Grigsby, L.L., Hanson, A.P., Schlueter, R.A., Alemadi, N. Power Systems The Electrical Engineering Handbook Ed.

Richard C. Dorf Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

63
Power Systems
63.1 Power System Analysis
Introduction Types of Power System Analyses The Power Flow Problem Formulation of the Bus Admittance Matrix Example Formulation of the Power Flow Equations P-V Buses Bus Classications Generalized Power Flow Development Solution Methods Component Power Flows

L.L. Grigsby and A.P. Hanson

Auburn University

R.A. Schlueter and N. Alemadi

Michigan State University

63.2

Voltage Instability
Voltage Stability Overview Voltage Stability Models and Simulation Tools Kinds, Classes, and Agents of Voltage Instability Proximity to Voltage Instability Future Research

63.1 Power System Analysis

Introduction
The equivalent circuit parameters of many power system components are described in Chapters 61, 64, and 66. The interconnection of the different elements allows development of an overall power system model. The system model provides the basis for computational simulation of the system performance under a wide variety of projected operating conditions. Additionally, post mortem studies, performed after system disturbances or equipment failures, often provide valuable insight into contributing system conditions. The different types of power system analyses are discussed below; the type of analysis performed depends on the conditions to be assessed.

Types of Power System Analyses

Power Flow Analysis Power systems typically operate under slowly changing conditions which can be analyzed using steady state analysis. Further, transmission systems operate under balanced or near balanced conditions allowing per phase analysis to be used with a high degree of condence in the solution. Power ow analysis provides the starting point for many other analyses. For example, the small signal and transient stability effects of a given disturbance are dramatically affected by the pre-disturbance operating conditions of the power system. (A disturbance resulting in instability under heavily loaded system conditions may not have any adverse effects under lightly loaded conditions.) Additionally, fault analysis and transient analysis can also be impacted by the pre-disturbance operating point of a power system (although, they are usually affected much less than transient stability and small signal stability analysis). Fault Analysis Fault analysis refers to power system analysis under severely unbalanced conditions. (Such conditions include downed or open conductors.) Fault analysis assesses the system behavior under the high current and/or severely

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unbalanced conditions typical during faults. The results of fault analyses are used to size and apply system protective devices (breakers, relays, etc.) Fault analysis is discussed in more detail in Section 61.5. Transient Stability Analysis Transient stability analysis, unlike the analyses previously discussed, assesses the systems performance over a period of time. The system model for transient stability analysis typically includes not only the transmission network parameters, but also the dynamics data for the generators. Transient stability analysis is most often used to determine if individual generating units will maintain synchronism with the power system following a disturbance (typically a fault). Extended Stability Analysis Extended stability analysis deals with system stability beyond the generating units rst swing. In addition to the generator data required for transient stability analysis, extended stability analysis requires excitation system, speed governor, and prime mover dynamic data. Often, extended stability analysis will also include dynamics data for control devices such as tap changing transformers, switched capacitors, and relays. The addition of these elements to the system model complicates the analysis, but provides comprehensive simulation of nearly all major system components and controls. Extended stability analyses complement small signal stability analyses by verifying the existence of persistent oscillations and establishing the magnitudes of power and/or voltage oscillations. Small Signal Stability Analysis Small signal stability assesses the stability of the power system when subjected to small perturbations. Small signal stability uses a linearized model of the power system which includes generator, prime mover, and control device dynamics data. The system of nonlinear equations describing the system are linearized about a specic operating point and eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the linearized system found. The imaginary part of each eigenvalue indicates the frequency of the oscillations associated with the eigenvalue; the real part indicates damping of the oscillation. Usually, small signal stability analysis attempts to nd disturbances and/or system conditions that can lead to sustained oscillations (indicated by small damping factors) in the power system. Small signal stability analysis does not provide oscillation magnitude information because the eigenvalues only indicate oscillation frequency and damping. Additionally, the controllability matrices (based on the linearized system) and the eigenvectors can be used to identify candidate generating units for application of new or improved controls (i.e., power system stabilizers and new or improved excitation systems). Transient Analysis Transient analysis involves the analysis of the system (or at least several components of the system) when subjected to fast transients (i.e., lightning and switching transients). Transient analysis requires detailed component information which is often not readily available. Typically only system components in the immediate vicinity of the area of interest are modeled in transient analyses. Specialized software packages (most notably EMTP) are used to perform transient analyses. Operational Analyses Several additional analyses used in the day-to-day operation of power systems are based on the results of the analyses described above. Economic dispatch analyses determine the most economic real power output for each generating unit based on cost of generation for each unit and the system losses. Security or contingency analyses assess the systems ability to withstand the sudden loss of one or more major elements without overloading the remaining system. State estimation determines the best estimate of the real-time system state based on a redundant set of system measurements.

The Power Flow Problem

Power ow analysis is fundamental to the study of power systems. In fact, power ow forms the core of power system analysis. A power ow study is valuable for many reasons. For example, power ow analyses play a key role in the planning of additions or expansions to transmission and generation facilities. A power ow solution

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FIGURE 63.1 The one line diagram of a power system.

is often the starting point for many other types of power system analyses. In addition, power ow analysis and many of its extensions are an essential ingredient of the studies performed in power system operations. In this latter case, it is at the heart of contingency analysis and the implementation of real-time monitoring systems. The power ow problem (popularly known as the load ow problem) can be stated as follows: For a given power network, with known complex power loads and some set of specications or restrictions on power generations and voltages, solve for any unknown bus voltages and unspecied generation and nally for the complex power ow in the network components. Additionally, the losses in individual components and the total network as a whole are usually calculated. Furthermore, the system is often checked for component overloads and voltages outside allowable tolerances. Balanced operation is assumed for most power ow studies and will be assumed in this chapter. Consequently, the positive sequence network is used for the analysis. In the solution of the power ow problem, the network element values are almost always taken to be in per unit. Likewise, the calculations within the power ow analysis are typically in per unit. However, the solution is usually expressed in a mixed format. Solution voltages are usually expressed in per unit; powers are most often given in kVA or MVA. The given network may be in the form of a system map and accompanying data tables for the network components. More often, however, the network structure is given in the form of a one-line diagram (such as shown in Fig. 63.1). Regardless of the form of the given network and how the network data are given, the steps to be followed in a power ow study can be summarized as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine element values for passive network components. Determine locations and values of all complex power loads. Determine generation specications and constraints. Develop a mathematical model describing power ow in the network. Solve for the voltage prole of the network.

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FIGURE 63.2 Off nominal turns ratio transformer.

6. Solve for the power ows and losses in the network. 7. Check for constraint violations.

Formulation of the Bus Admittance Matrix

The rst step in developing the mathematical model describing the power ow in the network is the formulation of the bus admittance matrix. The bus admittance matrix is an nn matrix (where n is the number of buses in the system) constructed from the admittances of the equivalent circuit elements of the segments making up the power system. Most system segments are represented by a combination of shunt elements (connected between a bus and the reference node) and series elements (connected between two system buses). Formulation of the bus admittance matrix follows two simple rules: 1. The admittance of elements connected between node k and reference is added to the (k, k) entry of the admittance matrix. 2. The admittance of elements connected between nodes j and k is added to the ( j, j) and (k, k) entries of the admittance matrix. The negative of the admittance is added to the ( j, k) and (k, j) entries of the admittance matrix. Off nominal transformers (transformers with transformation ratios different from the system voltage bases at the terminals) present some special difculties. Figure 63.2 shows a representation of an off nominal turns ratio transformer. The admittance matrix mathematical model of an isolated off nominal transformer is:

Ye Ij = I k -c *Ye
where

cYe V j 2 c Ye V k

(63.1)

Ye is the equivalent series admittance (referred to node j) c is the complex (off nominal) turns ratio Ij is the current injected at node j Vj is the voltage at node j (with respect to reference) Off nominal transformers are added to the bus admittance matrix by adding the corresponding entry of the isolated off nominal transformer admittance matrix to the system bus admittance matrix.

Example Formulation of the Power Flow Equations

Considerable insight into the power ow problem and its properties and characteristics can be obtained by consideration of a simple example before proceeding to a general formulation of the problem. This simple case will also serve to establish some notation.

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FIGURE 63.3 Conceptual one-line diagram of a four-bus power system.

A conceptual representation of a one-line diagram for a four-bus power system is shown in Fig. 63.3. For generality, a generator and a load are shown connected to each bus. The following notation applies:

SG1 = Complex complex power ow into bus 1 from the generator SD1 = Complex complex power ow into the load from bus 1
Comparable quantities for the complex power generations and loads are obvious for each of the three other buses. The positive sequence network for the power system represented by the one-line diagram of Fig. 63.3 is shown in Fig. 63.4. The boxes symbolize the combination of generation and load. Network texts refer to this network as a ve-node network. (The balanced nature of the system allows analysis using only the positive sequence network; reducing each three-phase bus to a single node. The reference or ground represents the fth node.) However, in power systems literature it is usually referred to as a four-bus network or power system. For the network of Fig. 63.4, we dene the following additional notation:

S1 = SG1 SD1 Net complex power injected at bus 1 I1 = Net positive sequence phasor current injected at bus 1 V1 = Positive sequence phasor voltage at bus 1
The standard node voltage equations for the network can be written in terms of the quantities at bus 1 (dened above) and comparable quantities at the other buses.

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FIGURE 63.4 Positive sequence network for the system of Fig. 63.3.

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12 V2 + Y13 V 3 + Y14 V 4 I 2 = Y 21V1 + Y 22 V2 + Y23 V 3 + Y 24 V 4 I 3 = Y 31V1 + Y 32 V2 + Y 33 V 3 + Y 34 V 4 I 4 = Y 41V1 + Y 42 V2 + Y 43 V 3 + Y 44 V 4

(63.2) (63.3) (63.4) (63.5)

The admittances in Eqs. (63.2) through (63.5), Yij, are the ijth entries of the bus admittance matrix for the power system. The unknown voltages could be found using linear algebra if the four currents I1 I4 were known. However, these currents are not known. Rather, something is known about the complex power and voltage at each bus. The complex power injected into bus k of the power system is dened by the relationship between complex power, voltage, and current given by Eq. (63.6).

Sk = Vk I * k
Therefore,

(63.6)

Ik =

* * * Sk SGk S Dk = * * Vk Vk

(63.7)

By substituting this result into the nodal equations and rearranging, the basic power ow equations for the four-bus system are given as Eqs. (63.8) through (63.11)
* * * SG1 S D1 = V1 Y11V1 + Y12 V2 + Y13 V 3 + Y14 V 4

(63.8)

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* * SG2 S D2 = V* 2 Y 21V1 + Y 22 V 2 + Y 23 V 3 + Y 24 V 4 * * SG3 S D3 = V* 3 Y 31V1 + Y 32 V 2 + Y 33 V 3 + Y 34 V 4 * * SG4 S D4 = V* 4 Y 41V1 + Y 42 V 2 + Y 43 V 3 + Y 44 V 4

] ] ]

(63.9) (63.10) (63.11)

Examination of Eqs. (63.8) through (63.11) reveals that, except for the trivial case where the generation equals the load at every bus, the complex power outputs of the generators cannot be arbitrarily selected. In fact, the complex power output of at least one of the generators must be calculated last because it must take up the unknown slack due to the, as yet, uncalculated network losses. Further, losses cannot be calculated until the voltages are known. These observations are a result of the principle of conservation of complex power (i.e., the sum of the injected complex powers at the four system buses is equal to the system complex power losses). Further examination of Eqs. (63.8) through (63.11) indicates that it is not possible to solve these equations for the absolute phase angles of the phasor voltages. This simply means that the problem can only be solved to some arbitrary phase angle reference. In order to alleviate the dilemma outlined above, suppose SG4 is arbitrarily allowed to oat or swing (in order to take up the necessary slack caused by the losses) and that SG1, SG2, and SG3 are specied (other cases will be considered shortly). Now, with the loads known, Eqs. (63.7) through (63.10) are seen as four simulta neous nonlinear equations with complex coefcients in ve unknowns V1, V2, V3, V4 , and SG4 . The problem of too many unknowns (which would result in an innite number of solutions) is solved by specifying another variable. Designating bus 4 as the slack bus and specifying the voltage V4 reduces the problem to four equations in four unknowns. The slack bus is chosen as the phase reference for all phasor calculations, its magnitude is constrained, and the complex power generation at this bus is free to take up the slack necessary in order to account for the system real and reactive power losses. The specication of the voltage V4 decouples Eq. (63.11) from Eqs. (63.8) through (63.10), allowing calculation of the slack bus complex power after solving the remaining equations. (This property carries over to larger systems with any number of buses.) The example problem is reduced to solving only three equations simultaneously for the unknowns V1, V2 , and V3 . Similarly, for the case of n buses, it is necessary to solve n-1 simultaneous, complex coefcient, nonlinear equations. Systems of nonlinear equations, such as Eqs. (63.8) through (63.10), cannot (except in rare cases) be solved by closed-form techniques. Direct simulation was used extensively for many years; however, essentially all power ow analyses today are performed using iterative techniques on digital computers.

P-V Buses
In all realistic cases, the voltage magnitude is specied at generator buses to take advantage of the generators reactive power capability. Specifying the voltage magnitude at a generator bus requires a variable specied in the simple analysis discussed earlier to become an unknown (in order to bring the number of unknowns back into correspondence with the number of equations). Normally, the reactive power injected by the generator becomes a variable, leaving the real power and voltage magnitude as the specied quantities at the generator bus. It was noted earlier that Eq. (63.11) is decoupled and only Eqs. (63.8) through (63.10) need be solved simultaneously. Although not immediately apparent, specifying the voltage magnitude at a bus and treating the bus reactive power injection as a variable results in retention of, effectively, the same number of complex unknowns. For example, if the voltage magnitude of bus 1 of the earlier four bus system is specied and the reactive power injection at bus 1 becomes a variable, Eqs. (63.8) through (63.10) again effectively have three complex unknowns. (The phasor voltages V2 and V3 at buses 2 and 3 are two complex unknowns and the angle 1 of the voltage at bus 1 plus the reactive power generation Q G1 at bus 1 result in the equivalent of a third complex unknown.)

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Bus 1 is called a voltage controlled bus because it is apparent that the reactive power generation at bus 1 is being used to control the voltage magnitude. This type of bus is also referred to as a P-V bus because of the specied quantities. Typically, all generator buses are treated as voltage controlled buses.

Bus Classications
There are four quantities of interest associated with each bus: 1. 2. 3. 4. real power, P reactive power, Q voltage magnitude, V voltage angle,

At every bus of the system two of these four quantities will be specied and the remaining two will be unknowns. Each of the system buses may be classied in accordance with the two quantities specied. The following classications are typical: Slack busThe slack bus for the system is a single bus for which the voltage magnitude and angle are specied. The real and reactive power are unknowns. The bus selected as the slack bus must have a source of both real and reactive power, because the injected power at this bus must swing to take up the slack in the solution. The best choice for the slack bus (since, in most power systems, many buses have real and reactive power sources) requires experience with the particular system under study. The behavior of the solution is often inuenced by the bus chosen. (In the earlier discussion, the last bus was selected as the slack bus for convenience.) Load bus (P-Q bus)A load bus is dened as any bus of the system for which the real and reactive power are specied. Load buses may contain generators with specied real and reactive power outputs; however, it is often convenient to designate any bus with specied injected complex power as a load bus. Voltage controlled bus (P-V bus)Any bus for which the voltage magnitude and the injected real power are specied is classied as a voltage controlled (or P-V) bus. The injected reactive power is a variable (with specied upper and lower bounds) in the power ow analysis. (A P-V bus must have a variable source of reactive power such as a generator or a capacitor bank.)

Generalized Power Flow Development

The more general (n bus) case is developed by extending the results of the simple four-bus example. Consider the case of an n-bus system and the corresponding n+1 node positive sequence network. Assume that the buses are numbered such that the slack bus is numbered last. Direct extension of the earlier equations (writing the node voltage equations and making the same substitutions as in the four-bus case) yields the basic power ow equations in the general form. The Basic Power Flow Equations (PFE)
* * Y ki Vi Sk = Pk jQ k = V k
i =1

(63.12)

for k = 1, 2, 3, , n 1
and
* Yni Vi Pn jQ n = Vn
i =1

(63.13)

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Equation (63.13) is the equation for the slack bus. Equation (63.12) represents n-1 simultaneous equations in n-1 complex unknowns if all buses (other than the slack bus) are classied as load buses. Thus, given a set of specied loads, the problem is to solve Eq. (63.12) for the n-1 complex phasor voltages at the remaining buses. Once the bus voltages are known, Eq. (63.13) can be used to calculate the slack bus power. Bus j is normally treated as a P-V bus if it has a directly connected generator. The unknowns at bus j are then the reactive generation QGj and j because the voltage magnitude, Vj , and the real power generation, Pgj , have been specied. The next step in the analysis is to solve Eq. (63.12) for the bus voltages using some iterative method. Once the bus voltages have been found, the complex power ows and complex power losses in all of the network components are calculated.

Solution Methods
The solution of the simultaneous nonlinear power ow equations requires the use of iterative techniques for even the simplest power systems. Although there are many methods for solving nonlinear equations, only two methods are discussed here. The Newton-Raphson Method The Newton-Raphson algorithm has been applied in the solution of nonlinear equations in many elds. The algorithm will be developed using a general set of two equations (for simplicity). The results are easily extended to an arbitrary number of equations. A set of two nonlinear equations are shown in Eqs. (63.14) and (63.15).

f 1(x 1, x 2) = k 1 f 2(x 1, x 2) = k 2

(63.14) (63.15)

Now, if x1(0) and x2(0) are inexact solution estimates and x1(0) and x2(0) are the corrections to the estimates to achieve an exact solution, Eqs. (63.14) and (63.15) can be rewritten as:

f 1(x 1+ x 1(0), x 2+ x 2(0)) = k 1 f 2(x 1+ x 1(0), x 2+ x 2(0)) = k 2

Expanding Eqs. (63.16) and (63.17) in a Taylor series about the estimate yields:

(63.16) (63.17)

f1 x , x

(0) 1

(0) 2

) )

f + 1 x1 f + 2 x1

(0)

(0) 1

f + 1 x 2 f + 2 x 2

(0)

x (0) 2 + h.o.t. = k 1
(0)

(63.18)

f1 x , x

(0)

(0) 1

(0) 2

(0) 1

x (0) 2 + h.o.t. = k 2

(63.19)

where the superscript, (0), on the partial derivatives indicates evaluation of the partial derivatives at the initial estimate and h.o.t. indicates the higher order terms. Neglecting the higher order terms (an acceptable approximation if x1(0) and x2(0) are small), Eqs. (63.18) and (63.19) can be rearranged and written in matrix form.

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 f (0) 1 x1 (0) f 2 x 1

(0) k f x (0) , x (0) x1 1 1 1 2 (0) (0) (0) k 2 f 2 x1 , x (0) f 2 x 2 2 x 2 f1 x 2

(0)

( (

) )

(63.20)

The matrix of partial derivatives in Eq. (63.20) is known as the Jacobian matrix and is evaluated at the initial estimate. Multiplying each side of Eq. (63.20) by the inverse of the Jacobian yields an approximation of the required correction to the estimated solution. Since the higher order terms were neglected, addition of the correction terms to the original estimate will not yield an exact solution, but will provide an improved estimate. The procedure may be repeated, obtaining sucessively better estimates until the estimated solution reaches a desired tolerance. Summarizing, correction terms for the th iterate are given in Eq. (63.21) and the solution estimate is updated according to Eq. (63.22).

f ( l) 1 ( l) x1 x1 ( l) ( l) x 2 f 2 x 1

f1 x 2

( l) ( l) k 1 f 1 x1 , x 2 ( l) l) ( l) k f 2 x1 , x( f 2 2 2 x 2
( l)

( (

) )

(63.21)

x (+1) = x () + x ()

(63.22)

The solution of the original set of nonlinear equations has been converted to a repeated solution of a system of linear equations. This solution requires evaluation of the Jacobian matrix (at the current solution estimate) in each iteration. The power ow equations can be placed into the Newton-Raphson framework by separating the power ow equations into their real and imaginary parts and taking the voltage magnitudes and phase angles as the unknowns. Writing Eq. (63.21) specically for the power ow problem:

P ( l) ( l) ( l) ( l) Q V

( l) P (sched ) P ( l) Q(sched ) Q( l) Q V P V
( l)

(63.23)

The underscored variables in Eq. (63.23) indicate vectors (extending the two equation Newton-Raphson development to the general power ow case). The (sched) notation indicates the scheduled real and reactive powers injected into the system. P() and Q() represent the calculated real and reactive power injections based on the system model and the th voltage phase angle and voltage magnitude estimates. The bus voltage phase angle and bus voltage magnitude estimates are updated, the Jacobian re-evaluated and the mismatch between the scheduled and calculated real and reactive powers evaluated in each iteration of the Newton-Raphson algorithm. Iterations are performed until the estimated solution reaches an acceptable tolerance or a maximum number of allowable iterations is exceeded. Once a solution (within an acceptble tolerance) is reached, P-V bus reactive power injections and the slack bus complex power injection may be evaluated. Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution The fast decoupled power ow algorithm simplies the procedure presented for the Newton-Raphson algorithm by exploiting the strong coupling between real po wer and bus voltage phase angles and reactive power and bus

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voltage magnitudes commonly seen in power systems. The Jacobian matrix is simplied by approximating the partial derivatives of the real power equations with respect to the bus voltage magnitudes as zero. Similarly, the partial derivatives of the reactive power equations with respect to the bus voltage phase angles are approximated as zero. Further, the remaining partial derivatives are often approximated using only the imaginary portion of the bus admittance matrix. These approximations yield the following corr ection equations:

( l) = B P (sched ) P ( l) V ( l) = B Q (sched ) Q( l)

[ ][

] ]

(63.24) (63.25)

[ ][

where B is an approximation of the matrix of partial derviatives of the real power ow equations with respect to the bus voltage phase angles and B is an approximation of the matrix of partial derivatives of the reactive power ow equations with respect to the bus voltage magnitudes. B and B are typically held constant during iterative process, eliminating the necessity of updating the Jacobian matrix (required in the Newton-Raphson solution) in each iteration. The fast decoupled algorithm has good convergence properties despite the many approximations used during its development. The fast decoupled power ow algorithm has found widespread use since it is less computationally intensive (requires fewer computational operations) than the Newton-Raphson method.

Component Power Flows

The positive sequence network for components of interest (connected between buses i and j) will be of the form shown in Fig. 63.5. An admittance description is usually available from earlier construction of the nodal admittance matrix. Thus,

I i Ya = Yc I j

Y b Vi V Yd j

(63.26)

Therefore, the complex power ows and the component loss are:

* Sij = Vi I * i = Vi Y a Vi + Y b V j * S ji = V j I * j = V i Y c Vi + Y d V j S loss = Sij + S ji

(63.27) (63.28) (63.29)

FIGURE 63.5 Typical power system component.

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The calculated component ows combined with the bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles provide extensive information about the operating point of the power systems. The bus voltage magnitudes may be checked to ensure operation within a prescribed range. The segment power ows can be examined to ensure no equipment ratings are exceeded. Additionally, the power ow solution may used as the starting point for other analyses. An elementary discussion of the power ow problem and its solution is presented in this chapter. The power ow problem can be complicated by the addition of further constraints such as generator real and reactive power limits. However, discussion of such complications is beyond the scope of this chapter. The references provide detailed development of power ow formulation and solution under additional constraints. The references also provide some background in the other types of power system analysis discussed at the begining of the chapter.

Dening Terms
Bus admittance matrix: The nodal admittance matrix for an electric network resulting from a power system. Newton-Raphson algorithm: An iterative technique for solving a system of nonlinear algebraic equations. Fast-decoupled algorithm: An extension of the Newton-Raphson iterative technique for solving power ow equations for a power system. The power ow problem: A model of a power system, the solution of which provides the system voltage prole and power ows from the sources to the loads.

Related Topics
3.2 Node and Mesh Analysis 3.5 Three-Phase Circuits

References
A. R. Bergen, Power Systems Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. O. I. Elgerd, Electric Energy Systems Theory - An Introduction, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill. J. D. Glover and M. Sarma, Power System Analysis and Design, 2nd ed., Boston, Mass.: PWS Publishing. C. A. Gross, Power System Analysis, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons. W. D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.

Further Information
The references provide clear introductions to the analysis of power systems. An excellent review of many issues involving the use of computers for power system analysis is provided in Proceedings of the IEEE (Special Issue on Computers in the Power Industry), July 1974. The quarterly journal IEEE Transactions on Power Systems provides excellent documentation of more recent research in power system analysis.

63.2

Voltage Instability

Robert A. Schlueter and Nassar Alemadi

Voltage Stability Overview
Retention of voltage stability and viability is the ability of a power system to preserve the voltage at an operating equilibrium under normal condition and to maintain an acceptable voltage at all buses after being subjected to a disturbance. A loss of voltage viability occurs when voltage declines below acceptable levels but does not decline to progressively lower values. A system loses voltage stability when a disturbance, changes in system operating condition, or increase in load demand causes a progressive and spreading drop in voltage [Kundur, 1994]. The incapability of the power system to meet the reactive power demand is the main cause of voltage instability. The drop in voltage results in increased network reactive losses due to (1) reduced shunt capacitive reactive supply and (2) increased magnetic eld due to increased current ow. The increased network losses results in (1) reduced reactive power ow to the region that needs the most reactive supply and (2) exhaustion of the reactive reserves on generators,

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synchronous condensers, or SVCs causing loss of voltage control. This loss of voltage control can cause further voltage drop and further increase in network reactive losses that produce a voltage collapse [Schlueter, 1998d]. Voltage instability has become the principal constraint on power system operation for many utilities. Thermal (overheating) constraints or transient stability const raints were the principal limitations on power system operation just 15 years ago. Low or high voltage limit violation (voltage viability) constraints and voltage instability constraints have become the major operational limitation on many utilities. Voltage instability is a unique problem because it can produce an uncontrollable, cascading instability that results in blackout for a large region or an entire country. Major blackouts have affected the Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland Interconnection, the Western System Coordinating Council (WSCC) system, Florida, France, Sweden, and Japan. A more complete list of voltage instabilities incidents is contained in [Taylor, 1994; NERC 1991]. Thermal, overload voltage limit violation transient angle instabilities do not have the potential to cause the uncontrollable cascading instability that affects such large regions as does voltage instability. The modeling required and simulation tools used to accurately assess retention and loss of voltage stability is revi ewed in the next section. Voltage instability has been studied using both a loadow (algebraic) and a differential algebraic model, and both are discussed. The kinds, classes, and agents of voltage instability that can develop are discussed in in the third section. A bifurcation is a sudden change in response, usually stable to unstable, for a smooth, continuous, slow change in load or operating condition. Saddle node, Hopf, singularity induced, and algebraic bifurcation are the kinds of bifurcation that have been observed on a power system differential algebraic model, and all these different bifurcation have been associated with voltage instability. Clogging and loss of control voltage instability are the two kinds of bifurcation in a loadow (algebraic) model. Methods for assessing proximity to voltage instability in the loadow model are reviewed. A Voltage Stability Security Assessment and Diagnosis Method [Schlueter, 1998d] is discussed that can answer the voltage instability diagnostic questions of where, when, why, and proximity and cure for each equipment outage, transaction combination, or both. Proximity to voltage instability has also been studied in a differential algebraic model. It has been shown that bifurcation sequences occur in a differential algebraic model that can include saddle node, Hopf, singularity induced, or algebraic bifurcation [Zaborsky, 1993; Guo et al., 1994]. Instability in the dynamics can occur before the bifurcation affects the algebraic model. It has been shown that saddle node bifurcation in a differential algebraic model at equilibrium is a bifurcation in the loadow model that includes both the algebraic submodel and differential submodel at equilibrium. [Schlueter, 1998e; Liu, 1998]. In other cases, the bifurcation is solely in the algebraic model and has no effects on generator dynamics (algebraic bifurcation) or is in the algebraic model that produces very rapid changes in generator dynamics (singularity-induced bifurcation). The bifurcation in the algebraic equations is almost always associated with the ultimate blackout, even when saddle node or Hopf bifurcation initiates the instability that results in blackout.

Voltage Stability Models and Simulation Tools

A differential algebraic model for a power system can be written as [Schlueter et al., 1994].

1 = f1 x 1 , x 3 , p1 x

( (

) ) )

(63.30) (63.31) (63.32)

2 = f 2 x 2 , x 3 , p2 x

o = f 3 x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , p3
where: x 1 p1

= state of generator, automatic voltage regulator (AVR), power system stabilizer, eld current limiter, and armature current limiter on each generator in the system = overexcitation limiter relay limits that disable the AVR and trip the generator, armature current relay limits that trip generators

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 x 2

= state of large induction motors, large thermostatic loads where temperature control is performed; generic load that represents action of under load tap changers, switchable shunt capacitors, aggregate of small induction motor load, and aggregate of small thermostatic load models = parameters of the load model p2 = voltage and phase of network power balance equations x3 = parameters of network under load tap changers and switchable shunt capacitors p3 f1 ( ) = model of generators, synchronous condensers, and FACTS devices and their controls f2 ( ) = model of large induction motors; large thermostatic loads where temperature is controlled; and generic load models that represent aggregated action of under load tap changes, switchable shunt capacitors, smaller induction motors, and smaller thermostatic controlled load and their controls f3 ( ) = network algebraic model that can include load where temperature, energy, or voltage control dynamics have no effect, under load tap changers, and switchable shunt capacitors

The loadow model is:

( ) f (x , x , p ) = 0 f (x , x , x , p ) = 0
f1 x 1 , x 3 , p1 = 0
2 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 3

(63.33)

or

f x, p = 0
where

( )

(63.34)

x1 x = x 2 x 3

p1 p = p 2 p 3

f 1 f x , p = f 2 f 3

( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Voltage instability is most accurately assessed by a differential algebraic model (Eq. (63.30-63.32), but can generally be accurately assessed using the loadow model (Eq. (63.34)). The loadow model simulation is used to screen for equipment outages, and for accurate assessment of retention or loss of voltage stability for those instability problems identied via loadow. The size and complexity of the loadow model required to accurately determine the steady-state equilibrium xo after one or more equipment outages, transfer and wheeling transaction combinations, or both have grown from less than 1000 buses to above 15,000 buses for utilities with voltage instability problems. The model has grown to include distribution system buses in the study system, the transmission and subtransmission network electrically distant from the study system, as well as virtually all reactive generation devices in the interconnection. The exact sequence of actions on (1) eld current limiters reduction of eld current, (2) tap position changes of under load tap changers, and (3) switchable shunt capacitors insertions have been shown to be quite important in accurately obtaining the equilibrium produced by the simulation of the differential algebraic model. A quasi steady-state (QSS) approximation is an improvement on loadow, that incorporates the effects of the control delays on devices (13) without incorporating effects of faster generator and load dynamics. QSS is being implemented by several software vendors as a means

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of accurately obtaining an equilibrium without a full time simulation. The size and complexity of mid-term and long-term stability simulations that simulate the trajectory and determine the equilibrium also increased in order to accurately simulate the response of a system to one or more equipment outages, transfer and wheeling transaction combinations, or both. Timing of control actions must obviously be modeled in midterm and long-term simulations in order to accurately simulate the trajectory and determine if it converges asymptotically or does not converge to an equilibrium or limit cycle. The actual tap position limits on underload tap changers, eld current limits on eld current limiters, and switchable shunt capacitor capacity limits can have dramatic effects on loadow, QSS, or mid-term and long-term simulation results. This is due to the fact that loss of voltage control on these devices (1) eliminates actions that force reactive supply to areas with reactive need or (2) choke off available reactive supply due to dramatic increases in I2x losses and shunt capacitive supply withdrawal that occur with voltage drop that results without proper voltage control.

Kinds, Classes, and Agents of Voltage Instability [Schlueter, 1994]

Voltage instability can be classied in terms of the time frame required for voltage instability to develop. Longterm voltage instability is dened as developing over a time frame of 1 to 20 min [Taylor, 1994] and transient voltage instability is dened as developing over a time frame of 1 to 10 s [Taylor, 1994]. Another method of classifying voltage instability as short term or long term is to determine the dynamics that play the central role in the development of voltage instability [Van Cutsem et al., 1998]. Short-term voltage instability [Van Cutsem et al., 1998] occurs due to (1) motor stalling, (2) motor stalling after a short circuit occurs and is cleared, (3) instability in generator ux decay dynamics when the AVR is disabled by an over-excitation limiter relay [Schlueter, 1998e], and (4) oscillations in generator dynamics, [Sauer, 1992] or between groups of generators or between generators and induction motors [Van Cutsem et al., 1998]. All of these short-term stability problems can be accurately captured in mid-term or long-term simulation but cannot be captured in a loadow or QSS simulation [Van Cutsem, 1998]. Action of tap changers, switchable shunt capacitors, generic load change, thermostatic load change, generator eld current limiters and protection are long-term dynamics because their response can take 1 to 20 min or longer [Van Cutsem, 1998]. In many cases, these long-term dynamics result in instability in short-term dynamics that ultimately produce lack of solution or instability in the algebraic equations. Loadow and QSS models can capture most long-term voltage instability problems. The lack of a loadow solution can indicate that there exists no steady-state equilibrium to the differential algebraic model after some equipment outage, transaction combination, or both. Diagnostics can be applied to determine if voltage instability is the cause of the lack of an equilibrium solution [Schlueter, 1998d]. Voltage instability is known to have occurred if a cure can be found based on these diagnostics that corrects the lack of solution. The system matrix

f1 A = x1 f 2 x1

f 1x f 1x 2 3 f f 2x f 2x 3x3 2 3

[ ] [f
1

3x

f 3x

(63.35)

can be used to test for stability of the equilibrium if one can be computed by the loadow. Thus, obtaining a loadow solution does not guarantee stability of the dynamics at equilibrium. Bifurcation is a discontinuous change in the qualitative behavior of the dynamics as some parameter changes slowly, continuously, and smoothly and generally implies a change from a stable to an unstable response. There are many different kinds of bifurcation that have been observed to occur in a power system model in both the long-term and shortterm dynamics, as noted in the next paragraph. Different kinds of bifurcation can occur in the same dynamics in the same subsystems or in different subsystems in a power system model. Bifurcation subsystem analysis [Ben-Kilani, 1997] is being used to identify all of the different subsystems (classes) experiencing each kind of bifurcation. Classes for each kind of bifurcation are the specic short-term (inertial dynamics of induction motor or generators, ux decay and excitation control dynamics of generators or induction motors) or longterm dynamics (tap changer, switchable shunt capacitor, thermostatic load control dynamics, eld current limiter dynamics) that experience or produce the particular kind of bifurcation. The subsystem experiencing

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FIGURE 63.6 PV curve on an example system.

the particular kind of bifurcation indicates whether it is short-term or long-term instability as noted in [Van Cutsem, et al. 1998]. It may be that the long-term dynamic changes bring about the particular bifurcation in a short-term dynamics subsystem, as noted above. It is necessary to specify the time frame (long term or short term) for instability to develop, the kind of bifurcation (saddle node, Hopf, singularity induced), the class of bifurcation, and the agent of that particular kind and class to describe a particular voltage instability event. Agents that experience bifurcation are the specic devices in a class that are in specic locations that experience or produce the particular kind of bifurcation. Bifurcation subsystem analysis is identifying the agents for each kind and class of bifurcation. Only the generic kinds of bifurcations that have been studied extensively will now be discussed, although a more extensive list of bifurcation kinds observed in power systems is given in [Schlueter, 1994]. Saddle node bifurcation occurs if both J and A have a zero eigenvalue as p changes toward bifurcation value p* and certain transversality and genericity conditions hold [Zaborsky, 1994]. Saddle node bifurcation occurs when the region of attraction, where the trajectory converges to the stable equilibrium, becomes a null set and the dynamics associated with the bifurcation eigenvalue of A evaluated at the equilibrium become innitely slow and then unstable. Saddle node bifurcation occurs when a loadow experiences bifurcation [Canizares et al., 1992]. Hopf bifurcation occurs if the real part of a complex pair of eigenvalues cross the j axis as p changes toward bifurcation values p* if certain transversality and genericity conditions hold [Zaborsky, 1994]. The Hopf bifurcation occurs when a stable or unstable limit cycle (oscillation) is formed. Singularity induced bifurcation occurs when f3x3 has an eigenvalue that approaches zero and the eigenvalue of A approaches innity, becomes negative innity, and then approaches zero [Zaborsky, 1994]. Algebraic bifurcation occurs when f3x3 has an eigenvalue approaching zero and A has no eigenvalue experiencing bifurcation. There is often a sequence of bifurcations associated with a particular voltage instability event. One such sequence is a Hopf followed by singularity-induced bifurcation [Sauer et al., 1992] as shown in Figs. 63.6 and 63.7. Figure 63.6 shows the PV curve stress test and Fig. 63.7 shows the pair of bifurcating eigenvalues that experience the sequence of bifurcations. Another bifurcation sequence is saddle node followed by singularityinduced bifurcation, as shown in Figs. 63.8 and 63.9. Figure 63.8 shows the Q-V curve stress test and Fig. 63.9 shows the sequence of bifurcations. It is proven that after the saddle node bifurcation, the unstable internal generator voltage decline can produce a dynamic Q-V stress test that inevitably leads to the singularity induced biburcation and blackout [Schlueter, 1998e]. Motor stalling is a saddle node bifurcation that can also produce

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FIGURE 63.7 Bifurcation sequence of Hopf (A), node-focus (B), singularity-induced (C) bifurcation produced on an example system by the PV curve in Fig. 63.6.

FIGURE 63.8 Q-V curve produced on an example system.

a dynamically administered stress test that leads to singularity-induced bifurcation and blackout [Van Cutsem, 1998].

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FIGURE 63.9 Bifurcation sequence of saddle node (A), followed by singularity-induced bifurcation (B) produced by the Q-V curve in Fig. 63.8.

Proximity to Voltage Instability

This proximity to voltage instability is initially assessed using a loadow model (Eq. (63.34)). If a particular contingency, transfer, or wheeling combination, or both is found to experience voltage instability based on a loadow model, it will be conrmed using a mid-term or long-term simulation. Using a loadow has been found to be quite a satisfactory model for accurate assessment of proximity to long-term voltage instability. The loadow model is f(x,p) = 0, where x is the n dimension state of the model and is of the same dimension as f(x,p) and p is an m vector of parameters that can change and produce bifurcation or instability if p changes smoothly and continuously. The implicit function theorem can indicate when a solution exists and the solution is unique. Theorem (Implicit function theorem) [Apostol, 1974] Let f = (f1,fn) be a vector valued dened on an open set S in Rn+m with values in Rn. Suppose fC or that f is continuously differentiable on S. Let (x0;p0) be a point in S for which f(x0;p0) = 0 and for which the determinant of the n n jacobian det[fx(x0;p0)] 0. Then there exists an m-dimensional open set P0 containing p0 and one, and only one, vector-valued function g, dened on P0 and having values in Rn, such that

(1) g C on P 0 (2) g ( p 0) = x 0 (3) f ( g ( p ); p ) = 0 for every p in P 0 .

When the jacobian is nonsingular at a point in S, the implicit function theorem indicates there exist solutions that are unique for all pP0. When a solution exists, the system is stable when all eigenvalues of fx(x0, p0) are positive or unstable, depending on whether there are non-positive eigenvalues of the jacobian fx(x0, p0). When no solution exists at p0, the system is considered unstable. The vector p can be changed, usually reduced, from p0 until solutions exist. Singularity of the loadow jacobian can be used to detect the point of voltage instability p* < p0 where instability is initiated. When the det[fx(x*, p*)] is zero (or the jacobian fx(x*, p*) is singular),

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the implicit function theorem does not provide any information but it may imply no solution x* = x(p*) exists at p* or there are multiple solutions x*i(p*). Proximity Indices A number of indices have been developed to test for loadow bifurcation when p is changed smoothly and continuously in some direction n in Rm:

p = p 0 + kn

(63.36)

via change in k until det[fx(x*,p*)] = 0. The indices come from tracking the miminum eigenvalue * i [IEEE, 1993] using

f x x k , p k u i k = i k ui k

( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( ) ( )

(63.37)

where * i (k) = mini [i (k)] and ui (k) is a right eigenvector or alternatively the minimum singular value * i (k) obtained [IEEE, 1993] using

fx x k , p k

( ( ) ( )) f (x(k), p(k)) = W (k) (k) V (k)

T x T
min i

(63.38)

where (k) = diag[1(k), 2(k), L, n(k)] and * i (k) = of

[i(k)]. The singular values i(k) are the eigenvalues

f x x k , p k f xT x k , p k
and satisfy

( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))

(63.39)

fx x k , p k v i k = i k w i k

( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ( ) ( )) () ()

(63.40)

w iT k f x x k , p k = i k v iT k

(63.41)

where vi(k) and wi(k) are the right and the left singular vectors of i(k) and are columns of matrices V(k) and W(k) above. The Q-V and P-V curves [IEEE, 1993] are particular scalar (m = 1) proximity measures where: 1. For a Q-V curve, the direction n is a unit vector in Eq. (63.36) where the voltage at a bus i is the only nonzero element, k is the real valued negative number that starts at zero and decreases, and Qi(Vi) is the reactive load that is added at bus i for each value of Vi. The curve Qi(Vi), shown in Fig. 63.8 is the reactive injection at bus i obtained by (1) changing bus type from a load (PQ) bus to a generator bus (PV) and (2) reducing the voltage Vi until Qi(Vi) reaches a minimum at Vimin with maximum added load Qi(Vimin) = Qimin 0. The value of (Vimin, Qimin) denes the minimum of the Q-V curve when Qi/Vi = 0, that corresponds to the bifurcation point (x*, p*). 2. The P-V curve, shown in Fig. 63.6, can add active power load at a bus i or at several load buses simultaneously

p = p 0 + kn load

(63.42)

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and pick up that power at several generators

g = g 0 + kn gen

(63.43)

where n is made up of ngen and nload and both are participation vectors where ni = 1. A P-V curve can i also be computed for transfer power from one set of generators with generation g* to another set of . generators with generation g

g* = g 0 * + kn * =g 0 kn g

(63.44) (63.45)

are unit vectors where one or more elements are nonzero and ni = 1. The Note ngen, nload, n*, and n i P-V curve plots voltage at some bus i for change in k = Psystem where it represents system power load change or k = Ptransfer represents the total power transfer change. 3. Optimization-based methods have been used to calculate Q-V and P-V curves [Reppen et al., 1991]. These scalar optimization-based methods optimize performance index Qi to produce a Q-V curve with loadow equality constraints

F(x, p, u) = 0

(63.46)

and inequality constraints on voltage controls u, states, x, and parameter p. These controls can include under load tap changer tap position, switchable shunt capacitor susceptance, and possibly generator excitation voltage control setpoints. The P-V curve computed by loadow for varying k = Psystem or Ptransfer has all or most of these controls xed rather than optimizing their values. The P-V curve computed via an optimal power ow program would optimize k for a particular transfer or wheeling transaction with the same loadow model, same controls u, and inequality constraints on controls u, states, and parameters used in computing the Q-V curve. The particular transfer or wheeling transaction is dened via In [Van Cutsem, 1991], a scalar optimization-based method was specication of ngen, nload, n*, and n. used to maximize the reactive power stress when n in Eq. (63.36) was a unit vector with several nonzero elements. This optimal power ow generalized Q-V curve allows added reactive load at several buses in the participation factor normal direction, rather than just one as in a typical loadow-based Q-V curve calculation. The approach used in [Van Cutsem, 1991] eliminates the active power and phase angle relationship, using active power generation as control, and imposes reactive power limits on the generators. [Dobson et al., 1991] was rst to develop a vector optimization-based method that optimizes the normal direction vector n and the loading factor k in Eq. (63.36). The vector n is in the right eigenvector direction wi of the bifurcating eigenvalue if the loadow is continuously differentiable. This method and extensions [IEEE, 1993] computes the smallest change in the active or reactive load power and thus ow that produces saddle node bifurcation. The proximity measure |p*p0| to saddle node bifurcation, where p0 and p* represent the current load power and the bifurcation value of load power, respectively, was rst noted by Dobson [1991]. Voltage Stability Security Assessment and Diagnosis All of these methods used [IEEE, 1993; Reppen, 1991; Dobson, 1991; and Van Cutsem, 1991] assess bifurcation in a single mode due to continuous, smooth, scalar, or vector parameter variation. The methods are not practical for assessing voltage instability or stability because the loadow most often has no solution when voltage instability occurs, and all these methods require loadow solutions to make any assessment of whether voltage instability occurs or has not occurred. This is true because these methods cannot determine whether voltage instability, algorithmic convergence difculties, or round-off error is the reason for the lack of solution. These methods [IEEE, 1993; Reppen, 1991; Dobson, 1991; and Van Cutsem, 1991] can be viewed as based on implicit function theorem as long as the model is continuously differentiable. Implicit function theory and bifurcation

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theory assumptions are both violated for the case when a loadow does solve after discontinuous parameter change because the parameter variation is not continuous and smooth and the power system model may not be continuously differentiable at the point (x0, p0). The P-V curve, or Q-V curve, or eigenvalues and eigenvectors could be computed and used to assess proximity to voltage instability after each equipment outage or discontinuous parameter change when a loadow solution exists to establish whether the solutions is stable or unstable at values of p above p0 . The computation of the P-V curve, Q-V curve, or eigenvalues and eigenvectors requires signicant computation and is not practical for screening thousands of contingencies for voltage instability or for assessing proximity to instability although they are used to assess stability and proximity to instability after a few selected contingencies. These methods also do not explicitly take into account the many discontinuities in the model and eigenvalues that occur for continuous parameter and discontinuous parameter changes. In many cases, the eigenvalue changes due to discontinuities is virtually all the change that occurs in an eigenvalue that approaches instability [IEEE, 1993] and the above methods have particular difculty in such cases. The above methods cannot assess the agents that lose voltage instability for a particular event and cannot diagnose a cure when the loadow has no solution for an equipment outage, wheeling or transaction combination, or both. These methods can provide a cure when a loadow solution exists but its capabilities have not been compared to the f Security Assessment and Diagnosis proposed cure. The Voltage Stability Security Assessment and Diagnosis (VSSAD) [Schlueter, 1998d] overcomes the above difculties because: 1. It determines the number of discontinuities in any eigenvalue that have already occurred due to generator PV to load PQ bus type changes that are associated with an eigenvalue compared to the total number that are needed to produce voltage instability when the eigenvalue becomes negative. The eigenvalue is associated with a coherent bus group (voltage control area) [Schlueter, 1998a; f]. The subset of generators that experience PV-PQ bus type changes (reactive reserve basin) for computing a Q-V curve at any bus in that bus group are proven to capture the number of discontinuities in that eigenvalue [Schlueter, 1998a; f]. An eigenvalue approximation for the agent, composed of the test voltage control area where the Q-V current is computed and its reactive reserve basin, is used to theoretically justify the denitions of a voltage control area and the reactive reserve basin of an agent. The VSSAD agents are thus proven to capture eigenvalue structure of the loadow jacobian evaluated at any operating point (x0, p0). The reactive reserve on generators in each voltage control area of a reactive reserve basin is proven to measure proximity to each of the remaining discontinuities in the eigenvalue required for bifurcation. 2. It can handle strictly discontinuous (equipment outage or large transfer or wheeling transaction changes) or continuous model or parameter change (load increase, transfer increases, and wheeling increases) whereas the above methods are restricted to continuous changes to assess stability or instability at a point p0 . 3. It can simultaneously and quickly assess proximity to voltage instability for all agents where each has a bifurcating eigenvalue. Proximity to instability of any agent is measured by assessing (1) the percentage of voltage control areas containing generators in a reactive reserve basin with non-zero reserves, and (2) the percentage of base case reactive reserves remaining on reactive reserve basin voltage control areas that have not yet exhausted reserves [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. 4. It can assess the cure for instability for contingencies that do not have a solution. The cure can be either (1) adding needed reactive reserve on specic generators to obtain a solution that is voltage stable, (2) adding reactive supply resources needed in one or more agents, or (3) the reduction in generation and load in one or more agents or between one or more agents to obtain a solution and assure that it is a stable solution. These cures can be obtained in an automated fashion [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. The diagnosis can also indicate if the lack of a solution is due to convergence difculties or round-off error if the diagnosis indicates the contingency combination does not produce sufcient network reactive losses to cause instability or any agent. 5. It can provide operating constraints or security constraints on each agents reactive reserve basin reserves that prevent voltage instability in an agent in a manner identical to how thermal constraints prevent thermal overload on a branch and voltage constraints prevent bus voltage limit violation at a bus [Schlueter, 1998c; f].

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6. The reactive reserve basin operating constraints allow optimization that assures that correcting one voltage instability problem due to instability in one or more agents will not produce other voltage stability problems in the rest of the system [Schlueter, 1998c; f]. 7. The reactive reserve basin constraints after an equipment outage and operating change combination allows optimization of transmission capacity that specically corrects that particular equipment outage and transaction change induced voltage instability with minimum control change [Schlueter, 1998c; f]. 8. It requires very little computation per contingency and can nd multiple contingencies that cause voltage instability by simulating only a small percentage of the possible multiple contingencies [Schlueter, 1998d]. Kinds of Loadow Instability Two kinds of voltage instability have been associated with a loadow model: loss of control voltage instability and clogging voltage instability [Schlueter, 1998d]. Loss of control voltage instability is caused by exhaustion of reactive power supply that produces loss of voltage control on some of the generators or synchronous condensers. Loss of voltage control on these reactive supply devices implies both lack of any further reactive supply from these devices and loss of control of voltage that will increase network reactive losses that absorb a portion of the ow of reactive power supply and prevent it from reaching the subregion needing that reactive supply. Loss of voltage control develops because of equipment outages (generator, transmission line, and transformer), operating condition changes (wheeling, interchange, and transfer transactions), and load/generation pattern changes. Loss of control voltage instability occurs in the subtransmission and transmission system [Schlueter, 1998d]. It produces either saddle node or singularity-induced bifurcation in a differential algebraic model. On the other hand, clogging develops because of increasing reactive power losses, and switching shunt capacitors and tap changers reaching their limits. These network reactive losses, due to increasing magnetic eld and shunt capacitive supply withdrawal, can completely block reactive power supply from reaching the subregion with need [Schlueter, 1998d]. Clogging voltage instability can produce algebraic bifurcation in a differential algebraic model. The VSSAD method can diagnose whether the voltage instability occurs due to clogging or loss of control voltage instability for each equipment outage, transaction combination, or both that have no solution. Theoretical Justication of the Diagnosis in VSSAD A bifurcation subsystem analysis has been developed that theoretically justies the diagnosis performed by [Schlueter, 1997; 1998a; b; d; f]. This bifurcation subsystem analysis for a loadow model attempts to break the loadow model into a subsystem model and external model

f x , x , p s s e f xs , xe , p = f e x s , x e , p

( (

O ) = ) O

n2
n1

(63.47)

and to break the state x into two components x = x where xs is the dimension of fs(xs, xe, p) = Oni. The bifurcation occurs at p* = po + * o n when

x s e

f s x*,p * x s f e x*,p * x s

( (

) )

f s x*,p * u p u p* x e i = i p* i wi p* f e w i p x*,p * x e

( (

) )

( ) ( )

( ) ((

(63.48)

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The vector

u i ( p *) is the right eigenvector of eigenvalue i(p*) = 0 at bifurcation point p*. A bifurcation w i (p *) f s x *, p * x s

subsystem exists if two conditions hold:

ui p * = 0

( )

(63.49)

f s f e1 f e ui p * = 0 x e x e x s

( )

(63.50)

The rst condition is called the bifurcation subsystem condition and the second is called the geometric decoupling condition. Finding a bifurcation subsystem for any bifurcation of the full system model requires nding the combination of correct dimension, correct subset of equations, and correct subset of variables such that the subsystem experiences the bifurcation (Eq. (63.49)) of the full system model (Eq. (63.48)) but also produces that bifurcation since the external model is completely uncoupled from the bifurcation subsystem in the direction of the right eigenvector (Eq. (63.50)). The right eigenvector is an approximation of the center manifold at bifurcation, and the center manifold is the subsystem that actually experiences the bifurcation and is obtained via a nonlinear transformation of the model. The expectation of nding a bifurcation subsystem for any loadow bifurcation, noting the above requirements for identifying such a bifurcation subsystem, is that the difculty in nding a bifurcation subsystem would be great even though one may exist for some bifurcations. The results in [Schlueter, 1998b; f] prove that one cannot only describe the bifurcation subsystem (where) for every clogging voltage instability and for every loss of control voltage instability, but also can theoretically establish diagnostic information on when, proximity, and cure for a specic bifurcation in a specic bifurcation subsystem for clogging or for loss of control voltage instability [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. The analysis establishes that: 1. The real power balance equations are a bifurcation subsystem for angle instability when the loadow model is decoupled (
dP dV dQ d

and

are assumed null) [Schlueter, 1998b; f].

2. The reactive power balance equations are a bifurcation subsystem for voltage instability when the loadow model is assumed decoupled [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. 3. A voltage control area is the bifurcation subsystem (agent) for clogging voltage instability. The agent is vulnerable to voltage instability for loss of generation in the agent, line outage in the agent boundary, or increased real and reactive ow across the agent boundary based on analysis of the lower bound approximation of the eigenvalue associated with that agent. The cure for clogging voltage instability in this agent is to reduce the real and reactive ow across the boundary of the agent [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. 4. A voltage control area and its associated reactive reserve basin are the bifurcation subsystem (agent) for loss of control voltage instability. The agent is vulnerable to voltage instability for loss of generation in the agent, line outages, transfer or wheeling transactions that reduce reactive reserve basin reserves based on analysis of the lower bound approximation of the eigenvalue associated with that agent. The cure for voltage instability in the agent is to add reactive reserves on the reactive reserve basin via capacitor insertion, generator voltage setpoint changes on reactive reserve basin generators, or reverse tap position changes on underload tap changers [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. 5. The percentage of reserves unexhausted in the reactive reserve basin is theoretically justied as a proximity measure for clogging instability in any clogging voltage instability agent. The percentage of voltage control areas in a reactive reserve basin with unexhausted reactive reserve is theoretically justied as a proximity measure for each loss of control voltage instability agent [Schlueter, 1998b; f]. 6. Exhaustion of reactive reserves in a particular locally most vulnerable agents reactive reserve basin causes cascading exhaustion of reactive reserves and loss of control voltage instability in agents with successively

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larger reactive reserve basins. This partially explains why voltage collapse occurs [Schlueter, 1998a; d; f] which is a cascading loss of stability in several agents. The automated diagnostic procedures in VSSAD are thus theoretically justied via this bifurcation subsystem analysis.

Future Research
Research is needed to: 1. Develop improved nonlinear dynamic load models that are valid at any particular instant and that are valid when voltage decline is severe. The lack of accurate load models makes it difcult to accurately simulate the time behavior and/or assess the cause of the voltage instability. The lack of knowledge of what constitutes an accurate load model makes accurate postmortem simulation of a particular blackout a process of making trial and error assumptions on the load model structure to obtain as accurate a simulation as possible that conforms with time records of the event. Accurate predictive simulation of events that have not occurred is very difcult [Taylor, et al. 1998]. 2. Explain (a) why each specic cascading sequence of bifurcations inevitably occurs in a differential algebraic model, and (b) the dynamic signature associated with each bifurcation sequence. Work is underway to explain why instability in generator and load dynamics can inevitably cause a singularityinduced bifurcation to occur. The time signature for singularity-induced bifurcation changes dependence on why it occurs is discussed in [Schlueter, 1998e; Liu, 1998]. 3. Extend bifurcation subsystem analysis to the differential algebraic model and link the bifurcation subsystem in a differential algebraic model, to those obtained in the loadow model. The bifurcation subsystems for different Hopf and saddle node bifurcations can explain why the subsystem experiences instability, as well as how to prevent instability as has been possible for bifurcation subsystems in the algebraic model. Knowledge of bifurcation subsystems in the algebraic model may assist in identifying bifurcation subsystems in the differential algebraic model. 4. Develop a protective or corrective control for voltage instability. A protective control would use constraints on the current operating condition for contingencies predicted to cause voltage instability if they occurred. These constraints on the current operation would prevent voltage instability if and when the contingency occurred. A corrective control would develop a control that correct the instability in the bifurcation subsystems experiencing instability only after the equipment outages or operating changes predicted to produce voltage instability have occurred. The implementation of the corrective control requires a regional 5-s updated data acquisition system and control implementation similar to that used in Electricit de France and elsewhere in Europe.

Dening Terms
Power system stability: The property of a power system that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating conditions and to converge to another acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance. Instability occurs when the above is not true or when the system loses synchronism between generators and between generators and loads. Small signal stability: The ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under small disturbances [Kundur, 1994]. Transient stability: The ability of a power system to maintain synchronism for a severe transient disturbance [Kundur, 1994]. Rotor angle stability: The ability of the generators in a power system to remain in synchronism after a severe transient disturbance [Kundur, 1994]. Voltage viability: The ability of a power system to maintain acceptable voltages at all buses in the system after being subjected to a disturbance. Loss of viability can occur if voltage at some bus or buses are below acceptable levels [Kundur, 1994]. Loss of viability is not voltage instability.

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Voltage stability: The ability of the combined generation and transmission system to supply load after a disturbance, increased load, or change in system conditions without an uncontrollable and progressive decrease in voltage [Kundur, 1994]. Loss of voltage instability may stem from the attempt of load dynamics to restore power consumption beyond the capability of the combined transmission and generation system. Both small signal and transient voltage instability can occur. Voltage collapse: An instability that produces a cascading (1) loss of stability in subsystems, and/or (2) outage of equipment due to relaying actions. Bifurcation: A sudden change in system response from a smooth, continuous, slow change in parameters p.

References
T.M. Apostol, Mathematical Analysis, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1974. K. Ben-Kilani, Bifurcation Subsystem Method and its Application to Diagnosis of Power System Bifurcations Produced by Discontinuities, Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, August 1997. C.A. Canizares, F.L. Alvarado, C.L. DeMarco, I. Dobson, and W.F. Long, Point of collapse methods applied to AC/DC power system, IEEE Trans. on Power System, 7, 673683, 1992. I. Dobson and Liming Lu, Using an iterative method to compute a closest saddle node bifurcation in the load power parameter space of an electric power system, in Proceedings of the Bulk Power System Voltage Phenomena. II. Voltage Stability and Security, Deep Creek Lake, MD, 1991. T.Y. Guo and R.A. Schlueter, Identication of generic bifurcation and stability problems in a power system differential algebraic model, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, 9, 10321044, 1994. IEEE Working Group on Voltage Stability, Suggested Techniques for Voltage Stability Analysis, IEEE Power Engineering Society Report, 93TH0620-5PWR, 1993. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, Power System Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill, 1994. S. Liu, Bifureation Dynamics as a Cause of Recent Voltage Collapse Problems on the WSCC System, Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 1998. N.D. Reppen and R.R. Austria, Application of the optimal power ow to analysis of voltage collapse limited power transfer, in Bulb Power System Voltage Phenomena. II. Voltage Stability and Security, August 1991, Deep Creek Lake, MD. Survey of Voltage Collapse Phenomena: Summary of Interconnection Dynamics Task Forces Survey on Voltage Collapse Phenomena, Section III Incidents, North American Reliability Council Report, August, 1991. P.W. Sauer, C. Rajagopalan, B. Lesieutre, and M.A. Pai, Dynamic Aspects of voltage/power characteristics, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, 7, 9901000, 1992. R.A. Schlueter, K. Ben-Kilani, and U. Ahn, Impact of modeling accuracy on type, kind, and class of stability problems in a power system model, Proceedings of the ECC & NSF International Workshop on Bulk Power System Voltage Stability, Security and Control Phenomena-III, pp. 117156. August 1994. R.A. Schlueter, A structure based hierarchy for intelligent voltage stability control in planning, scheduling, and stabilizing power systems, Proceedings of the EPRI Conference on Future of Power Delivery in the 21st Century, La Jolla, CA, November 1997. R.A. Schlueter and S. Liu, Justication of the voltage stability security assessment as an improved modal analysis procedure, Proceedings of the Large Engineering System Conference on Power System Engineering, pp. 273279, June 1998. R.A. Schlueter, K. Ben-Kilani, and S. Liu, Justication of the voltage security assessment method using the bifurcation subsystem method, Proceedings of the Large Engineering System Conference on Power Systems, pp. 266-272, June 1998. R.A. Schlueter and S. Liu, A structure based hierarchy for intelligent voltage stability control in operation planning, scheduling, and dispatching power systems, Proceedings of the Large Engineering System Conference on Power System Engineering, pp. 280285, June 1998. R.A. Schlueter, A voltage stability security assessment method, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, 13, 1423-1438, 1998.

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R.A. Schlueter, S. Liu, K. Ben-Kilani, and I.-P. Hu, Static voltage instability in generator ux decay dynamics as a cause of voltage collapse, accepted for publication in the Journal on Electric Power System Research, July 1998. R. Schlueter, S. Liu, and N. Alemadi, Intelligent Voltage Stability Assessment Diagnosis, and Control of Power Systems Using a Modal Structure, Division of Engineering Research Technical Report, December 1998 and distributed to attendees of Bulk Power System Dynamics and Control IV; Restructuring, August 2428, 1998, Santorini, Greece. C. Taylor, Power System Voltage Stability, Power System Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994. C. Taylor, D. Kostorev, and W. Mittlestadt, Model validation for the August 10, 1996 WSCC outage, IEEE Winter Meeting, paper PE-226-PWRS-0-12-1997. T. Van Cutsem, A method to compute reactive power margins with respect to voltage collapse, in IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, 6, 145156, 1991. T. Van Cutsem and C. Vournas, Voltage stability of electric power systems, Power Electronic and Power System Series, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Boston, MA, 1998. V. Venkatasubramanian, X. Jiang, H. Schattler, and J. Zaborszky, Current status of the taxonomy theory of large power system dynamics, DAE systems with hard limits, Proceedings of the Bulk Power System Voltage; Phenomena-III Stability, Security and Control, pp. 15103, August 1994.

Further Reading
There are several good books that discuss voltage stability. Kundur [1994] is the most complete in describing the modeling required to perform voltage stability as well as some of the algebraic model-based methods for assessing proximity to voltage instability. Van Cutsem and Vournas book [1998] provides the only dynamical systems discussion of voltage instability and provides a picture of the various dynamics that play a role in producing voltage instability. Methods for analysis and simulation of the voltage instability dynamics are presented. This analysis and simulation is motivated by a thorough discussion of the network, generator, and load dynamics models and their impacts on voltage instability. Taylor [1994] provides a tutorial review of voltage stability, the modeling needed, and simulation tools required and how they can be used to perform a planning study on a particular utility or system. The IEEE Transactions on Power Systems is a reference for the most recent papers on voltage viability and voltage instability problems. The Journal of Electric Power Systems Research and Journal on Electric Machines and Power Systems also contain excellent papers on voltage instability.

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