Introduction to Well Completions

INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Contents Page Contents Page Introduction .................................................. 1 Definition ...................................................... 2 Completion History and Evolution ................ 3 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms ....................... 4 Dissolved Gas Drive .......................... 4 Gas Cap Drive ................................... 4 Water Drive ........................................ 5 Artificial Lift ......................................... 5 Completion Classification ............................. 6 Openhole or Barefoot Completions .... 6 Perforated Completions ..................... 8 Naturally Flowing Completions .......... 8 Pumped Production Completions ...... 8 Single Zone Completions .................. 8 Multiple Zone Completions ................ 9 Phases of Well Completion .......................... 9 Establish Objectives and Design Criteria ............................................... 10 Constructing the Wellbore ................. 11 Perforation and Component Installation ......................................... 17 Stimulation ......................................... 18 Initiating Production ........................... 20 Production Evaluation and Monitoring .......................................... 20 The DEE Cycle ............................................ 20
Introduction After a well has been drilled, it must be properly completed before it can be put into production. A complex technology has evolved around the techniques and equipment developed for this purpose. Consequently, the selection of materials, equipment and techniques should only be made following a thorough investigation of the factors which are specific to the reservoir, wellbore and production system under study. This manual has been prepared to outline the planning and execution processes involved in completing wells for oil or gas production or injection. Several of the topics reviewed are included in, or are closely associated with, the range of services and products offered by the Schlumberger organization or alliance partners. These subjects are presented in greater detail to enable a clearer understanding of the technology and help identify potential applications of Schlumberger technology. In support of the topics given a more general explanation, an extensive reference and further reading list is provided in Appendix I. Combining this manual with the reference resources will enable engineers to obtain a working knowledge of most completion design and installation procedures. However, developing familiarity and expertise with specific completion technology often requires experience within a particular operating environment. There are three basic requirements of any completion (in common with almost every oilfield product or service). A completion system must provide a means of oil or gas production (or injection) which is; Safe Efficient Economic Current industry conditions may force operators to place undue emphasis on the economic requirement of completions. However, as will be demonstrated later, a nonoptimized completion system may compromise long-term company objectives. For example, if the company objective is to maximize the recoverable reserves of a reservoir or field, a poor or inappropriate completion design can seriously jeopardize achievement of the objective as the reservoir becomes depleted. In short, it is the technical efficiency of the entire completion system, viewed alongside the specific company objectives, which ultimately determines the completion configuration and equipment used.
CONFIDENTIALITY This manual section is a confidential document which must not be copied in whole or in part or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organisation.
HISTORY/EVOLUTION OF COMPLETIONS 1922 1925 1926 1927 1930 1932 1933 1943 1958 1958 1960 1967 1969 Simple hole-survey tools introduced API addresses tooljoint threads First electric submersible pump used First electric log run (Schlumberger) Well depths exceed 10,000 ft First gravel pack job First gun perforation job First subsea completion (Lake Eire, U.S.A.) Thru-tubing workover techniques developed Wireline retrievable SSSV developed (Camco) Cement bond log developed Computerized well data monitoring developed First coiled tubing job (Bowen)
1300 1814 1822 1861 1863 1880 1882 1890 1895 1905 1910 1911 1913
Marco Polo reports wells on shore of Caspian Sea First well to produce oil - 475 ft Rudimentary art of drilling established First recorded blowout Screwed casing joints developed Standardization of casing begins Straddle rubber wall packer developed First extensive casing program Henry Ford builds the first commercial automobile Casing cemented for the first time Drillpipe tooljoints introduced First gas lift device First dual completed well
Fig. 1. Key events in the history and evolution of oil and gas well completions.
Definition Well completion processes extend far beyond the installation of wellbore tubulars and equipment. To highlight this fact, the following definitions are presented. To the majority of client organizations, completions are:
The design, selection and installation of tubulars, tools and equipment located in the wellbore for the purpose of conveying, pumping or controlling production or injection fluids.
Under this definition, installing and cementing the production casing or liner, as well as logging, perforating and testing are part of the completion process. In addition, complex wellhead equipment and processing or storage requirements effect the production of a well so may have some bearing on the design and configuration of the completion.
The methodology and technology required to produce recoverable reserves (reservoir to surface).
The application of completion methodology and technology requires:
Completion History and Evolution As the understanding of reservoir and production performance has evolved, then so too have the systems and techniques put in place as part of the completion process. Early wells were drilled in very shallow reservoirs which were sufficiently consolidated to prevent caving. As deeper wells were drilled, the problems associated with surface water prompted the use of a casing or conductor to isolate water and prevent caving of the wellbore. Further development of this process led to fully cased wellbores in which the interval of interest is selectively perforated. Modern completions are now commonly undertaken in deep hot and difficult conditions. With the simultaneous improvement in seismic interpretation and drilling technology, wellbores can be precisely placed to optimize production and enable effective reservoir management. There are clear economic benefits to
be gained from reducing the number of wellbores required for any reservoir development. However, fewer, but more efficient wellbores require a greater emphasis to be placed on the design, selection and installation of the completion equipment. Horizontal wellbores, and the technology associated with their completion are becoming common in many fields. Drilling extended reach wells often means that well servicing and intervention options are severely restricted, further emphasizing the importance of correct design and installation of the initial completion equipment. In all cases, achieving the completion objectives, and subsequent production targets are a result of careful planning and preparation. The introduction of key technologies and timing of events that have significantly influenced oil and gas well completions are shown in Fig 1.
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The cost breakdown example shown in Fig. 2 was prepared for a 10,000ft land well. Due to the variations in specific drilling and completion conditions and options, it is difficult to present data for a "typical well". However, in the example shown, "completion equipment" accounted for approximately 10% of the total cost for the well. Reservoir Drive Mechanisms Reservoirs are generally classified by the type of drive mechanism. As hydrocarbons are formed and accumulated, energy is stored within the reservoir which, under favorable conditions, enables the flow of oil and gas to the wellhead. Three basic types of drive mechanisms are most commonly encountered. Dissolved gas
When the reservoir drive is unable to provide sufficient energy to overcome the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid in the wellbore, artificial lift will be required to sustain production. Dissolved Gas Drive In a dissolved gas drive reservoir, the oil contains dissolved gas. A pressure drop, or drawdown, causes the gas to escape from the oil, thereby forcing fluid through the reservoir toward the wellbore. In addition, the gas assists in lifting fluids to the surface (Fig. 3). Generally considered the least effective reservoir drive mechanism, dissolved gas drive typically yields only 15% to 25% of the oil originally contained in the reservoir. Gas Cap Drive
Gas cap Water drive In practice, most reservoirs produce under a combination of these primary drive mechanisms. Some reservoirs contain more gas than can be dissolved in the oil under the reservoir pressure and temperature conditions. The surplus gas, rises to the top of the reservoir and forms a gas cap over the oil. The gas expands to drive the oil toward the wellbore (Fig. 4).
Cap rock
Reservoir
Basement
Fig. 3. Dissolved gas drive reservoir.
Gas cap drive is more effective then dissolved gas drive typically yielding from 25% to 50% of the oil contained in the reservoir. Water Drive When the formation containing an oil reservoir is uniformly porous and is continuous over a large area, salt water generally is present in surrounding parts of the same formation. These vast quantities of water provide a store of energy which can aid the production of oil and gas. The energy comes from the expansion of water as pressure in the petroleum reservoir is reduced through the production of oil and gas. Water is generally considered incompressible, but will actually compress and expand about one part in 2500 per 100 psi change in pressure. When the enormous quantities of water present are considered, this expansion results in a significant amount of energy which can aid the drive of reservoir fluids to surface. The water also moves and displaces oil and gas in an upward direction out of the lower parts of the reservoir (Fig. 5).
Water drive is the most efficient primary drive mechanism, capable of yielding up to 85% of the original oil in place. This process is often supplemented by the injection of treated salt water into the reservoir to maintain the pressure and 'sweep' the oil toward the well bore. Artificial Lift When the reservoir does not, or can no longer, provide sufficient energy to produce fluid at an economical rate, some assistance through artificial lift may be required. There are four basic types of artificial lift (see Section 5), rod pump, hydraulic lump, electric submersible pump and gas lift. Each system having advantages/disadvantages that are considered during a completion equipment selection process. Only gas lift is compatible with all of the reservoir drive mechanisms previously identified.
Gas cap
Cap rock
Reservoir
Basement
Fig. 4. Gas cap drive reservoir.
Cap rock
Reservoir
Water drive
Fig. 5. Water drive reservoir.

Completion Classification There are several ways of classifying or categorizing oil and gas well completions. The most common criteria for classification include the following. Wellbore/reservoir interface, i.e., open-hole or cased hole completion. Production method, i.e., natural flowing or pumped production. Producing zones, i.e., single zone or multiple zone production. Openhole or Barefoot Completions Barefoot completions are only feasible in reservoirs with sufficient formation strength to prevent caving or sloughing. In such completions there exists no means of selectively producing or isolating intervals within the reservoir or openhole section. External gravel packs may also be used to control sand production in poorly consolidated reservoirs. In such cases, it is common to underream the interval of interest (Fig. 6b) The production casing or liner is set and cemented in the reservoir cap rock leaving the wellbore through the reservoir open (Fig. 6a). Where possible, the final section through the pay zone is drilled using non-damaging fluids, or is drilled in an underbalanced condition. This completion technique is now almost entirely abandoned except for a few low pressure formations and in highly specialized conditions where formation damage from drilling fluids is severe. To prevent an unstable formation from collapsing and plugging the wellbore, slotted screen or perforated liners may be placed across the open hole sections.
Cap Rock
(a) Openhole completion
Reservoir
(b) Gravel pack or uncemented liner
Fig. 6. Openhole completions.
Cap Rock
(a) Cemented Casing Reservoir
(b) Cemented Liner
Fig. 7. Openhole completions.
Perforated Completions The evolution and development of efficient and reliable perforating tools and logging services has enabled complex completions to be designed with a high degree of efficiency and confidence. Modern perforating charges and techniques are designed to provide a clear perforation tunnel through the damaged zone surrounding the wellbore. This provides access to undamaged formation allowing the reservoir to be produced to its full capability. Cased and cemented wells generally require less complex pressure control procedures during the early stages of installing the completion components. Efficient reservoir interpretation and appraisal techniques combined with a high degree of depth control, enables selective perforating. This helps ensure the successful completion and production of modern-day oil and gas wells by precisely defining which zones of the reservoir will be opened for flow (Fig. 7). Multiple zone completions are often used in reservoirs with complex structures and unusual production characteristics. The ability to select and control the production (or injection) of individual zones is often the key to ensuring the most efficient production regime for the field or reservoir. Consequently, modern multiple completions may be complex but maintain a high degree of flexibility and control of production. Naturally Flowing Completions Wells completed in reservoirs which are capable of producing without assistance are typically more economic to produce. However, in high-temperature, high-pressure applications, a great deal of highly specialized engineering and design will be required to ensure the safety requirements are met. In general, naturally flowing wells require less complex downhole components and equipment. In addition, the long-term reliability and longevity of the downhole components is generally better than that of pumped completions. In many cases, wells may be flowed naturally during the initial phases of their life, with some assistance provided by artificial lift methods as the reservoir depletes. Such
considerations must be reviewed at the time of initial completion to avoid unnecessary expense and interruption to production. Pumped Production Completions All pumped or artificially lifted completions require the placement of specialized downhole components. Such components are electrically or mechanically operated, or are precision engineered devices. These features often mean the longevity or reliable working life of a pumped completion is limited. In addition, the maintenance or periodic workover requirements will generally be greater than that of naturally flowing completions. Pumped or assisted lift production methods currently in use include the following. Rod pump Gas lift Electric submersible pump Plunger lift Jet pump Single Zone Completion In single zone completions, it is relatively straightforward to produce and control the interval of interest with the minimum of specialized wellbore or surface equipment. Since typically one conduit or tubing string is involved, the safety, installation and production requirements can be easily satisfied. In most single zone completions, a packer (or isolation device) and tubing string is used. This provides protection for the casing or liner strings and allows the use of flow control devices to control production. The complexity of the completion is determined by the functional requirements and economic viability. Several contingency features may be installed at a relatively minor cost at the time of initial installation. Consequently, close consideration must be given to such options during the initial design phase.
Multiple Zone Completions Multiple zone completions are obviously designed to produce more than one zone of interest. However, there are many possible configurations of multiple zone completion, some of which allow for selective, rather than simultaneous production. For a reservoir having multiple pay zones there are four basic completion options. Produce the zones sequentially through a single tubing string. Produce several zones simultaneously through multiple tubing strings. Produce several zones, commingled through a single production string. Drill and complete a separate well for each zone of interest. Selection of the most appropriate option must follow a careful study of the specific conditions encountered. The equipment installed to allow the necessary flexibility and production options may be complex (Fig 8). Phases of Well Completion Since the ultimate efficiency of a completion is determined by operations and procedures executed during almost every phase of a wells life, a continual review and monitoring process is required. In the majority of cases, a sequential and logical approach to the design and execution process is required. Typically this can be summarized as follows. Establish objectives and design criteria Constructing the wellbore Installation of the completion components Initiating production Production evaluation and monitoring
Fig. 8. Multiple zone completion configuration example.
As in all design and execution processes, the acquisition of accurate or representative data is essential to the timely achievement of the stated objectives. The level of accuracy required will vary with the data typefrom the assumption of essential reservoir formation and fluid properties to more general properties which can more easily be measured (Fig 9).
1.5.1 Establish Objectives and Design Criteria This initial phase may be summarized as the collection of data pertaining to the reservoir, wellbore and production facility parameters. This data is considered alongside constraints and limitations which may be technical or non technical in nature, e.g., company policy. Some flexibility may be required, especially in exploration or development wells, where there are several unknown or uncertain parameters.
3 Completion Can be controlled.
2 Reservoir properties Can be measured.
1 Reservoir boundary Can be estimated.
Fig. 9. Principal factors affecting a wells performance.
The principal factors affecting the performance of any well relate to the three areas illustrated in Figure 9. Of these, many of the fluid and reservoir properties can be measured or inferred from measurements. However, in general they cannot be controlled. By contrast, almost all elements of a completion can be controlled and appropriate selection will therefore affect well performance. The objectives for which a completion system is designed vary, however, the following points may be regarded as fundamental and will have some bearing in most applications. Ensure potential for optimum production (or injection). Provide for adequate monitoring and servicing. Provide some flexibility for changing conditions, applications or contingency measures. Contribute to efficient field/reservoir development and production. Ensure cost efficient installation and operation. 1.5.2 Constructing the Wellbore The principal objectives associated with wellbore construction will typically include: Efficiently drill the formation while causing the minimum practicable near wellbore damage. Acquire wellbore survey and reservoir test data used to identify completion design constraints. Prepare the wellbore through the zone of interest for the completion installation phase (run and cement production casing or liner and preparation for sand control or consolidation services). There are many issues which directly, or indirectly, influence the process of wellbore design and construction. The examples provided below can have significant effect on the productivity of a well. In addition, the effects are not always consistent. For example, in one case impaired vertical permeability may constrain production. In another case, the same condition may be helpful in reducing gas or water coning.
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Formation damage (fluid invasion) Completion geometry (wellbore profile) Fluid behavior (multiphase flow) Geology (fractures and heterogeneity) Only in very rare circumstances can a wellbore be constructed (drilled and cemented) without any damage to the reservoir occurring. The completion and perforation process presents an opportunity for early damage to be bypassed, however, poorly designed and executed operations may result in even further damage being caused. Once in production, the wellbore conditions, reservoir parameters and the characteristics of reservoir fluids may result in the deposition of scale, wax or asphaltenes in or near the wellbore, causing additional skin effect. Workover operations performed later in the life of a well, especially applications requiring the well to be killed, also present a risk of damage. Consequently, the risk of reservoir damage is present throughout the life of a well.
Drilling and Cementing

Filtrate damage - reduced permeability caused by interaction of drilling fluid filtrate, the reservoir rock and/or the fluids within it (Fig. 10). Risk of damage is reduced by careful fluid selection or treatment of base fluid, e.g., freshwater muds tend to be more damaging than oil based muds. Filter-cake formation - not generally a problem in perforated wells, may effect open-hole or special gravel pack completions. Solids migration - Solids from the drilling fluid can plug vugs and natural fractures present in some reservoir formations. If drilling losses have been controlled with LCM (lost circulation material) the effect can be severe and the damage difficult to remove if the LCM is not acid soluble. Cement filtrate - as for drilling fluid, the effect of cement filtrate can be damaging.
Dynamic fluid loss
Filtrate invaded zone
Washes and Spacers - fluids intended to remove the drilling fluid filtercake to ensure adequate cement bonding can, by their nature, be invasive and be ultimately damaging.
Completion
Filter cake Spurt loss Perforating - underbalanced perforating provides several advantages in removing or avoiding damage, especially if the well can be placed directly on production (no well kill) after perforating. Completion fluid losses - if the well must be killed to conclude the completion process, it may be difficult to prevent or control completion fluid losses.
Fig. 10 Drilling fluid damage.
Production
Scale - deposited following reaction of water soluble materials to changing temperature and pressure conditions (Fig. 11). Depending on the type of scale and location of the scale, removal may vary from easy to impossible. Scale avoidance or inhibition is typically the preferred option. Wax and Asphaltene - solids which precipitate in or near the wellbore with changing temperature and pressure conditions.
Scale in the formation Scale in perforations
Workover Fig. 11 Production damage (scale)

Completion fluid loss Workover fluid losses - kill pills, containing plugging materials, are frequently spotted to enable the well to be killed (Fig. 12). Selection of an appropriate material which enables subsequent clean-up or removal is essential.
Completion geometry
The geometry of the wellbore and the dimensions of the completion components have obvious compatibility requirements. Similarly, the nature and configuration of the reservoir will have some bearing on the optimal wellbore profile. There are two basic means of providing options for reservoir/wellbore interface: Designing the wellbore profile Selecting the perforated interval
Kill pill residues
Fig. 12 Workover fluid invasion.
The completion geometry can have several effects on the performance of a well. Influence of completion geometry skin (Sc) Susceptibility to coning and resultant gas or water production Influence of mechanical skin (Sm) on productivity In the case of an isotropic reservoir ht Sm + So hp Basement Cap rock
Total skin =
Fig. 13 Vertical wellbore.

where : Sm So ht hp = mechanical skin = completion skin = reservoir height = perforated interval
Cap rock
Most wellbores can be described as being vertical, deviated or horizontal. Each category has associated advantages and disadvantages. However, in the majority of reservoirs currently being developed, horizontal wells provide significant benefits and are becoming a preferred option in many cases. Vertical wellbore - provides limited intersection of the reservoir, especially on thin reservoirs. However, this configuration provides improved predictability/control on reservoirs which are to be stimulated by hydraulic fracturing (Fig. 13). Deviated wellbore - extends the reach of the well to access outlying reserves and improves productivity by increasing reservoir contact, especially in thin reservoirs. (Fig. 14). In wellbores deviated greater than 45, significant productivity gains can be realized. Horizontal wellbore - significant increase in productivity, especially in thin reservoirs. Reduced influence of skin and reduced susceptibility to water and gas coning (Fig. 15).
Basement
Fig. 14 Deviated wellbore.
Cap rock
Water zone
Fig. 15 Horizontal wellbore.
Fully completed wells - higher initial production but with reduced control or contingency for unwanted water or gas. Partial completion - reduced production but improved control of coning or unwanted water/gas production. Effect of skin also increased.
Multiphase flow
Control of gas and water is an important aspect of completion design and operation. In addition to meeting the initial reservoir requirements, there is often need for contingency or remedial redesign work. Consequently, the wellbore should, in ideal circumstances, be designed for conditions anticipated over the lifetime of the well or reservoir. Unwanted gas production may originate from several sources (Fig. 16), e.g., Poor cement bond on casing/liner Gas coning Oil production rate Preferential flow through high permeability streaks
Bubble point Bottom hole pressure
Fig. 17 Gas break-out.

Falling gas/oil contact due to reservoir depletion Two phase fluid flow resulting from unwanted gas production may present several problems. These are largely dependent on the quantity/ratio of gas and the location at which the gas breakout occurs. Figure 17 shows gas breakout occurring in the reservoir formation. Similarly, in some gas wells condensate dropout may occur when the pressure drops below the dewpoint. In addition to causing a loading effect on the wellbore, liquids may induce a positive skin factor. The increase in friction pressure caused by two-phase fluid flow can result in a significant pressure drop in such cases. Unlike gas, water production is always undesirable. Water only acts to reduce the productivity of a well and subsequently requires special treatment and disposal when produced to surface. Similar to gas, sources of water production include the following (Fig. 18): Poor cement bond on casing/liner Water coning
GOC
Gas Oil Gas coning Cement channel
Fig. 16 Gas production.
Preferential flow through high permeability streaks
GOC Water injection well
High-perm streak Gravity slumping
OWG High-perm streak
Bubble Fig. 18 Water production. Point Rising water/oil contact due to reservoir depletion Injection water break-through Break through of injection water may result from gravity slumping, a high permeability layer or viscous fingering which may effect the reservoir at a significant distance from the injection wellbore.
Bubble Point
Response to acid or chemical treatments, e.g., effected by rock mineralogy. Susceptibility to reservoir damage, e.g., effected by mineral type and distribution. On a large scale, i.e., heterogeneities present over several feet, can be seen as layering (Fig. 20) which may have the following influences
Geology
Unlike the assumptions of many mathematical production models and the simplicity of reservoir diagrams, very few reservoirs are totally homogenous. The heterogenous characteristics of a reservoir have bearing on several parameters, e.g., productivity and unwanted water or gas production. Heterogeneities also make interpretation of test results more difficult. Typically the vertical permeability (kv) is less than the horizontal permeability (kh), therefore kv/kh<1. The rock grain size and configuration has a direct effect on both vertical and horizontal permeability, although not always consistently. Rock grain issues include the following. Alignment of platy or oblate grains with the direction of fluid flow (Fig. 19).
Presence of mica reduces kv but not kh
Fig. 19 Rock grain structure.
Not producing
Not producing
Low permeability layers reduce vertical flow
Fig. 20 Layered formation (macro).

Reduced tendency to coning Decreased productivity in partially completed wellbores On a smaller scale, i.e., over several inches, the effects may be more variable and may effect the performance of individual perforations (Figure 21). Wellbores which intersect natural fractures will typically have improved productivity (Fig. 22). However, the fracture may provide a conduit to unwanted water or gas which is ultimately difficult to control. In such a fractured formation, wellbores which do not intersect a fracture will have reduce productivity and may display abnormally high skin values (Fig. 23).
Fig. 21 Layered formation (micro).

Formations containing low permeability layers or streaks may have reduced productivity due to reduced vertical permeability. However, the disadvantage of any loss of productivity may be counteracted by a reduced tendency to coning. The presence of shale may impose significant barriers to reservoir production, even if only present as a continuous thin streak (Fig. 24). In such cases, reservoir management can be complex since predicting production profiles and characteristics is difficult. The production of sand and formation fines can cause several problems which, in addition to constraining well productivity, effect the production facilities, completion components, and reservoir stability.
Oil Water
Fracturing
Fig. 22 Fracture intersected.
Fig. 23 Fracture missed.
Gas Oil
Gas coning prevented by shale Shale Gas underrunning
Sand control measures may be necessary to: Prevent erosion of wellbore and production components Minimize surface disposal requirements Minimize wellbore fill Prevent the formation of large void areas behind the casing/liner that may be impossible to isolate
Partial completion skin = 0
Fig. 24 Shale streak.
Severe, or long-term, sand production may result in voids forming behind the casing or liner (Fig. 25). Further erosion over an extended period and wellbore interval may lead to subsidence around the wellbore which could ultimately lead to casing collapse (Fig. 26). Common sand control measures include sand consolidation, sand screens and gravel packing. The most common method, gravel packing, requires design and selection processes to be carefully undertaken to ensure that the gravel (sorted sand), screens and other completion equipment are compatible with the wellbore and reservoir conditions. Incorrectly applied, gravel packing can pose a greater constraint on production than the problem it is intended to avoid. Perforation and Component Installation Wellbores that are cased and cemented are generally stable and enable selective production (or subsequent isolation) to be achieved easily and reliably. The productivity of most perforated completions can be maximized by optimizing the following. Perforation length High-shot densities Perforation phasing
Sand void
Plugged perforation
Fig. 25 Sand voids.
Loose sand
Underbalanced perforating In an ideal reservoir, it would be desirable to perforate the entire producing interval. However, there are few reservoirs in which this is advisable. The effects of water and gas coning, high permeability streaks etc. can be significantly reduced by selective, or controlled, perforating
Fig. 26 Formation/casing collapse.
In general, the optimum completion configuration (and system) will provide a balance between flexibility and simplicity.
ug thro g n i a e k ow er fl erm str t a W -p high
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Stimulation Many reservoirs require some stimulation applied during, or soon after, the completion process to achieve viable production rates. Such treatments can generally be categorized as hydraulic fracturing or matrix treatments, selection being dependent on the characteristics of the reservoir rock, fluids and the nature of any damage which is to be removed or bypassed.
Fig. 27 Partial completion (lower).
Hydraulic fracturing
Propped Fracs - A fracture is initiated and propagated with specially engineered fluid, pumped at high-rate and highpressure to form a fracture radiating from the wellbore. Proppant carried by the fracturing fluid remains in place as the pressure is bled off and the fracture close. The resulting high permeability fracture provides a high productivity conduit to the wellbore (Fig. 29). Acid Fracs - This technique applies to carbonate reservoirs and involves pumping acid in stages with the fracture fluid. The acid reacts with the carbonate reservoir to form etched surfaces on the fracture, thereby preventing complete closure following bleed-off of the fracture fluid (Fig. 30).
Water coning
Fig. 28 Partial completion (upper).

(Fig. 27 and 28 ). This results in a partial completion which, if properly designed, provides the best compromise of productivity and control. The proper selection and installation of completion components is an obvious requirement. Components may be broadly categorized as follows. Primary completion components - essential components necessary for the completion to function safely, e.g., packers. Ancillary completion components - providing the completion system with increased flexibility and control, e.g., sliding sleeve.
Wellbore
Propant trapped in fracture
Fig. 29 Hydraulic fracturing.
Gas
Oil Wellbore Water Acid etched fracture and worm holes Fracture has grown into water zone
Fig. 30 Acid fracturing.

In all fracturing treatments care must be taken during the design and execution phases to minimize the risk of fracturing into undesirable water or gas producing areas (Fig. 31). Matrix Treatments - Designed to remove or bypass near wellbore damage, the treatment is performed below the formation fracture pressure. The resulting interconnected wormholes provide higher conductivity near the wellbore (Fig. 32). Appreciable productivity increases following matrix treatment will generally only occur if significant damage is present.
Fig. 31 Fracture design.

The treatment mechanism is dependent on the type of reservoir rock. Most carbonate reservoirs are treatable with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The acid bypasses damage and links vugs and natural fractures to create a highly permeable path. In sandstone reservoirs, a mud acid treatment (hydrofluoric acid - HF/HCl) is typically used. This acid formulation can dissolve siliceous materials, so is capable of removing the damage rather than bypassing the damage, as in carbonate reservoirs. To be fully effective, any treatment should be properly applied through the treatment interval. For near wellbore treatments, such as acidizing, incomplete treatments due to variable perforation performance can be a problem (Fig. 33).
Gas
Stimulated area Oil
Wellbore
Acid etched wormholes
Perforation plugged (e.g., with CaCO3)
Fig. 32 Matrix treatment (carbonates).
Fig. 33 Incomplete treatment.
Initiating Production In most cases, this phase of the completion process is further subdivided into the following three stages. Initiating flow to establish communication between the reservoir and the wellbore. Defining an appropriate clean up program to enable the ultimate production rate to be achieved safely and without damage to the reservoir, completion components or surface production facilities. Design of any initial stimulation treatment which may be necessary to enable the restoration of permeability in the near wellbore area. Production Evaluation and Monitoring An initial production evaluation is necessary to confirm that the completion system achieves the production capabilities required by the design objectives. Subsequent evaluation and monitoring exercises will provide the following production information on the reservoir, well and completion system. Statistics relating to the reliability and longevity of completion components. Verification that assumptions made during the design process were accurate or representative. Trends or statistical departures which may provide early indication of completion problems or the need for intervention or workover. Periodic monitoring of reservoir parameters provides useful data for the completion and production of offset wells or recompletion as required by reservoir depletion. The DEE Cycle The previous five phases have, in effect, outlined a DESIGN, EXECUTE and EVALUATE* cycle for completion activities. They represent a logical and structured approach to a process which may be complex and require the involvement of several departments and engineering disciplines.
Even by this short introduction to oil and gas well completion, several conclusions quickly become apparent. These should be borne in mind as the completion design process is further investigated. The safe, efficient and economic completion of an oil or gas well is a complex process. A structured approach to defining the design criteria of a well is essential. Critical to this effort is a comprehensive formation evaluation program. The design of well completions is a dynamic process taking into account data gathered on the performance of previous completions. However, no two wells are exactly alike! A degree of flexibility should be built into the design and configuration of completions to allow for anomalies and uncertainties. All completions comprise a variety of tubular and specialized components. The total number of components will directly effect the complexity, inherent reliability and longevity of a successful completion system.
* Mark of Schlumberger

Introduction to Well Completions

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Introduction to Well Completions

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS

tin rfo Pe io na l C C em orin g en tin g ire ct & Se rv ic es

Operational Phase/Cost Category

Fig. 2. Well cost breakdown example (10,000 ft land well).

Fig. 3. Dissolved gas drive reservoir.

Fig. 4. Gas cap drive reservoir.

Fig. 5. Water drive reservoir.

(a) Openhole completion

(b) Gravel pack or uncemented liner

Fig. 6. Openhole completions.

(a) Cemented Casing Reservoir

(b) Cemented Liner

Fig. 7. Openhole completions.

Fig. 8. Multiple zone completion configuration example.

3 Completion Can be controlled.

2 Reservoir properties Can be measured.

1 Reservoir boundary Can be estimated.

Fig. 9. Principal factors affecting a wells performance.

Drilling and Cementing

Dynamic fluid loss

Filtrate invaded zone

Fig. 10 Drilling fluid damage.

Scale in the formation Scale in perforations

Workover Fig. 11 Production damage (scale)

Kill pill residues

Fig. 12 Workover fluid invasion.

Fig. 13 Vertical wellbore.

Fig. 14 Deviated wellbore.

Fig. 15 Horizontal wellbore.

Bubble point Bottom hole pressure

Fig. 17 Gas break-out.

Gas Oil Gas coning Cement channel

Fig. 16 Gas production.

Preferential flow through high permeability streaks

GOC Water injection well

High-perm streak Gravity slumping

OWG High-perm streak

Presence of mica reduces kv but not kh

Fig. 19 Rock grain structure.

Low permeability layers reduce vertical flow

Fig. 20 Layered formation (macro).

Fig. 21 Layered formation (micro).

Fig. 22 Fracture intersected.

Fig. 23 Fracture missed.

Gas coning prevented by shale Shale Gas underrunning

Partial completion skin = 0

Fig. 24 Shale streak.

Fig. 25 Sand voids.

Fig. 26 Formation/casing collapse.

ug thro g n i a e k ow er fl erm str t a W -p high

Fig. 27 Partial completion (lower).

Fig. 28 Partial completion (upper).

Propant trapped in fracture

Fig. 29 Hydraulic fracturing.

Fig. 30 Acid fracturing.

Fig. 31 Fracture design.

Stimulated area Oil

Acid etched wormholes

Perforation plugged (e.g., with CaCO3)

Fig. 32 Matrix treatment (carbonates).

Fig. 33 Incomplete treatment.

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