Introduction

Definition:
Glass may be defined, physically, as a rigid, under cooled liquid having no definite melting point and a sufficiently high viscosity(greater than 10^12Pa.s) to prevent crystallization; and chemically, as the union of the nonvolatile inorganic oxides resulting from the decomposition and fusion of alkali and alkaline earth compounds. Sands and other glass constituents, ending in a product with a random atomic structure. Glass is a completely vitrified product, or at least such a product with a relatively small amount of non-vitreous material in suspension.

Types and Characteristics:

Glass has many characteristics, as they are transparent, high resistance to chemical attack, an electrical insulator, ability to contain vacuum etc. There are seven types of glass, which are given as following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Annealed Glass Toughened glass Laminated glass Mirrored glass Patterned glass Extra-cleared Glass

Historical background:
The discovery of glass, which we use in our daily life, is very uncertain. Naturally occurring glass was used during Stone Age as the cutting tool. Archaeological evidence shows that first glass was used in north Syria, Mesopotamia or Ancient Egypt. The union of sand and alkali caught the mens attention and led to subsequent effort at imitation. As early as 6000 or 5000B.C. the Egyptians were making sham jewels of glass, which were fine workmanship. A rapid growth in glass technology took place in Egypt and western Asia during Bronze Age. This includes colored glass and beads according to archeologists. Soda ash was the alkali of Syrian and Egyptians they extracted soda ash from ashes of many plants. In central Asia and Egypt extensive glass production occurred during 15th century BC. In Islamic Spain, clear glass mirrors were producing window glass is mentioned as early as 290AD. A twelfths century monk invented the hand blown window glass cylinder. During Medieval times, Venice enjoyed a monopoly as the center of glass industry. No glass was made in either Germany or England until the sixteenth century. Plate glass appeared as a
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rolled product in France in 1688. In 1914, Foucault process for drawing a sheet of glass continuously was developed in Belgium.

Gunj glass works ltd: Introduction and history:

The company is operating two flat glass-manufacturing plants in Pakistan. 1. Gunj glass works (ltd) 2. Ali glass industries (ltd) They are producing largest sheet and safety glass production. Their production is 240 ton/day and 4800 sq ft/day of glass tempering. Two plants were designed by the UK based glass furnace-designing firms and were erected commissioned under supervision of a team of experts. The thickness of company glass is 2mm to 12mm. a safety and decorative glass division was set to produce high quality valued added glasses. One of the largest and the latest tempered safety glass plant in the South Asia came into operation based on forced convection technology to temper all types of online and offline low-E glass. The maximum flat tempered glass size and bend temper glass size is produced 96" x 204" and 96" x 98" respectively. In 2009, An Insulating Glass Units production line from BystronicLenhardt of Germany/Switzerland came into production to produce international quality Double Glazed glass. The maximum IGU size is 91" x 137" and production capacity is 15,000 sq ft/day. AGC (Asahi-Glaverbel) and Guardian world most renowned glass companies certify them. Moreover, from MOODY international. They have very good labor and provide best production to their customers. They have very good testing techniques their products are, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Solar & High Performance Low-E Glass Energy Saving Double Glazed Glass Laminated Glass Glass Furniture Bullet Resistant Glass

The testing and IGU testing equipments in Gunj glass are, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. LowEGlass Coating Detector GASP-Tempered Glass Surface Stress Meter Strengthened Glass Detector Dual Pane Low-E Coating Detector Glass Temperature Detector Tin side Detector Roll Wave Tester
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8. Window Energy Profile

Raw Materials:
Glass has been manufactured industrially by the following major raw materials, SILICA (SAND) LIMESTONE SODA-ASH CULLET FLINT

The portion of raw materials is based on chemical, availability , and physical competence, different sizes, purity-impurity percentage and cost. Along with limestone, we can also use litharge, which would increase the strength, stabilize it, and reduce the need of flux. However, the purpose is to use the most cheap and better-quality raw materials at our disposal. Among the major raw materials are also calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, litharge, zirconium, feldspar, and sand-spar.

Sand:

Sand is the maximum refractory of the most important raw materials, and it is very hard to melt or get to a state of fusion it is important so that it may be molded to very rigid specifications of shape, size and volume. It melts at 3500 F. The grain size distribution is typically between 40 (0.0165 inch or 0.425 mm opening) and 140 mesh size (0.0041 inch or 0.106 mm). Sizing specifications for the other raw materials are dependent on the sand specifications. Sand washing in another very important aspect because the sand obtained from river beds contains a lot of other minerals, particles and dirt and in case of glass making they act as an impurity. They are removed by washing sand by means of large conveyer belts that carry with them sand to be washed and is passed through a shower that essentially is a big shower and is like a room, waste water is pumped back up by motors depending upon the quantity of water that needs be carried. Since larger particles of different shapes and volumes tend to be deposited during raw material flow rate, the other materials have be weighed and sized to exterminate the effects of this segregation.

Wet Sand is then carried by means of a conveyer belt and it further passes through a drying tower, which is at first compresses the sand. In order to remove the moisture from sand it is then sent to a pre-heated zone after compressing This sand after complete removal of moisture (although some moisture is still infused in sand) is sent to a holding, where certain level of sand is maintained After weighing sand is sent into the batch mixer

Cullet:

Cullet or broken and useless glass is very effectively used to improve furnace efficiency. Energy consumption cost is reduced and all of the broken glass which is recycled needs processing to remove various contaminants which become part of recycled glass and to create size, shape and area similarity Cullet is usually separated on basis of its appearance, crushed size which is maximum as that of 1/2of an inch and it is then cleaned via sieves and then vacuumed by putting into suction chamber to remove impurities Aluminum strips, Para-magnetic materials, zeolites and sand content are all considered contaminants and impurities which affect quality of glass All the glass that has been broken or shattered from windows and doors can be used in cullet irrespective of the quality or size 1 ton of glass cullet used saves 310-320 kg of carbon dioxide from getting released into atmosphere and saves cost of raw material by at least 20-25% In terms of its physical and mechanical properties, crushed glass which is in form of cullet behaves very similarly to silica, being a hard material that has very coarse granular material with essentially the similar amount of particle viscosity and depth In many cases, there may be economic uses in using glass cullet in place of natural or mineral contains silica. However this material has other useful properties which may be exposed very effectively .It is also very importantly used as a construction aggregate Powdered glass cullet is pozo-lanic which means that it will react with limestone to form products that are a decisive factor towards strength and quality build-up Glass cullet can also be used in batch which is then placed into the furnace so that less carbon dioxide be produced which is a cause of pollution. Glass cullet also reduces amount of raw material that needs be prepared and reduces amount of heat required for batch to melt overall reducing cost of raw material.

SODA ASH:

It is used as a Fluxing agent in glass making process and is very widely regarded as a backbone of glass making. Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda or soda ash). Its chemical formula is Na2CO3 and it is salt of carbonic acid with excess of sodium content. It most commonly is found as a crystalline hydrate that has seven carbon atoms (hence called hepta-hydrate), which readily breaks down to form pale-yellow powder and that is called hydrate with one carbon atom (mono-hydrated sodium salt). It has to be used from 12 to 15% in batch or in continuous process. It lowers glass transition temperature but also makes it water-soluble, which is undesirable, so in order to remove that effect it is mixed with calcium oxide which is most of the time obtained from limestone but it can be charged simply as well. Along with calcium oxide, we also use aluminum oxide and magnesium oxide to give better chemical durability. It is generally used to supply the maximum alkali and alkaline-earth metals because it is the most cost effective source of Na2O. Dense soda ash is generally used over light soda ash in glass making process because the particles are similar in size to sand and flint. This enables a uniform mixing of raw materials and results in a high quality and with almost with no carbon content product. It also gives fluidity and promotes the melting of glass. ANSAC dense soda ash is very widely used as an ideal and important product for glass making. Glass that has an excellent level of durability and strength and will not break up into large pieces (tempered glass). Many homes constructed today feature windows that are created with soda ash as one of the key raw materials in the mixture.

LIMESTONE:
Limestone, or calcium, is one of the three main ingredients in almost all glass sold commercially. Glass can be made from any combination of three constituents: glass formers, network modifiers, and intermediates. Limestone is one of the primary components of glass. When limestone (calcium carbonate CaCO3) and lime is heated with silica sand (SiO2) it makes a fluid solution not crystallize when it is cooled.

Limestone also gives the much-needed stability to structure of glass, which would be very crucial when liquid glass is changed into solid. If the quantity of limestone is more than required than, the melted batch will be very thick and it is quite possible that it would not give proper glass structure resulting in formation of cracks and thick spots op glass. If the quantity of limestone is less than required then the fluid glass shall be very thin and thin glass would then not be properly rolled on to the rollers which mould it in solid form and thin fluid glass would result into a glass sheet with many imperfections. Limestone makes up the glass network (the glass former), sodium breaks up that network by creating non-bridging oxygen (breaking oxygen-oxygen bonds). This reduces the melting temperature (among other things) and the calcium makes the glass more chemically durable. Without the calcium, the glass would be susceptible to chemical attack by water (weathering). Without the Calcium, the alkali at the surface would react to the atmosphere (namely water) and the surface would become hazy and degraded. Adding Calcium, which is a much less mobile ion than Sodium greatly, reduces this surface interaction. About 5-15 mol% Calcium is needed to accomplish this. Lime makes glass less brittle and more strong when subjected to annealing enabling it to bear atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity It should not in any case exceed the 1/20 of the silica used. Otherwise, it will corrode the glass bins. This is indeed prevented by using a small amount of clay into the melted glass

FLINT:
Flint is a hard form of mineral quartz, which is extracted mainly from rocks and mountains. It comes from a special class of rocks called sedimentary cryptocrystalline. It occurs in many rocks as flakes or long chain structures, so it has to be extracted very carefully. Principal extraction is done by leaching process. When extracted it comes out as black, green, blue, red, grey or even brown and has a waxy appearance.
There is a layer, which is very thin, on the outer surface of the flakes, which is usually colorful usually grey brown and has a coarse texture. Flint is also found very commonly lying around in canyons and deserted parts of the beaches. It is suspected that the ocean releases it on beaches because they cause a huge impact on aquatic life.

To avoid the fermentation raw materials having excess of may flint are heated so that heat removes most of its moisture, to a temperature of 150 to 260 C is approached so that we can use it in fresh form.
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It is sometimes roasted with iron pyrite so that it removes most of its impurities and separates the arsenic and molybdenum impurities.

Secondary Raw Materials:

Along with these principal raw materials for glass making process, there are many other raw materials which are very important although less in quantity but they determine the major properties of glass and in case of soda glass ,hard glass ,colored glass, tempered glass, optical glass etc the major components are the same but its the raw materials in lesser quantity that matter the most and these different types of glass their unique properties.

Raw materials for glass and their % required in glass

Raw materials Silica sand Feldsphatic sand

Major oxide Sio2 Al203 Na2 K20 Na2CO3 CaCO3 SiO2 Na20 Al2O3 FeS2 K20 Al203 K20 Na20 Si02 Al203

Approximate comp. (%) 99.2-99.8 4.6-9.3 1.0-2.4 2.8-4.1 58.2-58.9 54-55.5 69 6.9 18.6 2.6-3.9 2.7 22.2-26.3 2.5-5.6 3.9-4.5 70.7-80.2 10.8-17.4

Sodium carbonate Calcium carbonate Feldspar

Iron Pyrite Aplite sand spar

Sand: Introduction:
Sand is the basic raw material for the manufacturing of glass. Raw sand is brought to plant from the other places like mianwalli. This sand contains impurities. These impurities are removed from the sand by different methods.

Impurities:
The three main chemical contaminates in sand are usually the iron content represented as Fe2O3, the alumina content represented as Al2O3, and Titania represents as TiO2. If the feldspar is present in the sand then alumina content are larger, then the other impurities like CaO, NaO2 and K2O may also contaminants.

Impurities

In the form of:

Iron content

Fe2O3

Alumina content

Al2O3

Titania represents

TiO2

Other impurities like soil and others salts are also present in the sand.

Removal of impurities: Washing:

In the washing process, the water is passed through sand. Water dissolved the soluble impurities. After the washing of sand it allows to dry the sand and water is store in the tank to settle down the impurities particles. Wet sand is spread on the floor of the room .the flower is perforated. The water is drained from these holes. The washed sand form very fine glass and the other color or other defects papers in the glass form by the dried sand. For the washing of the sand a machine is used which consists 4 main parts. Body Round mesh
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Sand convers Piping system Round mesh is fixed in the body of the machine. This round mesh is rotated with the help of the electric motor with a suitable RPM. Sand convers left the sand from the ground and put it into body of the machine. The sand convers moves with the help of the electric motor. Piping system carries the water in the body of the machine and after the washing it carries out the water from the machine. First, fill the body of the machine in such a way that the round mesh is half dipped in the water. Then run the motor of the mesh. Load the machine with the raw sand with the help of the sand convers. The mash and sand interact with each other in the water and the soluble impurities will dissolve in the water. After that the wet sand is taken of the machine and allows it to dry in a room. This room has a prorated floor and water is drained from the sand .after few days the sand is dried and used to make glass. The water is allow to settle the impurities so that it can b use next time..

Other raw materials:

Salt cakes Lime stone Soda ash Dolomite feldspar These raw materials are pure because these are bought from the markets.

Transportation of raw material:

The raw materials are transport from the storage to the silos by the convers. There are two types of convers. Horizontal convers Vertical convers

Silos:
Silos are the empty large body that stored fine raw mater use to for the batch for the glass making process. There are four silos for different raw materials. The continuous process fills the silos. On silo have a capacity to store the 10-ton raw material. For the sake of simplicity the names of the silos are represented by the different colors Raw material salt cakes sand lime stone color

soda ash dolomite feldspar

Batch preparation:
In this section, the batch of the raw material is prepared. The batch consists of 800 kg of the raw material. Raw material from the silo is first weigh according to the report of the analysis lab by the electronic balance. This measured raw material is kept in the batch. All the raw materials are first weigh and then placed in to the batch. In the batch preparation the electronic balance attached to the silo bottom are use to weigh the raw material. All the raw material is introduce in the batch at the same time according to their ratio. The batch consist of the large empty body of hard steal and can move from one place to other place with the help of electric motor and the iron strings.

Mixing of Raw materials:

After the preparation of the batch the different material in the batch are mixed .So that the compositions of all the raw material become same in the batch. The mixing is done mechanically. Batch preparation and mixing of the batch is done from the CCR room. After the mixing the batch the batch is moved toward the furnace to melts the material and to form the glass. Part of mechanical mixer is agitator, electric motor impeller etc. the body of the mixer contain the material, which we have to mix. Agitator agitates the mater and mix the material in the body of the mixer. The electric motor rotates the impeller and the agitator. All these process are controlled electrically from the central control room.

Central control room (CCR):

Glass plant use very large part of machinery for the manufacturing process to control the part of the machinery parts and the overheating of the part the glass plant should have a CCR. In a CCR one man can handle the large number of the sensor and handle many monitors. Central control room controls all the things that are occurring in the glass making plant. The material in the silos, weighing of the material, preparation of the batch, movement of the batch, furnace etc. are control by the CCR. First of all in the morning the analysis lab sent the report of the raw materials. The people in the CCR set the quantity of the raw material according to the report. Then the batch is prepared by the raw material, which is control from the CCR .the temperature of the furnace is also controls by the CCR electronically. CCR have three main user interface board. From on board user control the movement of the batch, weighing of raw material, level of the materials in silos, the rate of the production from the furnace. The second one is used to control the furnace operations like the pressure of the gas, temperature of the furnace, temperature of the water and starting and shutting the furnace. The third board controls the electricity of the whole plant.

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Furnace:
Furnace is the main part of the Glass manufacture process. The basic operation being carried in there is to melt the raw material and make a melt of glass that is further operated for molding and formation. Gunj Glass uses Glaverbell Process for production of glass with capacity of 200 metric tons per day. The furnace installed in Gunj Glass is discussed below is for the production of float glass. That means flat glass production furnace being described below. The furnace installed in Gunj Glass is 22.3 meters long and 7.7 meters wide. Its height is about 6.7 meters. It consumes natural gas to attain high temperatures. It uses furnace oil as an alternative to the natural gas during the shortage of natural gas. The furnace takes 800kg of batch of raw material. It contains 1000kg of molten glass at its base nearly all the time. The furnace is made up of stainless steel. It is lined inside with silica refractory bricks. The inner lining of refractory bricks is one of the most typical of its kind. They provide insulation and allow the high temperatures to be attained without too much loss of heat to the outer temperature. These bricks are also known as firebricks. The process starts from the input of the raw material, carefully mixed and blended together in silos and mixers. The feed is introduced into the furnace where the temperature is about 900oC, which rises to 1580oC 1600oC. The temperature of the furnace decreases from start to its end. That is, highest temperature at start and it gradually decreases through the length of the furnace.

900oC

1600oC

1000oC

500oC

This figure shows the temperature zones along the length of the furnace. The highest temperature is right at the start. It gradually decreases to 500oC at the end of the furnace. Following are the major zones and parts of the furnace: Low viscocity zone. High viscocity zone. Refining zone. Annealing zone. Homogenization. Transport Rollers.

Low Viscocity Zone:

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It is the zone where the Glass melt has just been taken its form. The
raw material blend is fed to the furnace and it is charged to a temperature zone of 900 oC. This temperature is achieved with help of burning natural gas. The temperautre is increased to 1600 oC shortly. The gas is burnt with the help of 12 burners. They are arranged in the sequence of 6 burners in a row, oppsing each other. The opposing burners are lit every 5 minutes, at alternate timings. This high temperature makes the blend to molten form with quite low viscosity. The lower viscosity makes the melt move along the length of the furnace. The level of the glass

melt is specially kept constant throughout the furnace.

High Viscocity Zone:

In this zone, the temperature is lowered and the glass melt is allowed to cool a bit. The cooling causes its viscosity to increase. The glass melt now has a higher viscosity than previous stage. This is the stage where the glass takes up some of its properties in molten form. There are observatory windows along the side of the furnace that are used to look into the furnace. These are are used to take a small portions of glass melt to check and inspect the quality and propertiesof melt.

Refining Zone:
Refining zone is the portion of the furnace where the glass melt is refined to take up a specific molecular structure. The glass melt is refined to a specific composition. The temperature through this zone is about 1200oC. The composition over here still needs to be conditioned.

Homogenization:
The glass melt produced is homogenized and is subjected to forming. The glass melt is made free from any gases and residual unwanted particles. The composition of the glass melt is homogenized here. There is no unwanted particles or unreacted raw material here in homogenizing zone. The composition right through here is homogeneous and same. There are no gases left that will make air bubbles in the glass or any other agent that alters the color or properties of glass.

Annealing Zone:
Annealing zone makes use of cool water at about 40oC. The water is run through the pipes. The water helps generating a small zone where the temperature drops down so much that annealing occurs. The annealing process develops the amorphous structure of glass. The water through the annealing process is recycled for reuse. The water temperature needs not to be more than 40oC. The circulation pipes for water are made to be comprehenssive. If there occurs some kind of problems in the circulation channels, alternate water pipes are just placed
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for the case of emergency. This is the zone where the molten glass eventually hardens and takes its shape. The glass is solidified and is ready to transport out of the furnace.

Transport Rollers:
In traditional circumstancees, a set of 2 rollers transport the solidified glass in horizontal direction. The thickness is controlled and the glass is cut into desired shape. In Gunj Glass, the glass from the furnace is carried out to 3 rollers. Moreover the glass is transported vertically up to cutting section in the upper storey. The 3 different rollers produce different thicknesses of glass. Hence, 3 different variants of glass are being obtained at the same time from the same furnace. This setup of Gunj Glass is efficient in saving space available for production. The rollers raise the glass upto the height of about 45ft. The glass sheets there are cut into specific length according to the requirement. The glass sheets are 84 inches wide and the length is kept according to the requirement or according to the custom order. The rollers also control the thickness of the glass. There are three different glass models that are of different thicknesses produced in Gunj Glass. These are furthur sent to warehouse or cutting section.

PRODUCTION & CUTTING:

The glass sent upcoming through the rollers is directed to the cutting & production section. The glass sheets uprising in this compartment are at 100OC. This section is about 45ft higher than the furnace and is situated directly above the furnace. In
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this section, the glass sheets are raised up with the help of steel rollers. The sheets are then applied a slit that predefines the margins of the glass sheets. The tool used for grooving is made up of high speed steel. The grooved glass sheet is now easy to cut into desired length and width. The cutting is done by gripping the glass sheet with a suction apparatus that produces a vacuum and then grips the glass sheet with a circular adjustable rubber tubing. The strong suction helps gripping the glass sheet, which is then cut by applying a little pressure perpendicular to the glass sheet. The groove helps the sheet to cut through its right positon. The same suction assembley then places the cut glass sheet onto a conveyer. The glass sheets uprising are not of actual length & width, infact they come with an extra unwanted, non-linear edges that are along vertical edges. The edges are removed and the sides along the length are especially seperated. The reason of seperating the sides is the thick edges and uneven surface at the vertical sides.Very often the glass being cut may be mishandled or accidentally broken. That is sent back to cullet collection area. The 15% of the glass is sent back to cullet section. The glass that is sent back to the cullet section contain that is seperated from the main glass sheet as undesird sections. Alongwith the cullet includes the glass that is machined out for designing allowances, tempering allowances etc. In this Cutting & Production Section, the market requirements are taken into account. The length can be varied from standard sizes. The same can be done witth width. If there is popular demand of a specific size or any custom oder is placed, the parameters can definitely be changed according to market requirement.

WAREHOUSE & STORAGE:

After the cutting and other necessary operations, the glass sheets are directed towards the warehouse and storage area. In the warehouse, the glass sheets are categorized according to the sizes and shapes. The glass sheets are also arranged according to their thickness and certain properties. From the warehouse, the glass is sent to either of these two places: Transportation For supply to market. Post forming For value aided products.

Transportation takes into account the pakaging of the glass sheets into special containers made of wood filled with wheat-straw. This packaging makes sure the saftey and the breakage prevention of the glass sheets during the transportation. The packaging is the job performed by labours. Adequate saftey measures are specially taken under consideration in this section which are coverd under Saftey Section later in this article. Another destination of the glass sheets out from warehouse is within the vicinity of the factory area where the post forming operations are performed. These glass sheets in the post forming section are subjected to various types of operations to produce large variety of value-aided products.

POST FORMING:
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The glass obtained from the furnace is sent either to the warehouse or to the post forming section where it undergoes a number of operations according to the consumers demand. However, in Gunj glass besides transparent clear glass, some other products are made whose manufacture and the operations that take place during it are explained as follows:

Tinted Glass:
The glass used for windows in buildings, homes, and cars, while offering the advantage of letting light in, often compromises the privacy that the occupants desire, and can also let in more than the desired amount of heat. Tinted glass, however, provides an easy solution to these problems. Tinted glass refers to any glass that has been treated with a material such as a film or coating, which reduces the transmission of light through it. Glass can be tinted with various types of coating, which block and/or reflect different amounts and types of light, according to the needs and preferences of the consumer. One of the most common ways in which tinted glass is used is in automobile windows. Another popular use of tinted glass is in windows of homes and commercial buildings. Residential glass tinting is much easier to do than automotive tinting. The homeowner himself, with some practice, can even do it. Tinted glass in homes serves many practical purposes, such as limiting ultraviolet light transmission through windows to reduce the fading of furniture and carpet, and reducing heat gain inside the home by reflecting solar heat energy, thereby saving the homeowner money in cooling costs. Tinted glass is also used in commercial buildings to keep the inside cooler, and has the added benefit of giving the outside of a building a more uniform, aesthetically pleasing appearance. Depending on the creative use of different colors of tinted glass, the building can also take on a unique and interesting appearance while being insulated from the sun at the same time. Tinted glass is available in many colors but Gunj glass only produces bronze tinted glass i.e. brown in color.

Flat & Bent Tempered Glass:

Toughened or tempered glass processed by controlled thermal or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering creates balanced internal stresses, which cause the glass, when broken, to crumble into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury. Because of its safety and strength, tempered glass is used in a variety of demanding applications, including passenger
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glass is

type

of safety

vehicle windows, shower doors, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, as a component of bulletproof glass, for diving masks, and various types of plates and cookware. Toughened glass is physically and thermally stronger than regular glass. The greater contraction of the inner layer during manufacturing induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. For glass to be considered toughened; this compressive stress on the surface of the glass should be a minimum of 69 MPa. For it to be considered safety glass, the surface compressive stress should exceed 100 MPa. The greater the surface stress, the smaller the glass particles will be when broken. Toughened glass is used when strength, thermal resistance and safety are important considerations. The most commonly encountered tempered glass is that used for side and rear windows in automobiles. It is used for its characteristic of shattering into small cubes rather than large shards and is sometimes referred to as safety glass in this context. Toughened glass is also used in buildings for unframed assemblies (such as frameless doors), structurally loaded applications, and any other application that would become dangerous in the event of human impact. Rim-tempered indicates a limited area such as the rim of the glass or plate is tempered and is popular in food service. Toughened glass is made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace that heats it above its annealing point of about 720 C. The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inner portion remains free to flow for a short time. During cooling, the glass can be converted into flat or bent form by placing it into the respective moulds. The special product of Ganj glass is a bent tempered glass of radius of 2000mm.

Energy Saving Double Glazed Glass:

Energy is becoming more and more expensive. Double-glazing provides an excellent solution to keep your building cool in summers and warm in winters. It also ensures that noise level remains low. Double-glazing has quickly become one of the most popular and useful form of glazing worldwide. Double-glazing is essentially two layers of glass placed together in a window frame and sealed with special chemicals, which are imported from Germany/Italy. Between both layers of glass, a space exists, therefore reducing heat transfer through glass. When glass panes are placed together, they are known as double glazed units of glass. The glass has thermal and acoustic properties, allowing it to form an excellent source of insulation whilst simultaneously allowing the light to enter your home and office. It noticeably helps to reduce your electricity bill. A state of the art plant from Germany/Switzerland of Bystronic-Lenhardt has been installed to produce IGU units. Let us look at the main components of a double glazed surface area. The glass used in double-glazing needs to be a very specific kind to ensure that maximum insulation, noise reduction and light is achieved. Glass will generally need to be 6mm thick. Glass may be clear, tinted, coated or Low
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E, depending on the specific function required of the double glazing. Tinted glass undergoes a specific treatment that allows the glass to cope with thermal stress, storms and to encourage the re-absorption of heat for highly effective insulation. Double glazed windows that are coated may have a reflective finish or a mirror finish. The two glass panes are separated by a small segment that allows the air between the two panes to be sealed. When a space exists, heat will not travel and disperse; this is how double glazed windows prevent the home from becoming too cold. The spacers themselves are made from non-conductive materials to prevent heat escaping from the window. Double glazed windows are customized to fit the particular space requirements. The double glazed panes are created and then spacers for each panel are cut and fit to the correct size. The glass panes are carefully cleaned on a washing line that ensures the surface remains clear. Then, an adhesive is placed on both opposing sides of the spacer and the glass panels are attached. The outside edges of the panel are sealed using silicon adhesive. The glass is coated or finished according to the manufacturing specifications. Double glazing provides great insulation for your home. The glass is specifically designed to contain heat transference. Most double glazed windows will last for around 20 years and continue to function effectively, so it is a good idea to buy windows that have a long warranty. If double glazed windows are particularly exposed to the elements, they may not last quite as long. There are many highly beautiful double glazed window and door options available. With double glazing you will experience:

Improved Energy Efficiency and Comfort Reduction in Energy Bills Reduce Condensation Increased Security Reduced Noise Transmission

The use of thicker glass and safety glass in a Double Glazing Conversion will improve the security of your home. Special laminated glass will further improve security.

Low Emissivity Glass:

Low-e glass stands for low emissivity glass. This glass varies from normal clear glass in that one side of the glass has a special metal coating, technically known as a low emissitivity, or Low E. coating. Low-E glass is a type of insulating glass, which increases the energy efficiency of windows by reducing the transfer of heat or cold through glass. That
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means in the winter your house stays warmer, and in the summer it stays cooler. There are two types of Low-E (low emissivity) glass available; Pyrolytic (hard coat) is considered to be a medium performer, and sputtered (vacuum deposition or soft coat) is considered to be the highest performer. As energy saving will become more and more important in our daily lives, implementing low-e glass in our houses will soon be a standard we all have to comply to. Low-e glass, how does it work? The radiation coming from your heating system and your furniture and furnishings is long wave radiation. This type of radiation should be contained in your room as best as possible, while the radiation from the sun should be shielded and reflected back outside. Winter: The sun's energy is "SHORT WAVE RADIATION" which passes through the window and is absorbed by carpet, furniture, etc. The energy is then transformed into long wave radiation. The long wave radiation wants to flow from warm to cool. Naturally, it will try to escape from the glass. At night the heats produced from radiators, wood stoves, etc., will also want to escape out through the glazing. The Low-E coating prevents this when the radiant roomside heat is reflected back into the building. This results in a lower winter U-value. For winter comfort, the higher the indoor glass temperature, the better the product is for comfort. Summer: The Low-E coating manages the sun's heat in the summer by reducing the amount of heat transferred through the window in the summer. The Low-E coating filters the sun's shortwave radiation, which cuts down on the amount of solar heat gain into your building. For summer comfort, the lower the indoor glass temperature, the better the product is for comfort.

Bulletproof Glass:
Bulletproof glass (also known bullet-resistant glass) is a type of strong but optically transparent material that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets, but like all other known materials, is not completely impenetrable. It is usually made from a combination of two or more types of glass, one hard and one soft. The softer layer makes the glass more elastic, so it can flex instead of shatter. The index of refraction for both of the glasses used in the bulletproof layers must be almost the same to keep the glass transparent and allow a clear, non-distorted view through the glass. Bulletproof glass varies in thickness from three-quarter inch to three inches (19mm to 76mm). Another construction method, which is becoming popular rapidly, is the use of security laminates as a film on the inner surface of
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ordinary glass. This, when bonded with the application of a pressure sensitive adhesive and cured fully, also provides a protection similar to the multi-layered bullet-resistant glass. The optical clarity is much better and tint-free, thickness and weight are reduced as much as 5070%, and the process can be done as a retrofit on existing windows. Bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using polycarbonate, thermoplastic, and layers of laminated glass. The aim is to make a material with the appearance and clarity of standard glass but with effective protection from small arms. Polycarbonate designs usually consist of products such as Armor max, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, which are often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The ability of a glass itself to withstand shock is improved by the process of tempering. When treated with heating and cooling or with chemical processes, the glass becomes much stronger. The polycarbonate usually has one of two types of coating to resist abrasion: a soft coating that heals after being scratched (such as elastomeric carbon-based polymers) or a hard coating that prevents scratching (such as silicon-based polymers). The plastic in laminate designs also provides resistance to impact from physical assault from hammers, axes, clubs, and so forth. The plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance. The glass, which is much harder than plastic, flattens the bullet, and the plastic deforms, (hopefully) absorbing the rest of the energy and preventing penetration. The ability of the polycarbonate layer to stop projectiles with varying energy is directly proportional to its thickness, and bulletproof glass of this design may be up to three inches thick.

Laminated Glass:
Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the event of breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyl (PVB), between its two or more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern when the impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass. Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or where the glass could fall if shattered. Skylight glazing and automobile used in exterior storefronts, curtain walls and windows. The PVB interlayer also gives the glass a much higher sound insulation rating, due to the damping effect, and also blocks 99% of incoming UV radiation. There are several laminated glass manufacturing processes:
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1. Using two or more pieces of glass bonded between one or more pieces of plasticized polyvinyl butyric resin using heat and pressure. 2. Using two or more pieces of glass and polycarbonate, bonded together with aliphatic urethane interlayer under heat and pressure. 3. Interlaid with a cured resin. Ganj glass uses this same method to produce front door glass, back glass, rear door glass and quarter/vent glass. However, tempering is also used in making of back glass.

Designed & Luxurious Glass:

Designing on glass is done by many processes. These include edging, which is the process of hand, or machine finishing glass that has been cut to size. This treatment prepares the glass for its intended use and makes it easier to handle, to install hardware pieces, to enhance character or to customize. It has following characteristics: Arisen edging or minimum edgework: The sharp edges are hand or machine seamed with an abrasive belt. The flat surface of the cut edge remains unchanged. Grinding: The entire edge is machine grinded with diamond wheels. It gives a satin finish. Polishing: After preliminary grinding, the edge is machine polished with resin wheels. It gives a clear finish. Mitering: The edge is cut at a predetermined angle. The angle can vary from 91 to 135. It gives a clear finish. Beveling: The edge is cut according to a predetermined size. The maximal size of the bevel is 1 " (38 mm). Decorative glass edging: Usually used on thick glass or mirrors. It enhances the contours of glass in many ways. Other processes include: Sandblasting: This procedure is used to give the surface of the glass a satin finish. The transparent areas are masked during sandblasting. The depth and translucency depend on the blasting pressure and the type of sand used. Engraving:
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A decorative procedure using diamond wheels to superficially engrave the surface. It can give a satin or clear finish. Pattern Cutting:

Drilling & Notching:

Etching: Etching refers to the technique of creating art on the surface of glass by applying acidic, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this was done after the glass was blown or cast.

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Now a day, it is also being performed by using CNC machines. And Ganj glass is using this technology. Some of the designs are as under.

Testing Equipment:
There are many types of testing equipment being used at Gunj glass which are as under:

GASP-Tempered Glass Surface Stress Meter LowEGlass Coating Detector Dual Pane Low-E Coating Detector Strengthened Glass Detector Tin side Detector Glass Temperature Detector Window Energy Profiler Roll Wave Tester Some of these equipments were shown practically to us during our visit to the industry.

Sizes available:
Max Flat Tempered Glass: 96" x 204" Max Bend Tempered Glass: 96" x 98" Max Insulated Glass: 91" x 137"

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:

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The Environment related issues, which are taken into account in the glass industry, are as follows: EMISSION TO AIR: Glass manufacture is a very risky process, which results into high temperatures, and many unwanted products, which are hazardous to health (carbon dioxide & nitrogen oxides), and the oxidations of atmospheric nitrogen. Emissions may also contain Particle Matters (PM) and metals. The furnace melting gives almost 80% to 90% of the harmful emissions from a glass. The Emission from finishing phase and forming are of the part, which contributes in it. Manufacture of the flat glass, furniture glass, and automobile glass, which uses the process of annealing and combustion, also generate many emissions where the product is maintained at 500 to 550 C. The Producers can make the products in less weights in containers and in this way decrease the byproduct gases .They will get a greater product in lesser amount of glass and also save the environment. PARTICULATE MATTER: Particulate matter is much known pollutants emission in a glass manufacture. All sub sectors in a industry like this use small grained structures for the raw material. Raw material storage and mixing are common activities for all glass industry sectors. The emissions, which are dust, are always outcome of transporting these raw materials. The particles are very small but they join to make larger particles. They are a very big environmental issue and cause pollution. The prevention, which is done for this type of problem is very necessary, and it can be taken in following steps: Separate storage and batch preparing places from the other areas of interest. Use closed storage for batch materials. Reduce the finer particulates by use of water or alkali solutions. By use of best loading and unloading way Raw material is transported in the batch by the conveyors, which are closed. Decreasing the emission of dust from the blast furnace.

NITROGEN OXIDES: The basic emission sources of nitrogen oxides are the formation of general thermal NO(x) caused by high furnace temperatures, decompositions from the nitrogencontaining compound in the batch raw materials and the nitrogen containing fuels. It can be reduced by decreasing the air to the fuel ratio, sealed burner. Run the furnaces under reduced conditions.
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SULFUR OXIDE: The presence of the oxides of sulfur in the waste gases from glass furnace depends on sulfur content of fuel and sulfate in the fuels. The pollution control techniques, which can be used for this problem of sulfur emissions, include the following: Use of fuels with low sulfur content and in particular natural gas Calcium and sodium amount are also a major thing, which should be considered in this process because it affects a lot. A scrubber should be used by which calcium or sodium based materials are entered before filtering the waste gas Addition of some reactive metal with the wet scrubbers so that emissions are absorbed in the scrubber.

CHLORIDES AND FLOURIDES: These pollutants arise from the same blast furnace but their volumes are limited. The difference occurs in the manufacture of continuous fiberglass. Dry and semi scrubbing techniques are used for this purpose for the treatment of the HF emissions. The use of an electric furnace is another better choice. GREENHOUSE GASES: Glass manufacture is a very important emission source of greenhouse gases (GHG), specially Carbon dioxide (CO2) .The production of 1 Kg of glass creates about 0.6 kg of carbon dioxide. The GHG production is directly linked with type of glass, the fuel used, the efficiency of the process. Due to the requirements of high quality, the opportunity of cullet usage is reduced and restricted. WASTEWATER: The most significant water use occurs during cooling and cullet cleaning. Aqueous emissions will consist of contact cooling water system purges, cleaning waters, and surface water runoff. Closed-water process systems should be used to reduce losses. Amounts of liquid effluents discharge from glass manufacture are marginal in judgment with other industrial sectors and are limited to particular processes (e.g. hot gob quenching and water-cooled shears). Discharge may be pretentious by glass solids, some soluble glass-making materials (e.g. sodium sulfate), some organic compounds caused by lubricant oil used in the cutting process, and action chemicals (e.g. dissolved salts and water treatment chemicals) for the cooling-water system. SOLID WASTE: Most activities of the glass industry produce relatively low levels of waste. Solid waste is generated from glass manufacturing mainly in the shipping areas. Cleanup and
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maintenance in receiving areas can reduce this waste and allow material spills to be collected and added to the raw materials.

THE HEALTH AND SAFETY: Dangers during operation of glass preparation are following: Exposure to noise Exposure to heat Exposure to respiratory hazards Physical hazards Electrical hazards

HEAT: Exposure to heat occurs during maintenance and operation of furnace and other hot equipments .Control and safety methods include following: Prevent excessive heat in the workplace, adequate ventilation and cooling air should be provided to displace fumes and dusty away from the work place Minimizing the time for work in high air temperature environment Using oxygen supplied respirators

NOISE: Workers may be exposed to noise during glass manufacture .hearing loss is a typical illness in this industry, especially for glass container manufacturing .In glass-container manufacturing ,the higher pressure in the cooling mold process may create significant noise emissions .The noise level can be as high as 100 decibels or even greater, Causing HEARING PROBLEMS.

PHYSICAL HAZARDS: Potential eye injuries from broken glass and flying glass particles are a common risk factor in glass manufacture and should be prevented by universal use of safety glasses for all workers and visitors .Severe cutting injuries can arise if flat glass breaks during handling .Injury risk should be minimized by automation of flat glass handling and provision of cut resistance gloves and long aprons to workers who do handle flat glass.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS:

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Workers may exposed to the electrical hazards due to the presence of electrical equipment throughout glass manufacturing facilities .recommendations to prevent are One way to safeguard individuals from electrically energized wires and parts is through insulation. location in a room, vault, or similar enclosure accessible only to qualified persons; Use of permanent, substantial partitions or screens to exclude unqualified persons. Grounding is another method of protecting employees from electric shock

RESPIRATOR HAZARDS (Dust, fumes and toxic compounds Exposure): Occupational health risks in glass manufacturing may be related to the presence ,in workplace, of fine airborne PM .This PM may contain silica dust, deriving from silica sands and feldspar, and sometimes toxic compounds (e.g. lead oxide. boron, arsenic, tin ,nickel, cobalt) .Workplace in container and tableware facilities also typically contain oil fume and smoke arising from hot mold lubrication .Particulates deriving from the manufacturing of lead crystal can reach a lead content of 20-60 %.some special glass manufacturing processes may general levels of HCL.HF, arsenic, antinomy and selenium in the workplace. Methods to prevent and control exposure include Segregating raw material storage and batch preparation areas from other operational areas. Implementing correct loading and unloading practice Providing batch material transportation to the furnace through covered conveyers/tubes. Using ventilation systems.

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