CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

These days electrical generation is typically provided by fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil and also as nuclear power. Currently one third of the world population do not have access to electricity and are not connected to the national grid, one solution to this problem is renewable energy in the form of photovoltaic (PV) systems. Despite high capital cost, PV systems are still a viable solution for rural areas. Studies suggest that the rate at which fossil fuels are consumed today, there are high chances that they will deplete by the end of this century. For a long time, it has been thought that atomic energy would be a solution for the growing energy problem, but in recent times solar energy has proved to be an efficient, more secure and safe way of providing energy. Concepts related to the solar energy have constantly been under heavy research and development. The basic objective is to optimize the energy produced from photovoltaic cells, by making the overall systems more efficient and cost effective. Most solar panels are statically aligned; they have a fixed position at a certain angle towards the sky. Therefore, the time and intensity of direct sunlight falling upon the solar panel is greatly reduced, resulting in low power output from the photovoltaic (PV) cells. Solar tracking system is the solution to this issue as it plays a major role in overall solar energy optimization. In order to ensure maximum power output from PV cells, the sunlights angle of incidence needs to be constantly perpendicular to the solar panel. This requires constant tracking of the suns apparent daytime motion, and hence develops an automated sun tracking system which carries the solar panel 1

and position it in such a way that direct sunlight is always focused on PV cells. This project is about moving a solar panel along with the direction of sunlight; it uses a stepper motor to control the position of the solar panel, which obtains its data from a microcontroller. The automated solar tracking system is design in order to optimize the efficiency of overall solar energy output. Light dependent resistor (LDR) is used for each degree of freedom. LDRs are basically photocells that are sensitive to light. Several applications of solar energy ranging from simple solar water heating to complex mega watt power generation systems are under extensive investigation. The function of the solar collector is to collect the radiation incident from the sun. To get maximum energy from the Sun, solar panel needs to rotate according to movement of the Sun with the help of LDR.

1.1 The Proposed System: The ordinary battery has some drawbacks such as it gets discharged when car is steady for long period of time. To overcome this problem we have introduced an Alternate Solar Battery Charger For Steady Cars. We know that solar energy is readily available. So when the car is in steady condition the battery gets charged using solar energy.

Solar power battery charger for Stationary cars

1.2 Why this topic was chosen:

As per survey done , it is found that in many old model vehicles or existing vehicles the problem Push and start arises for example a medium size four wheeler a battery of rating 30 amp-hr is used to start the vehicle . If a vehicle is kept steady for a long period or 2,3 weeks or more the vehicles battery gets discharged due to some chemical leakage or composition in the battery. This generally happens in cold nights ,to overcome this problem a solar charging concept is introduced, as solar charging is easily possible when the vehicle is in idle time in sun light ,only installation is somewhat costly but it dont require much mentainance .

1.3 Expected layout of the project:

1.4 Problem definition:

1.4.1Demerits of Less Driven Vehicles: Many times we ignore the importance of battery in our vehicle and thereafter face trouble because of the same. Cars battery is quite a significant component of your vehicle and without it your car wont start. Even the temperature affects the batterys performance, and when the battery is at 0 degrees F, only half of the normal cranking power will be produced 4

whereas the drop in temperature of 20 degrees F, it will raise out less power capacity. So here are some steps to warm up your battery so that you can easily start your vehicle. If a vehicle is kept steady for a long period or 2,3 weeks or more the vehicles battery gets discharged due to some chemical leakage or composition in the battery. 1.4.2 Insufficient Charging Output: If one of the three stator windings failed, the alternator would still charge, but only at two thirds of its normal output. Since an alternator is designed to handle all the power that is needed under heavy load conditions, you may never know that there is a problem with the unit. It might only become apparent on a dark, cold rainy night when the lights, heater, windshield wipers and possible the seat heaters and rear defroster are all on at once that you may notice the lights start to dim as you slow down. If two sets of windings failed, you will probably notice it a lot sooner. Its more common for one or more of the six diodes in the rectifier to fail. If a diode burns out and opens one of the circuits, you would see the same problem as if one of the windings had failed. The alternator will run at a reduced output. However, if one of the diodes were to short out and allow current to pass in either direction, other problems will occur. A shorted diode will allow AC current to pass through to the automobile's electrical system which can cause problems with the computerized sensors and processors. This condition can cause the car to act unpredictably and cause all kinds of problems. 1.4.3 Too much voltage:

A voltage regulator is designed to limit the voltage output of an alternator to 14.5 volts or less to protect the vehicle's electrical system. If the regulator malfunctions and allows uncontrolled voltage to be released, you will see bulbs and other electrical components begin to fail. This is a dangerous and potentially costly problem. Fortunately, this type of failure is very rare. Most failures cause a reduction of voltage or amperage. 1.5 Need of project: Car battery is used for a number of purposes such as headlights, starting the engine, etc. However, when the car is not used for extended periods of time, the battery slowly discharges. As a result, the battery performance degrades. This charge can be easily maintained by using a solar cell. The solar cell converts solar energy to electrical energy and helps to keep the battery charged. Charging through solar energy ensures negligible voltage drops and helps to prolong the battery life. Solar power charger is the most abundant and absolutely cost-free supply of electricity accessible. A charge controller, or charge regulator is similar to the voltage regulator in your car. It regulates the voltage and current coming from the solar panels going to the battery. Most "12 volt" panels put out about 16 to 20 volts, so if there is no regulation the batteries will be damaged from overcharging. Most batteries need around 14 to 14.5 volts to get fully charged. Solar battery charger converts light energy into direct current, using solar cell modules i.e. a solar panel of varying volts for different uses.

Typically, a solar charger can hold on to its charge for up to a year. The advantage to using a solar charger is that it eliminates all of those unnecessary, bulky chargers for every electronic device. Most solar power systems use 12 volt batteries, like you find in cars. Solar panels can deliver far more voltage than is required to charge the batteries. By, in essence, converting the excess voltage into amps, the charge voltage can be kept at an optimal level while the time required to fully charge the batteries is reduced. This allows the solar power system to operate optimally at all times. In this way, solar battery chargers are the perfect alternative for normal battery chargers. It stores chemicals, not electricity. Two different types of lead in an acid mixture react to produce an electrical pressure. This electrochemical reaction changes chemical energy to electrical energy.

CHAPTER 2
Literature survey on Solar Energy
2.1 Solar energy :

Rajasthan, Gujarat, west Madhya Pradesh and north Maharashtra receive more than 3000 to 3200 hours of bright sunshine in a year. Over 2600 to 2800 hours of bright sunshine are available over the rest of the country, except Kerala, the north-eastern states, and Jammu and Kashmir where they are appreciably lower. During monsoon (June August), a significant decrease in sunshine occurs over the whole country except Jammu and Kashmir where the maximum duration of sunshine occurs in June and July, and minimum in January due to its location. The north-eastern states and south-east peninsula also receive relatively less sunshine during October and November due to the north-east monsoons. As far as the availability of global solar radiation is concerned, more than 2000 kWh/m2-year are received over Rajasthan and Gujarat, while east Bihar, North West Bengal and the north-eastern states receive less than 1700 kWh/m2-year. The availability of diffuse solar radiation varies widely in the country. The annual pattern shows a minimum of 740 kWh/m2-year over Rajasthan increasing eastwards to 840 kWh/m2-year in the north-eastern states, and south wards to 920 kWh/m2-year. A huge market for solar energy; given the high solar incidence in India (there are about 300 clear sunny days in a year in most parts of India and the daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4-7 kWh/m2

2.2 The photovoltaic (PV) power plants of India : India inaugurated Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of Punjab, the first privately owned, utility-scale power plant on the Asian subcontinent. Built under a 30-year power purchase agreement with the Punjab State Electricity Board, the plant will help power 4,000 rural homes for 20,000 people. Azure Power is India's first independent power producer in solar energy. It built the plant, situated on 13 acres of farmland in the village of Awan, in a record six months, Inderpreet Wadhwa founded Azure Power two years ago after a 15-year career in the United States that most recently included software giant Oracle Corp. The 37-year-old native of Amritsar city in Punjab said he wanted to return home and do something for rural areas in India, where millions of people don't have reliable electricity. Azure Power received initial venture-capital funding from Helion Ventures and Foundation Capital. Wadhwa encountered a number of bureaucratic hurdles in the project, including obtaining signatures from 152 local officials in Punjab, The Wall Street Journal report.

Gandhinagar Solar Plant

Thyagaraj Stadium Plant-Delhi Azure Power, Sabarkantha Gujarat Tata - Mulshi, Maharashtra Tata - Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu Moser Baer - Patna, Gujarat TATA - Osmanabad, Maharashtra REHPL - Sadeipali, (Bolangir) Orissa

2.3 Solar Equipment: Solar Panels, Solar FanCap, Solar Fountain Pump, Solar Fountain Cascade, Sol ar Security Light, Solar Shed Light, Solar Lantern, Solar Street Light, Solar Power Pack ,Solar Power Pack Systems, Photovoltaic Modules, Photovoltaic Panels, Renewable Energy Products, Renewable Energy Power Plant, High Quality PV Panels, IEC Approved PV Panels, High Quality PV Module, Cellular Phone Tower Power Systems, Solar Garden Light Systems, Solar Water Pumping, Solar Home Light Systems, Solar Lantern, Waaree Energies, Solar Power, 2.4 List of Solar Energy Companies in India 1. Tata BP Solar India Ltd 2. Sun Technics Energy Systems Pvt Ltd 3. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd 4. HHV Solar Technologies Pvt Ltd 5. Emmvee Toughened Glass & Photovoltaics Pvt Ltd 6. IComm Tele Ltd 7. Thrive Energy technologies (I) Ltd 8. Photon Energy Systems Ltd 10

9. Andromeda Energy Technologies (P) ltd 10.Noble Energy Solar Technologies Ltd 11.XL Telecom & Energy Ltd 12.Sungrace Energy Solutions Pvt Ltd 13.Shurjo Energy 14.Synergy Renewable Energy 15. Sova Power Limited 16.Vikram Solar Pvt. Ltd 17.Webel Solar 18.PV Power Tech 19.Green Brillinace Energy Pvt Limited 20.PLG Power Limited 21.Access Solar Ltd 22.Solar Semiconductors Pvt Limited 23.Titan Energy Systems Limited 24.Moser Baer 25.Synergic India Pvt. Limited 26.Jain Irrigation Systems 27.Premier Solar Systems Pvt Ltd 28Maharishi Solar Technology Pvt Ltd

2.5 USE OF SOLAR ENERGY BY INDIAN POPULACE: At an international level we are aware of the crisis being caused by global warming and its possible consequences. However, we also see the teeming millions, especially in rural India, living with many unmet needs. Due to poverty and illiteracy the methods of farming are primitive. There is insufficient or no electricity in many villages around which we work. An unscientific approach to living impacts health and performance in different areas. 11

With torrential monsoon rains lasting nearly four months and snow fall in the northern regions, India receives abundant water. Bright sunshine for the rest of the year gifts India with huge amounts of Solar energy. These freely given gifts are not sufficiently tapped nor used. If these plentiful resources were used with better planning and wisdom we could avert many drought-like situations in the country.

For India's agrarian economy there are many alternatives possible to shift from dependence on non-renewable energy sources. But due to poverty and illiteracy, the living and working processes are still very primitive, often self defeating and unfriendly to the environment.

Our commitment to sustainable living standards prompted us to apply for funding from the Conrad Hilton Fund for Sisters. The approved funding was allocated for solar units in four Indian villages where we work: Siktia in Bihar, Morai in Tamilnadu, Jeevan Jyoti Hospice for HIV/AIDS patients in Theni, Tamilnadu and Karanje in Maharashtra. The funds helped install solar units for electricity, street lighting, water heating and cookers. Over the past 50 years Indias urban population has been dramatically increasing, with most people living in slums or other substandard dwellings. People in these low-income communities face major health hazards due to poor living conditions, lack of hygiene and sanitation, dependency on untreated water supplies and significant exposure to indoor air pollution. Most of the inhabitants depend on health care services provided by local government. The level of health service provided varies from city to city and local governments are becoming increasingly concerned about their ability to meet their social obligations in the health sector. At the same time, most Indian cities 12

are facing a severe energy crisis, which also has a negative affect on health care services. Recognising the serious nature of these problems, the issue of energy in the urban health sector in India was addressed by a project carried out by the South Asian group of ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability. The project team focused on identifying and implementing renewable energy technologies and efficiency measures within hospitals. Hospitals are large consumers of energy; they need power supply for lighting common areas and operating theatres, providing hot water, refrigerating vaccines and medicines etc.Additionally, alternative sources of energy are needed for emergency services during power shortages. Initially, ICLEI carried out a detailed assessment of the energy consumption in local authority health care facilities in the city of Bhubaneswar, India. One hospital was then chosen as a pilot project to demonstrate that renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency strategies could be a way of tackling the hospitals energy issues. An expert conducted an energy audit at the hospital in order to identify possible areas of intervention. Based on the results of this audit, recommendations for action were formulated. The proposed technologies were: a solar photovoltaic power plant, solar water heating installations, a solar powered vaccine refrigerator, solar lighting systems with energy efficient light fixtures and efficient ceiling fans. The necessary equipment was procured and installed and then the hospital staffs was trained in the operation and maintenance of the equipment so that they would be able to use it on a daily basis..

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CHAPER 3
STUDY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL
3.1 BASICS The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics.

The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard spacecraft.

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Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space applications. The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are also called photovoltaic (PV) cells, which as the name implies (photo meaning "light" and voltaic meaning "electricity"), convert sunlight directly into electricity.

A module is a group of cells connected electrically and packaged into a frame (more commonly known as a solar panel).

Internal structure of solar panel

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3.2 Simple explanation 1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

3.3Working of solar panel

3.3.1 Photogeneration charge carriers When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen: 1. the photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally) happens for lower energy photons, 2. the photon can reflect off the surface, 3. the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat, depending on the band structure.

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Band diagram of a silicon solar cell

When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighboring atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into theconduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. The covalent bond that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron this is known as a hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring atoms to move into the "hole," leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron-hole pairs. A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. However, the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black body spectrum at about 5,800 K,[1] and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon. These 17

higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in energy between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations calledphonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.

3.3.2 Charge carrier separation There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell: 1. drift of carriers, driven by an electric field established across the device 2. diffusion of carriers due to their random thermal motion, until they are captured by the electrical fields existing at the edges of the active region. In thick solar cells there is no electric field in the active region, so the dominant mode of charge carrier separation is diffusion. In these cells the diffusion length of minority carriers (the length that photo-generated carriers can travel before they recombine) must be large compared to the cell thickness. In thin film cells (such as amorphous silicon), the diffusion length of minority carriers is usually very short due to the existence of defects, and the dominant charge separation is therefore drift, driven by the electrostatic field of the junction, which extends to the whole thickness of the cell[2].

3.3.3 The p-n junction The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made from silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of ntype silicon into direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are not made in this way, but rather by diffusing an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer (or vice versa).

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If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a piece of n-type silicon, then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely, however, because charges build up on either side of the junction and create an electric field. The electric field creates a diode that promotes charge flow, known as drift current, that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of electrons and holes. This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called the depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It is also known as the space charge region. It is formed by deposition of one material on the surface of an extrinsic semi-conductor by spray method.

3.4 Connection to an external load Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load. Electrons that are created on the n-type side, or have been "collected" by the junction and swept onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type semiconductormetal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was either created as an electron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or a hole that was swept across the junction from the n-type side after being created there. The voltage measured is equal to the difference in the quasi Fermi levels of the minority carriers, i.e. electrons in the p-type portion and holes in the n-type portion.

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Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The schematic symbol of a solar cell

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the model.[3] The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. 20

Also shown, on the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.

3.5 Characteristic equation From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt resistor:[4][5]

where

I = output current (amperes) IL = photogenerated current (amperes) ID = diode current (amperes) ISH = shunt current (amperes).

The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:

where

Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volts) V = voltage across the output terminals (volts) I = output current (amperes) RS = series resistance ().

By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is:
[6]

where 21

I0 = reverse saturation current (amperes) n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode) q = elementary charge k = Boltzmann's constant T = absolute temperature At 25C, volts.

By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:

where

RSH = shunt resistance ().

Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation of a solar cell, which relates solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:

An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in appearance, but with V on the left-hand side. The two alternatives are identities; that is, they yield precisely the same results. In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation may be solved to determine the operating current I at that voltage. However, because the equation involves I on both sides in atranscendental function the equation has no general analytical solution. However, even without a solution it is physically instructive. Furthermore, it is easily solved using numerical methods. (A general analytical solution to the equation is

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possible using Lambert's W function, but since Lambert's W generally itself must be solved numerically this is a technicality.) Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly, the most common application of the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to extract the values of these parameters on the basis of their combined effect on solar cell behavior.

3.6 Solar panel:

Solar panel Specification Maximum power[pm]- 8.0Wp Open circuit voltage[Voc]-21.0V Short circuit current[Isc]-0.52A Rated voltage[Vm]-16.8V Rated current[Im]-0.48A Maximum system voltage-600V Output Tolerence-+/- 5%

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CHAPER 4 STUDY OF CAR BATTERY

4.1 Battery Functions:
1. ENGINE OFF: Battery energy is used to operate the lighting and accessory systems.

2. ENGINE STARTING: Battery energy is used to operate the starter motor and to provide current for the ignition system during cranking.

3. ENGINE RUNNING: Battery energy may be needed when the vehicle 's electrical load requirements exceed the supply from the charging system.

In addition, the battery also serves as a voltage stabilizer, or large filter, by absorbing abnormal, transient voltages in the vehicle's electrical system .Without this protection, certain electrical or electronic components could be damaged by these high voltages.

4.2 Battery Types:

1. PRIMARY CELL:The chemical reaction totally destroys one of the metals after a period of time.Small batteries for flashlights and radios are primary cells.

2. SECONDARY CELLS:The metals and acid mixture change as the battery supplies voltage. The metals become similar, the acid strength 24

weakens.This is called discharging. By applying current to the battery in the opposite direction, the battery materials can be restored. This is called charging . Automotive lead-acid batteries are secondary cells.

3. WET-CHARGED:The lead-acid battery is filled with electrolyte and charged when it is built. During storage, a slow chemical reaction will cause self-discharge. Periodic charging is required. For Toyota batteries, this is every 5 to 7 months.

4. DRY-CHARGED:The battery is built, charged,washed and dried, sealed, and shipped without electrolyte. It can be stored for 12 to .18 months. When put into use, it requires adding electrolyte and charging.

5. LOW-MAINTENANCE: Most batteries for Toyota vehicles are considered low maintenance batteries.Such batteries are built to reduce internal heat and water loss. The addition of water should only be required every 15,000 miles or so.

Types Of Lead-Acid Car Batteries:

WET/FLOODED:

The wet or flooded battery still dominates. It consists of all but freely suspended plates that are insulated from each other usually with the negative plate being sealed in a small polythene separator bag. The price factor is the main reason why this design is so prominent. Even though a normal car battery contains around 130 components, the production method has been refined and the material can be relatively 25

basic. The result is a low price battery that offers something that is adequate to meet the needs of many people.

Some more types of car batteries

CALCIUM-CALCIUM: The next stage has dominated on a wide front in recent years and is called Calcium-Calcium. This involves the antimony on both the negative and positive plates being replaced by calcium alloy. The benefits are obvious. The fluid loss of the battery is about 80 % lower than that of antimony batteries and the self-discharge is lower, i.e. they can remain unused for longer periods without losing a lot of their charge. The disadvantage is that they are more demanding when charging if they have been overdischarged.

VRLA: An entirely different way of controlling fluid loss goes under the generic name of VRLA, Valve Regulated Lead Acid. In this case the battery box is designed as a small pressure vessel with safety valves. If you confine the oxygen and hydrogen gases, they can react with each other and be reformed into water. This is called recombination and is a brilliant way of all but eliminating fluid loss. It is not possible to confine and recombine all the gas but the loss is reduced dramatically.

GEL: A Gel battery has some elements, usually silicon compounds, added to the acid to ensure it gelatinises and thereby guarantee that no flooded acid can leak out. The oxygen gas "drills" channels in the gel from the positive to the negative plate where it meets the hydrogen gas and recombines into 26

water. They have excellent capacity but the somewhat higher resistance in the acid means that they have limitations as starter batteries. They can withstand over-discharging very well, i.e. when the battery is drained down to 20% State Of Charge. Gel batteries are very robust and are often used in applications such as floor-cleaning machines and golf carts. When gel batteries are mentioned in a motorcycle context, this is often a misconception.

AGM (Vlies): AGM, Absorbed Glass Mat, (Vlies) keeps the acid in place by the separator paper that consists of a fibreglass mat operating like a sponge. The capillary forces in the separator do the trick. The batteries can be constructed with extremely thin separators which keep the internal resistance low. This means that you can leverage high power from a small volume which makes it ideal as a starter battery. AGM has one drawback which is that the amount of acid is limited. All acid must be absorbed by the separator paper and when the small amount of acid has been converted into lead sulphate, this signals that the "petrol tank" is empty.

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4.3 Construction:

1. CASE: Container which holds and protects all battery components and electrolyte, separates cells, and provides space at the bottom for sediment (active materials washed off plates). Translucent plastic cases allow checking electrolyte level without removing vent caps.

2. COVER: Permanently sealed to the top of the case; provides outlets for terminal posts, vent holes for venting of gases and for battery maintenance (checking electrolyte, adding water).

3. PLATES: Positive and negative plates have a grid framework of antimony and lead alloy. Active material is pasted to the grid ... brown-colored lead 28

dioxide (Pb02) on positive plates, gray-colored sponge lead (Pb) on negative plates. The number and size of the plates determine current capability ... batteries with large plates or many plates produce more current than batteries with small plates or few plates.

4. SEPARATORS: Thin, porous insulators (woven glass or plastic envelopes) are placed between positive and negative plates. They allow passage of electrolyte, yet prevent the plates from touching and shorting out.

5. CELLS: An assembly of connected positive and negative plates with separators in between is called a cell or element. When immersed in electrolyte, a cell produces about 2.1 volts(regardless of the number or size of plates). Battery cells are connected in series, so the number of cells determines the battery voltage. A "1 2 - volt" battery has six cells.

6. CELL CONNECTORS: Heavy, cast alloy metal straps are welded to the negative terminal of one cell and the positive terminal of the adjoining cell until all six cells are connected in series.

7. CELL PARTITIONS: Part of the case, the partitions separate each cell.

8. TERMINAL POSTS: Positive and negative posts (terminals) on the case top have thick, heavy cables connected to them. These cables connect the battery to the vehicle's electrical system (positive) and to ground (negative).

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9. VENT CAPS: Types include individual filler plugs, strip-type, or box-type. They allow controlled release of hydrogen gas during charging (vehicle operation). Removed, they permit checking electrolyte and, if necessary, adding water.

10. ELECTROLYTE: A mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O). It reacts chemically with the active materials in the plates to create an electrical pressure (voltage). And, it conducts the electrical current produced by that pressure from plate to plate. A fully charged battery will have about 36% acid and 64% water.

4.4 Cell Theory:

A lead-acid cell works by a simple principle: when two different metals are immersed in an acid solution, a chemical reaction creates an electrical pressure.One metal is brown-colored lead dioxide (Pb02). It has a positive electrical charge. The other metal is gray colored sponge lead (Pb). It has a negative electrical charge. The acid solution is a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H20). It is called electrolyte.If a conductor and a load are connected between the two metals, current will flow. This discharging will continue until the metals become alike and the acid is used up. The action can be reversed by sending current into the cell in the opposite direction. This charging will continue until the cell materials are restored to their original condition.

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ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION :

A lead-acid storage battery can be partially discharged and recharged many times. There are four stages in this discharging/charging cycle. 1. CHARGED: A fully charged battery contains a negative plate of sponge lead (Pb), a positive plate of lead dioxide (Pb02), and electrolyte of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H20).

2. DISCHARGING: As the battery is discharging, the electrolyte becomes diluted and the plates become sulfated. The electrolyte divides into hydrogen (H2) and sulfate(S04) . The hydrogen (H2) combines with oxygen (0) from the positive plate to form more water (H20). The sulfate combines with the lead (Pb) in both plates to form lead sulfate (PbS04)

3. DISCHARGED: In a fully discharged battery, both plates are covered with lead sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte is diluted to mostly water (H2O).

4. CHARGING: During charging, the chemical action is reversed.Sulfate (S04) leaves the plates and combines with hydrogen (H2) to become sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Free oxygen (02) combines with lead (Pb) on the positive plate to form lead dioxide (Pb02).Gassing occurs as the battery nears full charge, and hydrogen bubbles out at the negative plates, oxygen at the positive.

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4.5 Capacity Ratings

The battery must be capable of cranking the engine and providing adequate reserve capacity. Its capacity is the amount of electrical energy the battery can deliver when fully charged. Capacity is determined by the size and number of plates, the number of cells, and the strength and volume of electrolyte. The most commonly used ratings are: Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA) Reserve Capacity (RC) Amp-Hours (AH) Power (Watts)

4.5.1 COLD-CRANKING AMPERES (CCA): The battery's primary function is to provide energy to crank the engine during starting. This requires a large discharge in a short time. The CCA Rating specifies, in amperes, the discharge load a fully charged battery at 0F (-1 7.8C) can deliver for 30 seconds while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts total for a 12-volt battery). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have CCA ratings ranging from 350 to 560 amps.

4.5.2 RESERVE CAPACITY (RC): The battery must provide emergency energy for ignition, lights, and accessories if the vehicle's charging system fails. This requires adequate capacity at normal temperatures for a certain amount of time. The RC

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Rating specifies, in minutes,the length of time a fully charged battery at 80F (26.7'C) can be discharged at 25 amps while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt battery). \ Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have RC ratings ranging from 55 to 115 minutes

4.5.3 AMP-HOURS (AH): The battery must maintain active materials on its plates and adequate lasting power under light-load conditions. This method of rating \ batteries is also called the 20-hour discharge rating. Original equipment batteries are rated in amp-hours. The ratings of these batteries are listed in the parts microfiche. The Amp-Hour Rating specifies, in amphours, the current the battery can provide for 20 hours at 80F (26.7C) while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt battery). For example, a battery that can deliver 4 amps for 20 hours is rated at 80 amp-hours (4 x 20 = 80). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have AH ratings ranging from 40 to 80 amp-hours.

4.5.4 POWER (WATTS): The battery's available cranking power may also be measured in watts. The Power Rating, in watts, is determined by multiplying the current available by the battery voltage at 0F (-1 7.8C). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have power ratings ranging from 2000 to 4000 watts.

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4.6 FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGING Five factors affect battery charging by increasing its internal resistance and CEMF (counter-electromotive force produced by the electrochemical reaction): 1. TEMPERATURE: As the temperature decreases the electrolyte resists charging. A cold battery will take more time to charge; a warm battery, less time. Never attempt to charge a frozen battery. 2. STATE-OF-CHARGE: The condition of the battery's active materials will affect charging. A battery that is severely discharged will have hard sulfate crystals on its plates. The vehicle's charging system may charge at too high of a rate to remove such sulfates. 3. PLATE AREA: Small plates are charged faster than large plates. When sulfation covers most of the plate area, the charging system may not be able to restore the battery. 4. IMPURITIES: Dirt and other impurities in the electrolyte increase charging difficulty.

5. GASSING: Hydrogen and oxygen bubbles form at the plates during charging. As these bubble out, they wash away active material, cause water loss, and increase charging difficulty

35

36

4.7

37

4.8 Car Battery Survey

As per survey done the following list shows the battery ,rating and cost commonly used in cars,the major manufacturers are Amron,Excit and etc. CAR BATTERY TYPE RATINGS (Amp-Hr) Maruti 800 Maruti Suziki Zen Hundai (Getz, Accent) Honda Accord Skoda Superb Mercedese (c class, E class, S class) TATA Indica(Petrol) 42B20R 35 4378 85D23R 574106069(DIN 74) 600131087(DIN 100) 100 16542 55 74 9108 10936 55B24LS 45 7032 50B20R 50B20R 35 35 COST ( IN Rs.) 6101 6101

Toyota Innova (Petrol) Fiat(Uno, Palio, Sienna, Punto, Linea) (Alll Petrol) Fiat(Uno, Sienna,

42B20L

35

4378

545171036(DIN 44)

44

5533

566101061(DIN 38

60

7480

Palio, Punto) (All Diesel) Mitsubishi (Lancer, Cedia, Montero, Outlander ) Mercedese Benz Mahindra And Mahindra(Scorpio, Xylo) Dawoo (Cielo, Corsa, Opel Extra) (Petrol) Fiat(118 NE, Punto) (Diesel)

60)

105D31L

80

8983

105D31R BLACK-700RMF

80 65

8983 5164

555107050(DIN 55)

55

6373

95D26R

65

7022

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CHAPTER 5 Block Diagram

Fig Block diagram

5.1 List Of Various Blocks 1 Power Supply 2 ADC 0809 3 Microcontroller 89C51 4 IC 555 5 Relay IN4007 6 LCD 7 LED

5.2 Description The aim of the project is to optimize the power supply to the base transceiver station. The major components used in the circuit can be categorized as follows 40

1) Power supply sources: Battery: Solar and wind energy supply(renewable energy sources which continuously charge the battery)

2) ADC 0809 An analog-to-digital converter is a device which converts continuous signals to discrete digital numbers for analog to digital conversion. An ADC is an

electronic device that converts an input analog voltage (or current) to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current.

3) MICROCONTROLLER 89C51 The microcontroller is used to control the entire switching operation through the following tasks : 1. Controlling output voltage within a tolerance band of rated voltage for the system using specially designed circuit. 2. Continuously monitoring battery state of charge by special software. 3. Continuously displaying the following parameters on LCD display a. Voltage ratings of all the sources. b. Source driving the relay at that instant of time. c. Panel positions.

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4) IC 555 The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator applications. It is used to provide clock signal to the ADC and acts as a timer. 5) RELAY IN4007 A relay is an electrically operated switch. The boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. 6) LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) LCDs are passive devices that are mainly used for display purposes. 7) LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED) Used to indicate which relay switch is ON.

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CHAPTER 6 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

6.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.6.1 Circuit Diagram

6.2 DESCRIPTION 6.2.1 Summary of circuit features

Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output current capability of 100 mA Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down output when regulator IC gets too hot Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build 43

Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation.

6.2.2 MICROCONTROL

fig.6.3 Functional Block Diagram Features Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4 Kbytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory. Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-Level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM 44

32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes

Description The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4 Kbytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications. It requires 5v power supply.

PORTS: There are four ports in 89C51. They are as follows : Port 0 Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed loworder address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pullups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pullups are required during program verification.

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Port 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source.

Port 2 Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3 Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and Programming verification.

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Oscillator Characteristics: XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

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6.2.3 ADC Features : Easy interface to all microprocessors Operates ratiometrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference No zero or full-scale adjust required 8-channel multiplexer with address logic 0V to VCC input range Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949 ADC0809 equivalent to MM74C949-1 Description:

Fig 6.5.ADC 48

The ADC 0809 is an 8-bit A/D converter with 8-channel multiplexer. The ADC 0809 contains on chip 8 channel multiplexer. 8 analog inputs can be applied to ADC 0809. The analog on chip multiplexer selects one out of 8 inputs for conversion of analog to digital signal. Some important characteristics of ADC 0809 are listed below. 1. Resolution/digital output .......8bits 2. Clock frequency..10 KHz to 1280 KHz 3. Conversion time..100microsec at 640 KHz 4. Minimum start pulse width.100ns 5. Minimum ALE pulse width100ns 6. Error.+/- 1 LSB 7. Supply.5 VDC

The ADC used here is the SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC. 6.2.4 IC 555

Fig.6.6 Internal Block Diagram 49

 The NE555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or oscillation. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output structure can source or sink up to 200mA.

Fig.6.7 Astable mode operation Explanation:

When the circuit is connected as shown in figure above (pin 2 and 6 connected) it triggers itself and free runs as a multivibrator.

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 The external capacitor charges through R1 and R2 and discharges through R2 only. Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors. In the astable mode of operation, C1 charges and discharges between 1/3 Vcc and 2/3 Vcc. As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times and therefore frequency are independent of the supply voltage. The charge time (output HIGH) is given by : t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1

6.2.5 RELAY CIRCUIT

Fig.6.8 A relay is basically a Switch. There are three relays operative in this circuit .Based on the microcontroller output, the relay circuit switches control from one source to another. 51

 An LED is connected to each relay which glows whenever the particular source is currently activated. When the relay output is high, then NC (Normally closed) is enabled otherwise NO (Normally opened) is enabled. 6.2.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) LCD is the display element used in the circuit. The LCD used in our circuit is the 16CH1 LINE LCD. It receives input signals from the output of ADC as well as from the microcontroller circuit. It displays the status of the entire system. It includes the indication of the power source currently enabled. It indicates the voltage level received from all the sources so as to keep a timely check on the varying power levels.

6.3 PCB LAYOUT

Printed circuit board is a piece of art. The performance of an electronic circuit depends upon layout and design of PCB. Printed circuit boards are used to route electrical current through copper tracks, which are firmly bonded to an insulating base.

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Advantages of PCB over normal wiring as follows: 1. PCBs are necessary for interconnecting large number of electronic components in very small area with minimum wiring. 2. PCBs are suitable for mass production with less chances of wiring effects. 3. Small components can be easily mounted on PCB. 4. Servicing is simplified. 5. Construction is neat, compact and simple. 6. By using PCB the electronic equipment becomes reliable, small in size and less costly.

Types of Material used for preparing PCB: The base materials used for PCB are paper phonemic which is less costly and used in consumer electronics circuits. Paper phonemic is more resistant to moisture but difficult to machine and drill as compared to glass epoxy. Copper 53

foil for copper clad is manufactured by process of slowly prorating corrosion resistant metal cylinder. Its lower portion is immersed in a copper rich

electrolytic plating bath, a thin copper deposit gradually builds in form of metal foil. This metal foil then gently pealed off from the cylinder surface. Ferric Chloride is recommended for itching small numbers of boards. It is not used in high volume production because it cannot be regenerated and it attacks metal etch resists. General Consideration and Rules For Layout: PCB interconnects various electronics components by an interconnection pattern. The general considerations are: 1. Mechanical considerations: Size Shape, Mounting of PCBs etc. 2. User system considerations: i.e. whether for consumer or laboratory or industry etc. 3. Electrical and electronic parameters such as impedance, gain & electromagnetic coupling etc. 4. Ease of maintenance.

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ARTWORK: The prototype circuit is initially tested. Location of components is fixed. Artwork is the drawing, showing conductor pattern on PCB. After testing the prototype, a rough layout is prepared on a good millimeter grid graph paper 1:1 size. Artwork of the circuit 1:1 Or 2:1 size is prepared on a good quality graph paper using black waterproof ink. The artwork may also be prepared on transparent paper with sticking tapes and patterns.

The following points should be considered before preparing artwork: 1. Resistance of printed conductors. 2. Capacitance between conductors. 55

3. Spacing between conductors. 4. Width of signal, supply and ground lines should be proper. For photographic reduction process the artwork should provide maximum contrast between the portions to be etched away and those to be left. Thus the artwork should be generated on white sheet with black ink.

Preparation of single sided PCB:

In single sided PCB, the conductor tracks run only on one side of copper clad board. Thus crossing of conductor is not allowed. Steps in preparing single sided PCB: 1. Choice of base material. 2. Cleaning of copper clad laminate surface. 3. Application of photo resist material 4. Exposure. 5. Image development 6. Etching. 7. Mechanical fabrication and baking. 8. Drilling.

After the entire printed circuit board (PCB) is ready, then drilling must be done at the required points using hand drill or machine drill. After drilling is done, the components must be mounted on the component side of the PCB. The rules for component mounting must be followed. Then soldering is to be done on the layout side of PCB considering the various rules for soldering.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Automobile Engg.Volume_2 Kirpal Singh Automobile Engg. R.K. Rajput Text Book Automobile C.P.Nakra Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications Gaonkar Opto Electronics Handbook National Semiconductor Microprocessor data handbook PIC Micro controller databook 89 series micro controller N. G. Palan

WEBSITES/LINKS
www.microchip.com www.icmaster.com www.identecsolutions.com www.usingrfid.com www.instructables.com/id/solar-Battery-Charging www.solarbatterycharger.org/wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_charger www.batterystuff.com/solar-chargers/ www.anisolar.com www.solarbatterychargerreview.org/

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