KVL KCL NV

Lecture 1
Circuit Elements, Ohms Law,

Kirchhoffs Laws
Overview
What a circuit element is?
Electrical Quantities
Resistors and Ohms Law
Independent and dependent voltage
sources and current sources
KVL & KCL
Circuit Elements
In circuits, we think about basic circuit
elements that are the building blocks
of our circuits. This is similar to what
we do in Chemistry with chemical
elements like oxygen or nitrogen.
A circuit element cannot be broken down
or subdivided into other circuit
elements.
A circuit element can be defined in
terms of the behavior of the voltage and
current at its terminals.
We define an electric circuit as a
connection of electrical devices that
form one or more closed paths.
Basic Electrical Quantities
Basic Quantities: current, voltage and
power
Current: Time rate of change of electric charge
I = dq/dt
1 Amp = 1 Coulomb/sec
Voltage: electromotive force or potential, V 1
Volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb = 1 Nm/coulomb
Power: P = I V
1 Watt = 1 VoltAmp = 1 Joule/sec
Current I
Normally we talk about the movement of
positive charges although we know that, in
general, in metallic conductors current results
from electron motion (conventionally positive
flow)
The sign of the current indicates the
direction of flow
Types of current:
Direct Current (DC): batteries and some special
generators
Alternating Current (AC): household current which
varies with time
I(t)
Voltage V
Voltage is the difference in energy level
of a unit charge located at each of two
points in a circuit, and therefore,
represents the energy required to move
the unit charge from one point to the
other
Circuit Element(s)
+
V(t)
Default Sign Convention
Passive sign convention : current should
enter the positive voltage terminal
Consequence for P = I V
Positive (+) Power: element absorbs power
Negative (-) Power: element supplies power
Circuit Element
+
I
Electrical Analogies (Physical)

Electric Hydraulic
Base
quantity
Charge (q) Mass (m)
Flow
variable
Current (I) Fluid flow (G)
Potential
variable
Voltage (V) Pressure (p)

Active vs. Passive Elements
Active elements can generate energy
Voltage and current sources
Batteries
Passive elements cannot generate
energy
Resistors
Capacitors and Inductors (but CAN store
energy)
The Basic Circuit Elements
There are 5 basic circuit elements:
1. Voltage sources
2. Current sources
3. Resistors
4. Inductors
5. Capacitors
Voltage Sources
A voltage source is a two-terminal
circuit element that maintains a
voltage across its terminals.
The value of the voltage is the
defining characteristic of a voltage
source.
Any value of the current can go
through the voltage source, in any
direction. The current can also be
zero. The voltage source does not
care about current. It cares
only about voltage.
Voltage Sources Ideal and
Practical
A voltage source maintains a voltage across its
terminals no matter what you connect to those
terminals.
We often think of a battery as being a voltage
source. For many situations, this is fine. Other
times it is not a good model. A real battery will
have different voltages across its terminals in
some cases, such as when it is supplying a large
amount of current. As we have said, a voltage
source should not change its voltage as the
current changes.
We sometimes use the term ideal voltage source
for our circuit elements, and the term practical
voltage source for things like batteries. We will
find that a more accurate model for a battery is
an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor.
Voltage Sources
There are 2 types of voltage sources:
1. Independent voltage sources
2. Dependent voltage sources, of which
there are 2 forms:
i. Voltage-dependent voltage sources
ii. Current-dependent voltage sources
Voltage Sources Schematic Symbol for
Independent Sources
The schematic
symbol that we use
for independent
voltage sources is
shown here.
Independent
voltage
source
+
-
v
S
=
#[V]
This is intended to indicate that the schematic symbol can be
labeled either with a variable, like v
S
, or a value, with some
number, and units. An example might be 1.5[V]. It could also
be labeled with both.
Voltage Sources Schematic
Symbols for Dependent Voltage Sources
The schematic symbols
that we use for
dependent voltage
sources are shown
here, of which there
are 2 forms:
i. Voltage-dependent
voltage sources
ii. Current-dependent
voltage sources
Voltage-
dependent
voltage
source
+
v
S
=
v
X
-
Current-
dependent
voltage
source
+
v
S
=
i
X
-
Voltage-
dependent
voltage
source
+
v
S
=
v
X
-
Notes on Schematic
Symbols for Dependent Voltage Sources
The schematic symbols that we use for
dependent voltage sources are
shown here, of which there are 2
forms:
i. Voltage-dependent voltage
sources
ii. Current-dependent voltage
sources
The symbol is the coefficient of the
voltage v
X
. It is dimensionless. For
example, it might be 4.3 v
X
. The v
X
is a
voltage somewhere in the circuit.
Current-
dependent
voltage
source
+
v
S
=
i
X
-
The symbol is the coefficient of the current i
X
.
It has dimensions of [voltage/current]. For
example, it might be 4.3[V/A] i
X
. The i
X
is a
current somewhere in the circuit.
Current Sources
A current source is a two-terminal circuit
element that maintains a current through its
terminals.
The value of the current is the defining
characteristic of the current source.
Any voltage can be across the current
source, in either polarity. It can also be
zero. The current source does not care
about voltage. It cares only about
current.
Current Sources - Ideal
A current source maintains a current through its
terminals no matter what you connect to those
terminals.
While there will be devices that reasonably model
current sources, these devices are not as familiar
as batteries.
We sometimes use the term ideal current source
for our circuit elements, and the term practical
current source for actual devices. We will find
that a good model for these devices is an ideal
current source in parallel with a resistor.
Current Sources
There are 2 types of current sources:
1. Independent current sources
2. Dependent current sources, of which there
are 2 forms:
i. Voltage-dependent current sources
ii. Current-dependent current sources
Independent
current
source
i
S
=
#[A]
Current Sources Schematic Symbol for
Independent Sources
that we use for
current sources are
shown here.
This is intended to indicate that the schematic symbol can be labeled either
with a variable, like i
S
, or a value, with some number, and units. An example
might be 0.2[A]. It could also be labeled with both.
Current Sources Schematic
Symbols for Dependent Current Sources
that we use for
dependent current
sources are shown
here, of which there
are 2 forms:
i. Voltage-dependent
current sources
ii. Current-dependent
current sources
Voltage-
dependent
current
source
i
S
=
gv
X
Current-
dependent
current
source
i
S
=
i
X
Current-
dependent
current
source
i
S
=
i
X
Voltage-
dependent
current
source
i
S
=
gv
X
Notes on Schematic
Symbols for Dependent Current Sources
The schematic symbols that we use
for dependent current sources
are shown here, of which there
are 2 forms:
i. Voltage-dependent current
sources
ii. Current-dependent current
sources
The symbol g is the coefficient of
the voltage v
X
. It has dimensions
of [current/voltage]. For example,
it might be 16[A/V] v
X
. The v
X
is a
voltage somewhere in the circuit.
The symbol | is the coefficient of the
current i
X
. It is dimensionless. For
example, it might be 53.7 i
X
. The i
X
is a
current somewhere in the circuit.
Voltage and Current Polarities
Previously, we have emphasized the
important of reference polarities of
currents and voltages.
Notice that the schematic symbols for
the voltage sources and current sources
indicate these polarities.
The voltage sources have a + and a to
show the voltage reference polarity. The
current sources have an arrow to show the
current reference polarity.
Why do we have
these dependent sources?
Students who are new to circuits often question
why dependent sources are included. Some
students find these to be confusing, and they do
add to the complexity of our solution techniques.
However, there is no way around them. We need
dependent sources to be able to model amplifiers,
and amplifier-like devices. Amplifiers are crucial
in electronics. Therefore, we simply need to
understand and be able to work with dependent
sources.
Resistors
A resistor is a two terminal
circuit element that has a
constant ratio of the voltage
across its terminals to the
current through its terminals.
The value of the ratio of voltage
to current is the defining
characteristic of the resistor.
Real-world devices that are
modeled by resistors:
incandescent light bulbs, heating
elements (stoves, heaters, etc.),
long wires
In many cases a light bulb
can be modeled with a
resistor.
Resistors Definition and Units
A resistor obeys the expression
where R is the resistance.
If something obeys this
expression, we can think of it,
and model it, as a resistor.
This expression is called Ohms
Law. The unit ([Ohm] or [W]) is
named for Ohm, and is equal to a
[Volt/Ampere].
IMPORTANT: use Ohms Law
only on resistors. It does not
hold for sources.
To a first-order approximation,
the body can modeled as a
resistor. Our goal will be to
avoid applying large voltages
across our bodies, because it
results in large currents
through our body. This is not
good.
R
R
v
R
i
=
+
R
v
i
R
-
R
X
=
#[O]
v
X
i
X
- +
Schematic Symbol for Resistors
The schematic symbols that we use for
resistors are shown here.
This is intended to indicate that the schematic symbol
can be labeled either with a variable, like R
X
, or a
value, with some number, and units. An example
might be 390[O]. It could also be labeled with both.
X
X
X
v
R
i
=
Ohms Law
The Rest of
the Circuit
R
i(t)
+
v(t)
Open Circuit
What if R = ?
i(t) = v(t)/R = 0
v(t)
The
Rest of
the
Circuit
i(t)=0
+
i(t)=0
Short Circuit
What if R = 0 ?
v(t) = R i(t) = 0
The
Rest of
the
Circuit
v(t)=0
i(t)
+
Series
Two elements are in series if the current
that flows through one must also flow
through the other.
R
1
R
2
Series
R
1
R
2
Not Series
Parallel
Two elements are in parallel if they are
connected between (share) the same two
(distinct) end nodes.
Parallel Not Parallel
R
1
R
2
R
1
R
2
Resistor Polarities
Previously, we have emphasized the important of
reference polarities of current sources and
voltages sources. There is no corresponding
polarity to a resistor. You can flip it end-
for-end, and it will behave the same way.
However, even in a resistor, direction matters in
one sense; we need to have defined the
voltage and current in the passive sign
convention to use the Ohms Law equation
the way we have it listed here.
Getting the Sign Right with Ohms Law
If the reference current is in the
direction of the reference voltage
drop (Passive Sign Convention),
then
R
X
=
#[O]
v
X
i
X
- +
X
X
X
v
R
i
=
If the reference current is in the
direction of the reference voltage
rise (Active Sign Convention),
then
R
X
=
#[O]
v
X
i
X
- +
X
X
X
v
R
i
=
Why do we have to worry
about the sign in Ohms Law?
It is reasonable to ask why the sign in Ohms Law
matters. We may be used to thinking that resistance
is always positive.
Unfortunately, this is not true. The resistors we use,
particularly the electronic components we call
resistors, will always have positive resistances.
However, we will have cases where a device will have a
constant ratio of voltage to current, but the value of
the ratio is negative when the passive sign convention
is used. These devices have negative resistance.
They provide positive power.
This can be done using
dependent sources.
Why do we have to worry
about the sign in Everything?
This is one of the central themes in circuit analysis.
The polarity, and the sign that goes with that
polarity, matters. The key is to find a way to get
the sign correct every time.
This is why we need to define reference polarities
for every voltage and current.
This is why we need to take care about what
relationship we have used to assign reference
polarities (passive sign convention and active sign
convention).
In this part of the module, we will
cover the following topics:
Some Basic Assumptions
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
Some Fundamental Assumptions
Wires
Although you may not have stated it,
or thought about it, when you have
drawn circuit schematics, you have
connected components or devices
with wires, and shown this with lines.
Wires can be modeled pretty well as
resistors. However, their resistance
is usually negligibly small.
We will think of wires as connections
with zero resistance. Note that this
is equivalent to having a zero-valued
voltage source.
This picture shows wires
used to connect electrical
components. This particular
way of connecting
components is called
wirewrapping, since the
ends of the wires are
wrapped around posts.
Nodes
A node is defined as a place
where two or more
components are connected.
The key thing to remember
is that we connect
components with wires. It
doesnt matter how many
wires are being used; it only
matters how many
components are connected
together.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
Basic Laws of Electric Circuits
Nodes, Branches, and Loops:
A node: A node can be defined as a connection point between
two or more branches.
A branch: A branch is a single electrical element or device.
A circuit with 5 branches.
-
-
-
A circuit with 3 nodes.

2
If we start at any point in a circuit (node), proceed through
connected electric devices back to the point (node) from
which we started, without crossing a node more than one time,
we form a closed-path.
A loop is a closed-path.
An independent loop is one that contains at least
one element not contained in another loop.
The relationship between nodes, branches and loops
can be expressed as follows:
#branches = #loops + #nodes - 1
or
B =L + N - 1
In using the above equation, the number of loops are
restricted to be those that are independent.
How Many Nodes?
To test our
understanding of
nodes, lets look at
the example circuit
schematic given
here.
How many nodes are
there in this
circuit?
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
How Many Nodes Correct Answer
In this schematic,
there are three
nodes. These nodes
are shown in dark blue
here.
Some students count
more than three
nodes in a circuit like
this. When they do, it
is usually because
they have considered
two points connected
by a wire to be two
nodes.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
How Many Nodes Wrong Answer
In the example circuit
schematic given here,
the two red nodes are
really the same node.
There are not four
nodes.
Remember, two nodes
connected by a wire
were really only one
node in the first place.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
Wire connecting two nodes
means that these are really a
single node.
Closed Loops
A closed loop can be
defined in this way: Start
at any node and go in any
direction and end up where
you start. This is a closed
loop.
Note that this loop does
not have to follow
components. It can jump
across open space. Most
of the time we will follow
components, but we will
also have situations where
we need to jump between
nodes that have no
connections.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
How Many Closed Loops
To test our
understanding of
closed loops, lets
look at the
example circuit
schematic given
here.
How many closed
loops are there
in this circuit?
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
How Many Closed Loops
An Answer
There are several closed
loops that are possible
here. We will show a few
of them, and allow you to
find the others.
The total number of
simple closed loops in this
circuit is 13.
Finding the number will not
turn out to be important.
What is important is to
recognize closed loops
when you see them.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
Closed Loops Loop #1
Here is a loop we
will call Loop #1.
The path is
shown in red.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
Here is Loop #2.
The path is shown in
red.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
Here is Loop #3.
red.
Note that this path
is a closed loop that
jumps across the
voltage labeled v
X
.
This is still a closed
loop.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
Here is Loop #4. The
path is shown in red.
Note that this path is
a closed loop that
jumps across the
voltage labeled v
X
.
This is still a closed
loop. The loop also
crossed the current
source. Remember
that a current source
can have a voltage
across it.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
A Not-Closed Loop
red here is not
closed.
Note that this path
does not end where
it started.
With these definitions, we are
prepared to state Kirchhoffs
Current Law:
The algebraic (or
signed) summation of
currents through a
closed surface must
equal zero.
Kirchhoffs Current Law
(KCL) Some notes.
The algebraic (or signed)
summation of currents
through any closed surface
must equal zero.
This definition is often stated as applying to nodes. It applies to any closed
surface. For any closed surface, the charge that enters must leave
somewhere else. A node is just a small closed surface. A node is the
closed surface that we use most often. But, we can use any closed
surface, and sometimes it is really necessary to use closed surfaces that
are not nodes.
This definition essentially means that charge does not build up at a
connection point, and that charge is conserved.
KCL (Kirchhoffs Current Law)
The sum of currents entering the node is zero:
Analogy: mass flow at pipe junction
i
1
(t)
i
2
(t) i
4
(t)
i
5
(t)
i
3
(t)
=
=
n
j
j
t i
1
0 ) (
Current Polarities
Again, the issue of the
sign, or polarity, or direction,
of the current arises. When
we write a Kirchhoff Current
Law equation, we attach a
sign to each reference
current polarity, depending
on whether the reference
current is entering or leaving
the closed surface. This can
be done in different ways.
a Systematic Approach
The algebraic (or signed) summation of
currents through any closed surface must
equal zero.
For this set of material, we will always assign a positive sign to a
term that refers to a reference current that leaves a closed
surface, and a negative sign to a term that refers to a reference
current that enters a closed surface.
For most students, it is a good idea to choose one way to write
KCL equations, and just do it that way every time. The idea is
this: If you always do it the same way, you are less likely to get
confused about which way you were doing it in a certain equation.
For this set of material, we
will always assign a positive
sign to a term that refers to
a current that leaves a
closed surface, and a
negative sign to a term that
refers to a current that
enters a closed surface.
In this example, we have
already assigned reference
polarities for all of the
currents for the nodes
indicated in darker blue.
For this circuit, and using my
rule, we have the following
equation:
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
i
A
i
B
i
C
i
E
i
D
0
A C D E B
i i i i i + + =
Example Done Another Way
Some prefer to write this
same equation in a different
way; they say that the
current entering the closed
surface must equal the
current leaving the closed
surface. Thus, they write :
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
i
A
i
B
i
C
i
E
i
D
0
A C D E B
i i i i i + + =
A D B C E
i i i i i + + = +
Compare this to the
equation that we wrote in
the last slide:
These are the same
equation. Use either
method.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
Now, we are prepared to state Kirchhoffs
Voltage Law:
summation of voltages around
a closed loop must equal zero.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
(KVL) Some notes.
summation of voltages around a
closed loop must equal zero.
This applies to all closed loops. While we usually write equations for
closed loops that follow components, we do not need to. The only
thing that we need to do is end up where we started.
This definition essentially means that energy is conserved. If we
move around, wherever we move, if we end up in the place we
started, we cannot have changed the potential at that point.
Voltage Polarities
Again, the issue of the
sign, or polarity, or direction, of
the voltage arises. When we
write a Kirchhoff Voltage Law
equation, we attach a sign to
each reference voltage polarity,
depending on whether the
reference voltage is a rise or a
drop. This can be done in
different ways.
(KVL) a Systematic Approach
The algebraic (or signed) summation of voltages
around a closed loop must equal zero.
For this set of material, we will always go around loops clockwise. We will
assign a positive sign to a term that refers to a reference voltage drop,
and a negative sign to a term that refers to a reference voltage rise.
For most students, it is a good idea to choose one way to write KVL
equations, and just do it that way every time. The idea is this: If you
always do it the same way, you are less likely to get confused about
which way you were doing it in a certain equation.
(At least we will do this for planar circuits. For nonplanar circuits,
clockwise does not mean anything. If this is confusing, ignore it for now.)
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
v
F
+
-
v
E
-
+
(KVL) an Example
For this set of material, we will
always go around loops clockwise.
We will assign a positive sign to a
term that refers to a voltage drop,
and a negative sign to a term that
refers to a voltage rise.
In this example, we have already
assigned reference polarities for
all of the voltages for the loop
indicated in red.
For this circuit, and using our rule,
starting at the bottom, we have
the following equation:
0
A X E F
v v v v + + =
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
v
F
+
-
v
E
-
+
(KVL) Notes
For this set of material, we will
always go around loops
clockwise. We will assign a
positive sign to a term that refers
to a voltage drop, and a negative
sign to a term that refers to a
voltage rise.
Some students like to use the
following handy mnemonic
device: Use the sign of the
voltage that is on the side of the
voltage that you enter. This
amounts to the same thing.
0
A X E F
v v v v + + =
As we go up through the
voltage source, we enter the
negative sign first. Thus, v
A
has a negative sign in the
equation.
+
-
v
A
R
C
R
D
i
B
R
F
R
E
v
X
+
-
v
F
+
-
v
E
-
+
(KVL) Example Done Another Way
Some textbooks, and some
students, prefer to write this same
equation in a different way; they
say that the voltage drops must
equal the voltage rises. Thus, they
write the following equation:
0
A X E F
v v v v + + =
X F A E
v v v v + = +
Compare this to the equation that
we wrote in the last slide:
These are the same equation.
Use either method.
How many of these equations
do I need to write?
This is a very important question. In general, it boils down to the
old rule that you need the same number of equations as you have
unknowns.
Speaking more carefully, we would say that to have a single
solution, we need to have the same number of independent
equationsas we have variables.
At this point, we are not going to introduce you to the way to
know how many equations you will need,
or which ones to write. It is assumed that
you will be able to judge whether you have
what you need because the circuits will be
fairly simple. Later we will develop
methods to answer this question specifically and efficiently.
How many more laws
are we going to learn?
This is another very important question. Until, we get to
inductors and capacitors, the answer is, none.
Speaking more carefully, we would say that most of the
rules that follow until we introduce the other basic
elements, can be derived from these laws.
At this point, you have the tools to solve many, many
circuits problems. Specifically, you have Ohms Law, and
Kirchhoffs Laws. However, we need to be able to use these
laws efficiently and accurately.
Example #1
Lets do an example
to test out our new
found skills.
In the circuit shown
here, find the
voltage v
X
and the
current i
X
.
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
Example #1 Step 1
The first step in
solving is to define
variables we need.
In the circuit shown
here, we will define
v
4
and i
3
.
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
v
4
+ -
i
3
Example #1 Step 2
The second step in
solving is to write some
equations. Lets start
with KVL.
1 4
4
0, or
3[V] 0.
S X
X
v v v
v v
+ + =
+ + =
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
v
4
+ -
i
3
Example #1 Step 3
Now lets write Ohms
Law for the resistors.
4 4
3 3
, and
.
X
X
v i R
v i R
=
=
Notice that there is a sign in Ohms
Law.
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
v
4
+ -
i
3
Example #1 Step 4
Next, lets write KCL for
the node marked in
violet.
3
3
0, or
.
X
X
i i
i i
+ =
=
Notice that we can write KCL for a node,
or any other closed surface.
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
v
4
+ -
i
3
Example #1 Step 5
We are ready to solve.
We have substituted into our KVL
equation from other equations.
3[V] 20[ ] 100[ ] 0, or
3[V]
25[mA].
120[ ]
X X
X
i i
i
O O =
= =
O
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
v
4
+ -
i
3
Example #1 Step 6
Next, for the other
requested solution.
We have substituted into Ohms Law,
using our solution for i
X
.
( )
3 3 3
, or
25[mA] 100[ ] 2.5[V].
X X
X
v i R i R
v
= =
= O =
R
4
=
20[O]
R
3
=
100[O]
v
S1
=
3[V]
+
-
v
X
+
-
i
X
v
4
+ -
i
3
Example #2
Lets do
another
example. Find
the voltage v
X
,
the currents i
X
and i
Q
, and the
power
absorbed by
each of the
dependent
sources.
Example #3 Problem 2.28
Problem 2.28 is on page 61 of the text. The
dependent source coefficient has units of [A/V].
Example #4 Problem 2.20
Problem 2.20 is on page 59 of the text.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law:
Basic Laws of Circuits
Consideration 1: Sum of the voltage drops around a circuit
equal zero. We first define a drop.
We assume a circuit of the following configuration. Notice that
no current has been assumed for this case, at this point.
+
+
+
+
_
_
_
_
v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
Figure 1
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Consideration 1.
We define a voltage drop as positive if we enter the positive terminal
and leave the negative terminal.
+
_ v
1
The drop moving from left to right above is + v
1
.
+
_
v
1
The drop moving from left to right above is v
1
.
Figure 2
Figure 3
8/11/2012
+
+
+
+
_
_
_
_
v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
Figure 4
Consider the circuit of Figure 4 once
again. If we sum the voltage drops in the clockwise direction around the
circuit starting at point a we write:
- v
1
v
2
+v
4
+v
3
=0
- v
3
v
4
+v
2
+v
1
=0
drops in CW direction starting at a
drops in CCW direction starting at a

8/11/2012
Consideration 2: Sum of the voltage rises around a circuit
equal zero. We first define a drop.
We define a voltage rise in the following diagrams:
+
_ v
1
Figure 5
+
_ v
1
Figure 6
The voltage rise in moving from left to right above is + v
1
.
The voltage rise in moving from left to right above is - v
1
.
8/11/2012
Consider the circuit of Figure 7 once
again. If we sum the voltage rises in the clockwise direction around the
circuit starting at point a we write:
+
+
+
+
_ _
_
v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
Figure 7
a
+v
1
+v
2
- v
4
v
3
=0
+v
3
+v
4
v
2
v
1
=0
rises in the CW direction starting at a
rises in the CCW direction starting at a

_
8/11/2012
Consideration 3: Sum of the voltage rises around a circuit
equal the sum of the voltage drops.
Again consider the circuit of Figure 1 in which we start at
point a and move in the CW direction. As we cross elements
1 & 2 we use voltage rise: as we cross elements 4 & 3 we use
voltage drops. This gives the equation,
+
+
+
+
_
_
_
_
v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
v
1
+v
2
=v
4
+v
3
1
2
3
4
p
7
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Comments.
We note that a positive voltage drop = a negative voltage rise.
We note that a positive voltage rise = a negative voltage drop.
We do not need to dwell on the above tongue twisting statements.
There are similarities in the way we state Kirchhoffs voltage
and Kirchhoffs current laws: algebraic sums
However, one would never say that the sum of the voltages
entering a junction point in a circuit equal to zero.
Likewise, one would never say that the sum of the currents
around a closed path in an electric circuit equal zero.
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Further details.
For the circuit of Figure 8 there are a number of closed paths.
Three have been selected for discussion.
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
v
12
v
11
v
9
v
8
v
6
v
5
v
7
v
10
+
-
Figure 8
Multi-path
Circuit.
Path 1
Path 2
Path 3
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Further details.
For any given circuit, there are a fixed number of closed paths
that can be taken in writing Kirchhoffs voltage law and still
have linearly independent equations. We discuss this more, later.
Both the starting point and the direction in which we go around a
closed path in a circuit to write Kirchhoffs voltage law are
arbitrary. However,one must end the path at the same point from
which one started.
Conventionally, in most text, the sum of the voltage drops
equal to zero is normally used in applying Kirchhoffs
voltage law.
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Illustration from Figure 8.
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
v
1
v
2
v
4
v
3
v
12
v
11
v
9
v
8
v
6
v
5
v
7
v
10
+
-
a
Blue path, starting at a

- v
7
+v
10
v
9
+v
8
=0
b
Red path, starting at b
+v
2
v
5
v
6
v
8
+v
9
v
11
v
12
+v
1
=0
Yellow path, starting at b
+v
2
v
5
v
6
v
7
+v
10
v
11
- v
12
+v
1
=0
Using sum of the drops =0
11
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Double subscript notation.
Voltages in circuits are often described using double subscript notation.

a b
Consider the following:
Figure 9: Illustrating double subscript notation.
V
ab
means the potential of point a with respect to point b with
point a assumed to be at the highest (+) potential and point b
at the lower (-) potential.
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Double subscript notation.
Task: Write Kirchhoffs voltage law going in the clockwise
direction for the diagram in Figure 10.

b a
x y
Going in the clockwise direction, starting at b, using rises;
v
ab
+ v
xa
+v
yx
+v
by
=0
Figure 10: Circuit for illustrating double subscript notation.
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Equivalences in voltage notations
The following are equivalent in denoting polarity.
+
-
v
1
v
1
a
b
+ -
v
2
=
=
v
2
= - 9 volts means the right hand side
of the element is actually positive.
v
ab
=v
1
Assumes the upper terminal is positive in all 3 cases
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Application.
Given the circuit of Figure 11. Find V
ad
and
V
fc
.
5 V
8 V
15 V
12 V
20 V 10 V
30 V
a b c
d
e
f
+
_
+
+
_
_
+
+
+
+
_
_
_
_
Using drops =0;

V
ad
+30 15 5 =0
V
ab
=- 10 V
V
fc
12 +30 15 =0
V
fc
=- 3 V
Figure 11: Circuit for illustrating KVL.
15
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Single-loop circuits.
We are now in a position to combine Kirchhoffs voltage and current
Laws to the solution of single loop circuits. We start by developing the
Voltage Divider Rule. Consider the circuit of Figure 12.
R
2
R
1
v
2
v
1
+
+
+
_
_
_
v
i
1
v =v
1
+v
2
v
1
=i
1
R
1
, v
2
=i
1
R
2
Figure 12: Circuit for developing
voltage divider rule.
then,
v =i
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
, and i
1
=
v
(R
1
+R
2
)
so,
v
1
=
vR
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
* You will be surprised by how much you use this in circuits.
*
16
8/11/2012
Find V
1
in the circuit shown in Figure 13.
V
R
3
R
2
R
1
V
1
I
+
_
1 2 3
1 1
( )
, ,
V
I
R R R
V IR so wehave
=
+ +
=
1
1
1 2 3
( )
VR
V
R R R
=
+ +
Figure 3.13
17
8/11/2012
V
R
3
R
2
R
1
I
+
_
Example 1: For the circuit of Figure 14, the following is known:
R
1
=4 ohms, R
2
=11 ohms, V =50 volts, P
1
=16 watts
Find R
3.
Figure 14: Circuit for example 1.
Solution:
P
1
=16 watts =I
2
R
1
I = 2 amps
V =I(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
), giving,
R
1
+R
2
+R
3
=25, then solve for R
3
,
R
3
=25 15 =10 ohms
, thus,
18
8/11/2012
Example 2: For the circuit in Figure 15 find I, V
1
, V
2
, V
3
, V
4
and the
power supplied by the 10 volt source.
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
_ _
_
_
_
_
_
V
1
V
4
V
3 V
2
30 V 10 V
15 40
5
20
20 V
I
"a"
Figure 15: Circuit for example 2.

For convenience, we start at point a and sum voltage drops =0 in the
direction of the current I.
+10 V
1
30 V
3
+V
4
20 +V
2
=0 Eq. 3.1
19
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Single-loop circuits. Ex.2 cont.
We note that: V
1
=- 20I, V
2
=40I, V
3
=- 15I, V
4
=5I Eq. 3.2
We substitute the above into Eq. 3.1 to obtain Eq. 3.3 below.
10 +20I 30 +15I +5I 20 +40I =0 Eq. 3.3
Solving this equation gives, I =0.5 A.
Using this value of I in Eq. 3.2 gives;
V
1
=- 10 V
V
2
=20 V
V
3
=- 7.5 V
V
4
=2.5 V
P
10(supplied)
=-10I =- 5 W
(We use the minus sign in 10I because the current is entering the +terminal)
In this case, power is being absorbed by the 10 volt supply.
20
8/11/2012
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law: Single-loop circuits, Equivalent Resistance.
+ +
+
+
_
_
+
_ _
_
+
+
_
_
V
1
V
4
V
3 V
2
V
S1
V
S3
R
2
R
4
R
3
R
1
V
S2
I
"a"
Given the circuit of Figure 3.16. We desire to develop an equivalent circuit

as shown in Figure 17. Find V
s
and R
eq
.
Figure 16: Initial circuit for
development.
V
S
R
eq
+
_
I
Figure 17: Equivalent circuit
for Figure 16
21
8/11/2012
+ +
+
+
_
_
+
_ _
_
+
+
_
_
V
1
V
4
V
3 V
2
V
S1
V
S3
R
2
R
4
R
3
R
1
V
S2
I
"a"
Figure 16: Initial circuit.

Starting at point a, apply KVL going clockwise, using drops =0, we have
V
S1
+V
1
V
S3
+V
2
+V
S2
+V
4
+V
3
=0
or
- V
S1
- V
S2
+V
S3
= I(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
) Eq. 3.4
22
8/11/2012
Consider again, the circuit of Figure 17.
V
S
R
eq
+
_ I
Figure 17: Equivalent circuit
of Figure 16.
Writing KVL for this circuit gives;
V
S
=IR
eq
compared to
- V
S1
- V
S2
+V
S3
= I(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
)
Therefore;
V
S =
- V
S1
- V
S2
+V
S3
;
R
eq
= R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
Eq. 3.5
23
8/11/2012
We make the following important observations from Eq. 3.5:
The equivalent source of a single loop circuit can be

obtained by summing the rises around the loop of
the individual sources.
The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is equal

to the sum of the individual resistors.
24
8/11/2012
Example 3: Find the current I in the circuit of Figure 18.
+ +
_
_ _
+
10 V 40 V
15 10
5
20
20 V
I
Figure 18: Circuit for
example 3.
From the previous discussion we have the following circuit.
50 V 50
+
_
I
Therefore, I =1 A
25
8/11/2012

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KVL KCL NV

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Lecture 1

Circuit Elements, Ohms Law,

drops in CW direction starting at a

drops in CCW direction starting at a

rises in the CW direction starting at a

rises in the CCW direction starting at a

Blue path, starting at a

Using drops =0;

Figure 15: Circuit for example 2.

Given the circuit of Figure 3.16. We desire to develop an equivalent circuit

Figure 16: Initial circuit.

The equivalent source of a single loop circuit can be

The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is equal

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