of residence, gender, and political preferences for example, are some of the characteristics to focus on. Paying attention to these aspects of the audience can also help sidestep any offensive remarks or topics that the audience would not relate to or appreciate.

Edit Warnings

Audience analysis is part of the beginning stages of producing a target document. Whereas audience analysis does help to start off the project and lead the writer in the right direction, it is only one step in the formation of a document. It is beneficial to consult other rhetorical strategies that may help guide the writing process even more so.

What are the points you will keep in mind for recruiting new personnel into your organization if you are the HR Manager
Which are the points will you keep in mind for recruiting new personnel into your organization if you are the HR Manager of a footwear manufacturing company? One of the most important HRM function is the appropriate recruitment and selection of suitable staff. If I will be the HR Manager of a reputed footwear company, I will surely look into many aspects to get the best suitable person for my company. Thus my selection process will be based on the following objectives, 1. Hire the right person. 2. Conduct a wide and extensive search of the potential position candidates. 3. Recruit staff members who are compatible with the college or university environment and culture. 4. Hire individuals by using a model that focuses on student learning and education of the whole person. 5. Place individuals in positions with responsibilities that will enhance their personal development. Effective recruitment and selection procedures are critical components of an organization's human resource management process. Having determined its staff requirements, the organization next has to ensure that it has systems in place to attract and select candidates of the right caliber. This can be done by, 1. Alternative sources of potential recruits are known and used and there is a process for tapping these sources. 2. There are systems in place that enable candidates to be assessed effectively and to ensure that vacancies are filled by the most appropriate people and in the most cost effective manner. 3. Any selection processes in use treat existing employees and potential recruits fairly and honestly, meet legal obligations and provide equality of opportunity. 4. All administrative procedures, such as obtaining references, preparing a contract of employment etc are handled efficiently.

The Recruitment Process The various stages in the recruitment process include, Identifying the need to recruit. Identifying the job requirements. Deciding the source of potential recruits. Deciding the selection method. Short listing candidates. Selecting the successful 1. IDENTIFYING THE NEED TO RECRUIT When a vacancy occurs, the first issue to consider is whether there is a need to fill it. There is also the question of whether it is the same job that needs to be filled. This should be based on the following alternatives, A. Reorganization It may be possible to reorganize the job in a particular function so that the same work can be done by fewer people. This will reduce staff members and will increase productivity. When is business is tight this is easier to achieve, as people will be less willing to put their jobs at risk and may consequently be prepared to work harder for lower rewards. However, in the longer term such an approach may lead to resentment on the part of employees. B. Flexible Working More flexible working arrangements may achieve the same productivity with having to increase or maintain staff members. At the simplest level, increased overtime can compensate for a short-fall in staff members, although this clearly lacks a certain degree of flexibility. Flexible working hours and annual hours agreements can be particularly valuable mechanisms for covering longer daytime working hours. Teleworking can enable people to be highly productive from a home base without having to spend time and money commuting. C. Using Part-Time or Casual Staff Part-time staffs are actually employed on a regular basis for a set of number of hours, whereas casual staffs are hired as and when the need arises. The latter arrangement is obviously a more flexible but it needs to be remembered that casual staff can acquire the rights of permanent employees in certain circumstances. An alternative is to employ agency staffs, who are available to cover a range of functions. C. Using Contractors Contractors are commercial providers of services for which the organization has to pay. It makes sense to use contractors whenever the organization has a periodic rather than a permanent need for a particular service. Also there is an increasing trend of interim executives. These are experienced executives who will generally have senior level experiences of an area which they may be brought into cover. They can be employed for a period of

months to cover for short term absences or to cope with peak workloads. D. Staff Transfer or Promotion A post can be filled by internal promotions or staff transfer rather than by seeking to fill it from outside the organization. This can have obvious benefits from the point of view of motivation and morale. E. Job Sharing Job sharing has some obvious benefits for those with other commitments. It opens jobs to people who might not otherwise have been able to consider applying. F. Computerization Computerization has been producing more information rather than trying to reduce staff efforts. This could reduce staff effort and staff costs. These points will give solution for recruiting new staffs. IDENTIFYING THE JOB REQUIREMENTS There should be clear job description - and the need to a vacancy is an ideal opportunity to review any existing job description to ensure that it still meets the organization's requirements. Content of the Personnel or Person Specification This can be explained by Alex Rodger's Seven Point Plan and Munro Fraser's Five Fold Grading System.

Seven Point Plan 1. Physical Make - up Health, Appearance, Bearing and Speech 2. Attainments Education, Qualifications, Experience 3. General Intelligence Intellectual Capacity 4. Special Aptitudes Mechanical, Manual Dexterity, Facility in use of words and figures 5. Interests Intellectual, Practical, Constructional, Physically Active, Social, Artistic 6. Disposition Acceptability, Influence over Others, Steadiness, Dependability, Self Reliance. 7. Circumstances Any special demands of the job, such as ability to work unsocial hours, travel abroad etc. Five Fold Grading System 1. Impact on Others Physical Make-up, Appearance, Speech and Manner 2. Acquired Qualifications

Education, Vocational Training, Work Experience 3. Innate Abilities Quickness of Comprehension and Aptitude for Learning 4. Motivation Individual Goals, Consistency and Determination in following them up, Success Rate 5. Adjustment Emotional stability, Ability to stand up to stress and Ability to get on with people MSL / McBer Competency Cluster for Managerial Jobs Integrated Competency Model 1. Understanding what needs to be done A. Reasoning B. Visioning C. Know - how D. Expertise 2. Influencing and gaining support A. Communication B. Interpersonal Skills C. Personal Impact D. Direct Influencing E. Organizational Influencing 3. Producing the results A. Directing B. Motivating C. Productivity 4. Achieving against the odds A. Enterprise B. Achievement C. Confidence D. Resilience When a new or changed job is filled, there is likely to be a need to

consider the rate of pay or the grade and the conditions of employment to be attached to the job. RECRUITMENT SOURCES For an effective recruitment, we should keep in mind the sources of recruitment. 1. The Organization Itself Internal recruitments can be of motivation, morale and development. This will decrease the staff costs, but too much internal recruitments can starve the organization of fresh ideas and approaches from external candidates.

2. Word of Mouth Jobs may be often filled by existing employees letting their friends and acquaintances know of any vacancies. While this approach will save the cost of advertising and recruiting, appointing friends and relatives of existing employees can clearly have the effect of restricting employment opportunities to certain groups only. Also, this will attract the group formation in the organization. 3. Newspaper and Magazine Advertisements A common way of advertising is through local or national newspapers and professional journals and magazines. Applicants recruited locally can be given in the local newspapers and senior posts can be advertised in the national newspapers. For particular types of professional or specialized posts, professional journals may be appropriate. 4. Jobcentres and Employment Agencies Jobcentres will display job vacancies and refer possible recruits to an organization. Agencies tend to specialize in one particular type of staff such as secretaries or accountants. Whereas the service provided by the jobcentres is free, agencies charge a fee if an appointment is made. 5. Selection Consultants These people can bring considerable expertise to the selection process and can give advice on the kind of reward and benefit package. They can advertise vacancies, interview and shortlist candidates and provide assistance for the final selection. The main drawback is the high cost for these people. 6. Executive Search Consultants (Headhunters) This can be utilized for the senior posts. In this case, the consultants will conduct a market search, targeting people in senior positions in other organizations or referring to their own database of candidates. The main drawback is that of high cost and will automatically exclude those outside the headhunter's network. 7. Schools and Universities The organization can recruit candidates from schools, colleges and universities, who can then be properly trained. This requires many interviews, but it is less I cost. 8. Internet Through internet, the vacancies will be available to a number of people who can access international websites through the cheap cost a phone call. This way will increase the databank of both employees and candidates. SELECTION METHODS There are many kinds of selection methods,

1. Application Form or Curriculum Vitae The candidates respond to an application form through a letter of application, application form or curriculum vitae. CV is mostly used for senior posts.

Advantages of Application Forms 1. As information is easily structured, it is easy to structure the candidates. 2. The organization gets information it wants. 3. The form can be used as the basis for the interview. 4. Standard of completion gives an indication of a candidate's suitability. 5. It can form the part of personal file. 6. It reduces the likelihood of unfairness or discrimination. 7. Forms can be used to collect data for equal opportunities research purposes. 8. Information can more easily be computerized. 9. Forms can reinforce positive messages about the organization. Disadvantages of Application Forms 1. Different forms may have to be prepared for different jobs. 2. There is little opportunity for the candidate to display creative flair. 3. Insufficient space is sometimes provided and additional pages have to be attached. 4. Badly designed forms could cause difficulties. 2. Letters of Application / CVs Candidates respond to the advertisements through Letters of applications or CVs

Advantages of Letters of Applications or CVs 1. The standard of presentation will give some idea of the suitability of the applicant, although there are a number of companies who will prepare a professional CV for a fee. 2. There is no danger that the applicant will be discouraged by having to complete an application form. 3. Different aspects of background and experience can be covered as fully as the individual thinks fit. 4. Individual can prepare a standard CV that can be sent out very quickly. Disadvantages of Letters of Applications or CVs 1. The fact they can be professionally produced can give a misleading impression of the applicant's narrative skills. 2. The greater variability in the type and format of information provided make like for like comparisons more difficult. 3. The applicant will give the information that he or she wants to give, not necessarily what the organization wants. 3. Telephone Inviting applications by telephone can produce a rapid response to an advertisement. This can can clearly save time& effort for both the organization & the applicant. 4. Interviews A selection interview is a controlled conversation between an applicant for a job & the employer, or some one representing the employer, designed to test the suitability of the applicant for the job in question. In the selection process the specific aims of the interviewer are: 1. to find out as much job-relevant information as possible about the applicant so that his or her suitability for the job can be

assessed against the pre-determined criteria for the effective job performance. 2. to give further information about the job & the organization. 3. to ensure that the process is as fair as possible& is perceived to be fair. The most important criticisms against interviews are as follows: 1. Interviewers make up their mind about a candidate within the first 3 or 4 minutes of the interview&spend the rest of the interview looking for evidence to confirm their original view. 2. Interviews seldom change the opinion formed from the original application & the candidate's appearance. 3. There is a tendency to give more weight to unfavourable evidence than to that which is favourable. 4. When interviewers make up their minds early in the interview, their behaviour tends to convey this to the candidate. 5. One overriding characteristic, such as appearance or speech, can tend to overshadow other factors. 6. When there are a number of interviewers, there is frequently disagreement between them about candidates, sometimes leaving the way open for everyone's second choice. 7. Interviewers tend to recruit in their own likeliness. Despite of these drawbacks, the interview remains popular because: 1. it is perhaps the best way to assess the compatibility of the candidate with his or her colleagues or boss, which is probably one of the most crucial factors affecting the success of any employment relationship; 2. it is a flexible and quick way of gaining information about a candidate and of giving more information about the job and the organization. 3. as Torrington and Hall have identified, there is also a ritualistic aspect to the interview-it is usually an expected and accepted part of the process. Interviews can be formal or informal, be conducted by one individual or several, or follow one of a number of strategies or techniques. A person has to follow a number of rules for a successful interview, like: Before the Interview 1. Ensure that candidates are adequately briefed about the organization and the job. 2. Ensure that you prepare for the interview by reading through the relevant applications and have all the necessary documentations including the job descriptions and the personal specifications. 3. Arrange venue that is free from interruption and, if necessary, have telephone calls diverted. 4. Ensure that you, any other interviewers and the candidates know the time, date and venue. 5. Ensure that enough time is set aside for the interviews and allot time for discussing applicants and for a possible overrun. 6. Formulate some questions in advance and ensure that all important aspects are covered. 7. Where more than one interviewer is involved, decide who will chair the interview and who will ask the questions. 8. Try to ensure that all those involved in interviewing have been trained in the process. 9. Give some thought to the seating arrangements and to the kind of interview you wish to conduct. 10. Make appropriate arrangements for the reception of applicants in particular giving them

somewhere to sit, ensuring that they are told where the cloakroom facilities are and making sure that the reception staff know they are coming. During the interview 1. Try to stick to the timetable. 2. Follow a clear structure during the interview so that there is an obvious beginning, middle and end. 3. Start by welcoming the candidate and try to put him or her at ease, perhaps by chatting about something in consequential. 4. Introduce yourself and any other interviewers. 5. State the purpose of the interview and describe how it is to be conducted. 6. Try to ask questions that are open ended and encourage discussions. 7. Ensure that you avoid questions that could be construed as discriminatory. 8. Avoid just going back over the application forms, repeating the information that is already there. 9. Do not hesitate to probe if the need arises. 10. Listen carefully to the replies remembering that most of the talking should be done by the candidate and try to read between the lines. 11. Ask the interviewee to supply examples of the kinds of things he or she has done to get a clear idea of current and past experiences. 12. Keep notes of what is said, if a number of candidates are being interviewed. 13. At the end of the interview, invite the candidate to ask any questions about the job or the organization. After the Interview 1. Discuss and record your conclusion. 2. Notify the candidates of the outcome as soon as possible. 3. Negotiate the salary and terms of the employment with the successful candidate and prepare a contract of employment. 4. Undertake the follow - up research through interview or by using the organization's performance, management process to check whether the selection predictions have approved accurate. 5. Selection Tests The main selection tests are: Psychometric Tests This involves procedures to applicants in such a way that their response can be quantified. Any test should be, 1. A sensitive measuring instrument that discriminates between subjects. 2. Standardized, so that individual score can be related to others. 3. Reliable, in that it always measures the same thing. 4. Valid, in that the test measures what it is designed to measure. 5. Acceptable to the candidate 6. Non discriminatory. Different types of Psychometric tests are,

1. Intelligence Tests Intelligence test, the oldest kind of psychometric test have been designed by Binet &Simon in 1905.The scores are expressed in terms of Intelligence Quotient or IQ which is the ratio of mental age to the chronological age of the individual. The main problem with the intelligence test is that they are attempting to measure something which is very complex and about which there is much disagreement. They have limited application in the selection context.

2. Aptitude and Attainment Tests These are designed to test particular aptitudes or abilities for the job. Aptitude test measure individual's potential to develop whereas attainment these measure skills that have already been acquired. Some of the most common attainment tests are typing test, which are widely used and accepted. 3. Personality Tests. Personality is the integration of all of an individual's characteristics into a unique organization that determines and is modified by his attempts at adaptation to his continually changing environment. Personality test can take different form testing like Individual traits or characteristics, interests or values. These tests include the 16PF, Myers-Briggs, the FIRO-B & Saville and Holdsworth's OPQ. Recruitment function can become easy if it is done with enough skill and talent. This can be made successful by good team work and with good ways to find the talented ones. Otherwise it will become a total headache to the HR manager. Good employees will work for the progress of the organization and so the growth of the organization rests upon the person who recruits the personnel necessary for the organization. I will surely use all methods possible for recruitment and selection process. Which are the points will you keep in mind for recruiting new personnel into your organization if you are the HR Manager of a footwear manufacturing company? One of the most important HRM function is the appropriate recruitment and selection of suitable staff. If I will be the HR Manager of a reputed footwear company, I will surely look into many aspects to get the best suitable person for my company. Thus my selection process will be based on the following objectives, 1. Hire the right person. 2. Conduct a wide and extensive search of the potential position candidates. 3. Recruit staff members who are compatible with the college or university environment and culture. 4. Hire individuals by using a model that focuses on student learning and education of the whole person. 5. Place individuals in positions with responsibilities that will enhance their personal development. Effective recruitment and selection procedures are critical components of an organization's human

resource management process. Having determined its staff requirements, the organization next has to ensure that it has systems in place to attract and select candidates of the right caliber. This can be done by, 1. Alternative sources of potential recruits are known and used and there is a process for tapping these sources. 2. There are systems in place that enable candidates to be assessed effectively and to ensure that vacancies are filled by the most appropriate people and in the most cost effective manner. 3. Any selection processes in use treat existing employees and potential recruits fairly and honestly, meet legal obligations and provide equality of opportunity. 4. All administrative procedures, such as obtaining references, preparing a contract of employment etc are handled efficiently. The Recruitment Process The various stages in the recruitment process include, Identifying the need to recruit. Identifying the job requirements. Deciding the source of potential recruits. Deciding the selection method. Short listing candidates. Selecting the successful 1. IDENTIFYING THE NEED TO RECRUIT When a vacancy occurs, the first issue to consider is whether there is a need to fill it. There is also the question of whether it is the same job that needs to be filled. This should be based on the following alternatives, A. Reorganization It may be possible to reorganize the job in a particular function so that the same work can be done by fewer people. This will reduce staff members and will increase productivity. When is business is tight this is easier to achieve, as people will be less willing to put their jobs at risk and may consequently be prepared to work harder for lower rewards. However, in the longer term such an approach may lead to resentment on the part of employees. B. Flexible Working More flexible working arrangements may achieve the same productivity with having to increase or maintain staff members. At the simplest level, increased overtime can compensate for a short-fall in staff members, although this clearly lacks a certain degree of flexibility. Flexible working hours and annual hours agreements can be particularly valuable mechanisms for covering longer daytime working hours. Teleworking can enable people to be highly productive from a home base without having to spend time and money commuting.

C. Using Part-Time or Casual Staff Part-time staffs are actually employed on a regular basis for a set of number of hours, whereas casual staffs are hired as and when the need arises. The latter arrangement is obviously a more flexible but it needs to be remembered that casual staff can acquire the rights of permanent employees in certain circumstances. An alternative is to employ agency staffs, who are available to cover a range of functions. C. Using Contractors Contractors are commercial providers of services for which the organization has to pay. It makes sense to use contractors whenever the organization has a periodic rather than a permanent need for a particular service. Also there is an increasing trend of interim executives. These are experienced executives who will generally have senior level experiences of an area which they may be brought into cover. They can be employed for a period of months to cover for short term absences or to cope with peak workloads. D. Staff Transfer or Promotion A post can be filled by internal promotions or staff transfer rather than by seeking to fill it from outside the organization. This can have obvious benefits from the point of view of motivation and morale. E. Job Sharing Job sharing has some obvious benefits for those with other commitments. It opens jobs to people who might not otherwise have been able to consider applying. F. Computerization Computerization has been producing more information rather than trying to reduce staff efforts. This could reduce staff effort and staff costs. These points will give solution for recruiting new staffs. IDENTIFYING THE JOB REQUIREMENTS There should be clear job description - and the need to a vacancy is an ideal opportunity to review any existing job description to ensure that it still meets the organization's requirements. Content of the Personnel or Person Specification This can be explained by Alex Rodger's Seven Point Plan and Munro Fraser's Five Fold Grading System.

Seven Point Plan 1. Physical Make - up Health, Appearance, Bearing and Speech 2. Attainments Education, Qualifications, Experience

3. General Intelligence Intellectual Capacity 4. Special Aptitudes Mechanical, Manual Dexterity, Facility in use of words and figures 5. Interests Intellectual, Practical, Constructional, Physically Active, Social, Artistic 6. Disposition Acceptability, Influence over Others, Steadiness, Dependability, Self Reliance. 7. Circumstances Any special demands of the job, such as ability to work unsocial hours, travel abroad etc. Five Fold Grading System 1. Impact on Others Physical Make-up, Appearance, Speech and Manner 2. Acquired Qualifications Education, Vocational Training, Work Experience 3. Innate Abilities Quickness of Comprehension and Aptitude for Learning 4. Motivation Individual Goals, Consistency and Determination in following them up, Success Rate 5. Adjustment Emotional stability, Ability to stand up to stress and Ability to get on with people MSL / McBer Competency Cluster for Managerial Jobs Integrated Competency Model 1. Understanding what needs to be done A. Reasoning B. Visioning C. Know - how D. Expertise 2. Influencing and gaining support A. Communication B. Interpersonal Skills C. Personal Impact D. Direct Influencing E. Organizational Influencing 3. Producing the results A. Directing B. Motivating C. Productivity 4. Achieving against the odds A. Enterprise B. Achievement

C. Confidence D. Resilience When a new or changed job is filled, there is likely to be a need to

consider the rate of pay or the grade and the conditions of employment to be attached to the job. RECRUITMENT SOURCES For an effective recruitment, we should keep in mind the sources of recruitment. 1. The Organization Itself Internal recruitments can be of motivation, morale and development. This will decrease the staff costs, but too much internal recruitments can starve the organization of fresh ideas and approaches from external candidates. 2. Word of Mouth Jobs may be often filled by existing employees letting their friends and acquaintances know of any vacancies. While this approach will save the cost of advertising and recruiting, appointing friends and relatives of existing employees can clearly have the effect of restricting employment opportunities to certain groups only. Also, this will attract the group formation in the organization. 3. Newspaper and Magazine Advertisements A common way of advertising is through local or national newspapers and professional journals and magazines. Applicants recruited locally can be given in the local newspapers and senior posts can be advertised in the national newspapers. For particular types of professional or specialized posts, professional journals may be appropriate. 4. Jobcentres and Employment Agencies Jobcentres will display job vacancies and refer possible recruits to an organization. Agencies tend to specialize in one particular type of staff such as secretaries or accountants. Whereas the service provided by the jobcentres is free, agencies charge a fee if an appointment is made. 5. Selection Consultants These people can bring considerable expertise to the selection process and can give advice on the kind of reward and benefit package. They can advertise vacancies, interview and shortlist candidates and provide assistance for the final selection. The main drawback is the high cost for these people. 6. Executive Search Consultants (Headhunters) This can be utilized for the senior posts. In this case, the consultants will conduct a market search, targeting people in senior positions in other organizations or referring to their own database of candidates. The main drawback is that of high cost and will automatically exclude those outside the headhunter's network. 7. Schools and Universities The organization can recruit candidates from schools, colleges and universities, who can then be

properly trained. This requires many interviews, but it is less I cost. 8. Internet Through internet, the vacancies will be available to a number of people who can access international websites through the cheap cost a phone call. This way will increase the databank of both employees and candidates. SELECTION METHODS There are many kinds of selection methods,

1. Application Form or Curriculum Vitae The candidates respond to an application form through a letter of application, application form or curriculum vitae. CV is mostly used for senior posts. Advantages of Application Forms 1. As information is easily structured, it is easy to structure the candidates. 2. The organization gets information it wants. 3. The form can be used as the basis for the interview. 4. Standard of completion gives an indication of a candidate's suitability. 5. It can form the part of personal file. 6. It reduces the likelihood of unfairness or discrimination. 7. Forms can be used to collect data for equal opportunities research purposes. 8. Information can more easily be computerized. 9. Forms can reinforce positive messages about the organization. Disadvantages of Application Forms 1. Different forms may have to be prepared for different jobs. 2. There is little opportunity for the candidate to display creative flair. 3. Insufficient space is sometimes provided and additional pages have to be attached. 4. Badly designed forms could cause difficulties. 2. Letters of Application / CVs Candidates respond to the advertisements through Letters of applications or CVs

Advantages of Letters of Applications or CVs 1. The standard of presentation will give some idea of the suitability of the applicant, although there are a number of companies who will prepare a professional CV for a fee. 2. There is no danger that the applicant will be discouraged by having to complete an application form. 3. Different aspects of background and experience can be covered as fully as the individual thinks fit. 4. Individual can prepare a standard CV that can be sent out very quickly. Disadvantages of Letters of Applications or CVs 1. The fact they can be professionally produced can give a misleading impression of the applicant's narrative skills. 2. The greater variability in the type and format of information provided make like for like

comparisons more difficult. 3. The applicant will give the information that he or she wants to give, not necessarily what the organization wants. 3. Telephone Inviting applications by telephone can produce a rapid response to an advertisement. This can can clearly save time& effort for both the organization & the applicant. 4. Interviews A selection interview is a controlled conversation between an applicant for a job & the employer, or some one representing the employer, designed to test the suitability of the applicant for the job in question. In the selection process the specific aims of the interviewer are: 1. to find out as much job-relevant information as possible about the applicant so that his or her suitability for the job can be assessed against the pre-determined criteria for the effective job performance. 2. to give further information about the job & the organization. 3. to ensure that the process is as fair as possible& is perceived to be fair. The most important criticisms against interviews are as follows: 1. Interviewers make up their mind about a candidate within the first 3 or 4 minutes of the interview&spend the rest of the interview looking for evidence to confirm their original view. 2. Interviews seldom change the opinion formed from the original application & the candidate's appearance. 3. There is a tendency to give more weight to unfavourable evidence than to that which is favourable. 4. When interviewers make up their minds early in the interview, their behaviour tends to convey this to the candidate. 5. One overriding characteristic, such as appearance or speech, can tend to overshadow other factors. 6. When there are a number of interviewers, there is frequently disagreement between them about candidates, sometimes leaving the way open for everyone's second choice. 7. Interviewers tend to recruit in their own likeliness. Despite of these drawbacks, the interview remains popular because: 1. it is perhaps the best way to assess the compatibility of the candidate with his or her colleagues or boss, which is probably one of the most crucial factors affecting the success of any employment relationship; 2. it is a flexible and quick way of gaining information about a candidate and of giving more information about the job and the organization. 3. as Torrington and Hall have identified, there is also a ritualistic aspect to the interview-it is usually an expected and accepted part of the process. Interviews can be formal or informal, be conducted by one individual or several, or follow one of a number of strategies or techniques. A person has to follow a number of rules for a successful interview, like:

Before the Interview 1. Ensure that candidates are adequately briefed about the organization and the job. 2. Ensure that you prepare for the interview by reading through the relevant applications and have all the necessary documentations including the job descriptions and the personal specifications. 3. Arrange venue that is free from interruption and, if necessary, have telephone calls diverted. 4. Ensure that you, any other interviewers and the candidates know the time, date and venue. 5. Ensure that enough time is set aside for the interviews and allot time for discussing applicants and for a possible overrun. 6. Formulate some questions in advance and ensure that all important aspects are covered. 7. Where more than one interviewer is involved, decide who will chair the interview and who will ask the questions. 8. Try to ensure that all those involved in interviewing have been trained in the process. 9. Give some thought to the seating arrangements and to the kind of interview you wish to conduct. 10. Make appropriate arrangements for the reception of applicants in particular giving them somewhere to sit, ensuring that they are told where the cloakroom facilities are and making sure that the reception staff know they are coming. During the interview 1. Try to stick to the timetable. 2. Follow a clear structure during the interview so that there is an obvious beginning, middle and end. 3. Start by welcoming the candidate and try to put him or her at ease, perhaps by chatting about something in consequential. 4. Introduce yourself and any other interviewers. 5. State the purpose of the interview and describe how it is to be conducted. 6. Try to ask questions that are open ended and encourage discussions. 7. Ensure that you avoid questions that could be construed as discriminatory. 8. Avoid just going back over the application forms, repeating the information that is already there. 9. Do not hesitate to probe if the need arises. 10. Listen carefully to the replies remembering that most of the talking should be done by the candidate and try to read between the lines. 11. Ask the interviewee to supply examples of the kinds of things he or she has done to get a clear idea of current and past experiences. 12. Keep notes of what is said, if a number of candidates are being interviewed. 13. At the end of the interview, invite the candidate to ask any questions about the job or the organization. After the Interview 1. Discuss and record your conclusion. 2. Notify the candidates of the outcome as soon as possible. 3. Negotiate the salary and terms of the employment with the successful candidate and prepare a contract of employment. 4. Undertake the follow - up research through interview or by using the organization's performance, management process to check whether the selection predictions have approved accurate.

5. Selection Tests The main selection tests are: Psychometric Tests This involves procedures to applicants in such a way that their response can be quantified. Any test should be, 1. A sensitive measuring instrument that discriminates between subjects. 2. Standardized, so that individual score can be related to others. 3. Reliable, in that it always measures the same thing. 4. Valid, in that the test measures what it is designed to measure. 5. Acceptable to the candidate 6. Non discriminatory. Different types of Psychometric tests are, 1. Intelligence Tests Intelligence test, the oldest kind of psychometric test have been designed by Binet &Simon in 1905.The scores are expressed in terms of Intelligence Quotient or IQ which is the ratio of mental age to the chronological age of the individual. The main problem with the intelligence test is that they are attempting to measure something which is very complex and about which there is much disagreement. They have limited application in the selection context.

2. Aptitude and Attainment Tests These are designed to test particular aptitudes or abilities for the job. Aptitude test measure individual's potential to develop whereas attainment these measure skills that have already been acquired. Some of the most common attainment tests are typing test, which are widely used and accepted. 3. Personality Tests. Personality is the integration of all of an individual's characteristics into a unique organization that determines and is modified by his attempts at adaptation to his continually changing environment. Personality test can take different form testing like Individual traits or characteristics, interests or values. These tests include the 16PF, Myers-Briggs, the FIRO-B & Saville and Holdsworth's OPQ. Recruitment function can become easy if it is done with enough skill and talent. This can be made successful by good team work and with good ways to find the talented ones. Otherwise it will become a total headache to the HR manager. Good employees will work for the progress of the organization and so the growth of the organization rests upon the person who recruits the personnel necessary for the organization. I will surely use all methods possible for recruitment and selection process.

Downward Communication [edit]

In a workplace environment, orders being given from superiors to subordinates is the most basic form of downward communication. These are usually done via manuals and handbooks, oral communication, and/or written orders. Two other forms of downward communication are when a customer gives orders to a supplier and when shareholders instruct management to do certain things.[2] In a study conducted by John Anderson and Dale Level, the following were cited to be benefits of effective downward communication:

Better coordination Improved individual performance through the development of intelligent participation Improved morale Improved consumer relations Improved industrial relations.[3]

In order for downward communication to be effective, the superior should remain respectful and concise when giving orders, they should make sure the subordinate clearly understands instructions, and they should give recognition for admirable performance.

Upward Communication [edit]

Upward communication is the process of transmitting information from the bottom levels of an organization to the top levels. It includes judgments, estimations, propositions, complaints, grievance, appeals, reports, etc. from subordinates to superiors. It is very important because it serves as the response on the success of downward communication. Management comes to know how well its policies, plans, strategies and objectives are adopted by those working at lower levels of the organization.[4] Upward information flow can be very beneficial for an organization, especially when it is encouraged by the management. When a manager is open to upward communication, they help foster cooperation, gain support, and reduce frustration. The channel of communication is a very significant variable in the upward communication process. Channel refers to the means of which messages are transported. It can be face-to-face, over the telephone, written, etc. Communication channel affects subordinate's overall satisfaction with upward communication. Certain channels are easily ignored, which can leave subordinates less satisfied with upward communication. A subordinate who is satisfied with his/her upward communication will be less apprehensive about communicating upward than a subordinate who is unsatisfied with his/her upward communication.[5]

Openness in Communication [edit]

Employees who have an open communication with their superiors have been found to be more satisfied with their jobs than those who do not have this. Openness in communication requires both openness in message sending and openness in message receiving between superiors and

subordinates.[1] Achieving openness in message sending requires complete honesty whether the news is good or bad. Certain types of messages facilitate open communication better. Supervisory messages are preferable for both superiors and subordinates when they are encouraging or reciprocating, rather than responses that are either neutral or negative. Openness in message receiving requires a willingness to listen to the message without jumping to conclusions even when the message is not what you wanted to hear. An open communication relationship differs from a closed by the reactions and types of feedback given, not the message itself.[1] Subordinates in a closed communication relationship with their superior are more likely to respond negatively to the superior's feedback than those who have more open communication with their superior.

Relationship Maintenance [edit]

Maintaining the relationship between superior and subordinate will differ greatly, depending on the expectations of the individual parties. Some will settle for nothing less than a close friendship with their superior, others may be just focused on maintaining a professional relationship, while those may not get along with their superiors may be focused on just maintaining a civil relationship. The unusual relationship between superior and subordinates requires specific maintenance strategies since some typical ones, like avoidance, are unacceptable.[6] There are four common types of relationship maintenance strategies for this variation of relationship. First there are informal interactions, such as joking and non-work related conversations that emphasize creating a friendship. There are also formal interactions, such as politeness and respect for the superior's authority, that help to create a professional superior-subordinate relationship. There are also tactics to appear impressive to the superior, such as a hesitancy to deliver bad news or being enthusiastic. The final relationship maintenance strategy includes open discussion about the relationship with the superior, including explicitly telling them how they want to be treated in the workplace [6]
10 Tips to Establish Rapport with Your Audience Author: George Torok (CANADA)
126

10 Tips to Establish Rapport with Your Audience Rapport with your audience is the secret to connecting, building trust and working together. When you don't have rapport with your audience you are wasting everyone's time and digging your grave. Start building rapport early in your presentation and reinforce often as you deliver your message. To establish stronger rapport with your audience follow these 10 powerful rapport-building techniques when you present.

1. Never tell jokes. Jokes ridicule people and always alienate someone. Jokes can offend people

and push them away from you. When delivering a business presentation remember that you and not a stand-up comic. 2. Tell self-deprecating funny stories. This is the way to make your audience laugh by making fun of yourself. We trust people who have imperfect lives - like us. But don't reveal all your faults at once - they might brand you a real loser. 3. Dress a little better than your audience so they see you as the expert but not too removed. 4. Look them in the eye. We trust you if you look at us. Don't stare at that proverbial spot on the back wall. Look at and talk to each person in the audience - one at a time. 5. Smile. They will naturally smile back at you. If you think your audience looks miserable remember they are a mirror of the speaker. 6. Tell stories - don't lecture. Kids plead with their parents, 'Tell us a story.' They never say, 'Give us a lecture.' Why do you think we hate lectures - and why I slept through so many at university? 7. Speak the language of the audience. With engineers - talk slide rules, structural forces and tolerances. Whisper the word RAM to computer nerds and watch their eyes light up. When speaking to associations learn if they are called clients, members, associates, delegates or true believers. 8. Help them laugh. Every one loves to laugh. Remember the scene in Mary Poppins with the staid bankers. The old geezer died laughing. Don't kill them, but inject some humour. 9. Talk about things they can relate to. Sales people relate to cold calls, warehousers to stockouts, bureaucrats to policy formation, and entrepreneurs to cash flow. Remember that everyone relates to family. 10. Be yourself. Be comfortable. Prepare; but don't worry, it's okay to make mistakes. If you are plastic and too polished they won't believe you.

How to Make Powerful & Persuasive Presentations

Create Powerful and Persuasive Sales Presentations more easily with Dave Kahles effective sales training kit
A sales presentation should not be scripted. It seldom follows a predictable path. Daily shifts in business needs and variations in human nature make every presentation a walk on the wire without a net.

The sales person who makes it all the way to the sale is often the one with the most effective sales presentation. This includes much more than just product knowledge, and in this session we cover the full spectrum of what it takes to succeed. Many sales people never adequately deal with a customer's objections, preferring to ignore the subject altogether. Others fall back on the highly manipulative tactics that are often advocated. The result? Missed opportunities, lost sales, frustrated sales people and discouraged sales managers. Sales people today must master this skill if your company is going to be successful.

Only $55 Buy it now! Special Offer: Buy all our two CD sets for $200! Save $20.00 Buy it Now!

The Solution... Dave's new training kit How to Make Powerful & Persuasive Presentations! Designed to be a complete one-stop solution for any sales professional, this kit is an absolute must if you want to sky-rocket your sales! The breakthrough principles, processes and tools that this program teaches sales people will make a major and immediate difference in your results. What's in the kit... This package contains two complete sixty minute live training sessions presented by Dave (outlined below) as well as a set of exercises to help you implement the materials. This program is great as a stand alone development tool or it can also be used as two small group-training sessions. (Each lesson is a recording of one of Dave's previous live interactive phone seminars.) Everything is organized into a 3-ring binder for easy keeping.

Lesson One: Powerful Presentations - Part I Preparing to Make Powerful Presentations

Eventually, every sales strategy comes down to one person delivering your message. Will they be prepared to succeed? The Boy Scouts may have originated the motto of "Be Prepared", but your sales team lives or dies by it. In this lesson, Dave teaches sales people how to prepare powerful presentations. In this motivational 60-minute lesson participants will....
Learn the three key principles to preparing effective sales presentations Learn how to match the presentation to meet the customers needs Learn how to make the presentations bigger than the product or service you are offering. o Get a worksheet they can use to craft a powerful presentation Lesson Two: Powerful Presentations - Part II: Tips for Making Powerful, Persuasive Presentations
o o o

Tactics are the tools you use to reach your goal. Be sure your players know the right and wrong ways to carry the ball. Strategies and goals tend to be general: "win the account... close the sale..." These strategies seldom change, but the tactics used to achieve success must be flexible enough to avoid obstacles and objections. Once your team goes face to face at the point of sale, they need a full range of tactics to assure success. This is why the sales master can beat the one-dimensional sales pitch guy every time. In this program, I'll teach the tactics and strategies your salesforce needs to master the art of creating effective sales presentations. In this 60-minute lesson participants will ....
o

Learn the two principles that they must master to succeed. Get 10 tips to help them make powerful & persuasive presentations. Learn how to use the most powerful concept of making presentations (the simplified cone of experience) Learn a follow-up technique they can use to help them make more effective sales presentations.