1.

General Definitions:
Acid: a substance which when added to water produces hydrogen ions [H+]. Base: a substance which when added to water produces hydroxide ions [OH-].

2. Properties:
Acids:
react with zinc, magnesium, or aluminum and form hydrogen (H2(g)) react with compounds containing CO32- and form carbon dioxide and water turn litmus red taste sour (lemons contain citric acid, for example) DO NOT TASTE ACIDS IN THE LABORATORY!!

Bases:
feel soapy or slippery turn litmus blue they react with most cations to precipitate hydroxides taste bitter (ever get soap in your mouth?) DO NOT TASTE BASES IN THE LABORATORY!!

3. Water dissociation: H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

equilibrium constant, KW = [H+][OH-] / [H2O]
Note: water is not involved in the equilibrium expression because it is a pure liquid, also, the amount of water not dissociated is so large compared to that dissociated that we consider it a constant

Value for Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

Note: The reverse reaction, H+(aq) + OH-(aq) [H+] for pure water = 1 x 10-7 [OH-] for pure water = 1 x 10-7 H2O(l) is not equal to 1 x 10-14

Definitions of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on [H+]

acidic: if [H+] is greater than 1 x 10-7 M basic: if [H+] is less than1 x 10-7 M neutral: if [H+] if equal to 1 x 10-7 M

Example 1: What is the [H+] of a sample of lake water with [OH-] of 4.0 x 10-9 M? Is the lake acidic, basic, or neutral? Solution: [H+] = 1 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-9 = 2.5 x 10-6 M Therefore the lake is slightly acidic Remember: the smaller the negative exponent, the larger the number is. Therefore: acid solutions should have exponents of [H+] from 0 to -6. basic solutions will have exponents of [H+] from -8 on.

Example 2: What is the [H+] of human saliva if its [OH-] is 4 x 10-8 M? Is human saliva acidic, basic, or neutral? Solution: [H+] = 1.0 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-8 = 2.5 x 10-7 M The saliva is pretty neutral.

4. pH
relationship between [H+] and pH pH = -log10[H+] Definition of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on pH acidic: if pH is less than 7 basic: if pH is greater than 7 neutral: if pH is equal to 7
The [H+] can be calculated from the pH by taking the antilog of the negative pH Example 3: calculate the [OH-] of a solution of baking soda with a pH of 8.5. Solution: First calculate the [H+]

if pH is 8.5, then the antilog of -8.5 is 3.2 x 10-9. Thus the [H+] is 3.2 x 10-9 M Next calculate the [OH-] 1.0 x 10-14 / 3.2 x 10-9 = 3.1 x 10-6 M Example 4: Calculate the pH of a solution of household ammonia whose [OH-] is 7.93 x 10-3 M. Solution: This time you first calculate the [H+] from the [OH-] 7.93 x 10-3 M OH- = 1.26 x 10-12 M H+ Then find the pH -log[1.26 x 10-12] = 11.9 Now you try a few by yourself. You can then check your answers using the Java applet that follows, but remember, you won't learn how to do them if you don't try by yourself first. Practice #1. What is the pH of a solution of NaOH that has a [OH-] of 3.5 x 10-3 M? Practice #2. The H+ of vinegar that has a pH of 3.2 is what? Practice #3. What is the pH of a 0.001 M HCl solution?

How can pH be determined experimentally?

By using pH paper or a pH meter

5. Strength of Acids and Bases: Acids

1. Strong Acids:
completely dissociate in water, forming H+ and an anion. example: HN03 dissociates completely in water to form H+ and N031-. The reaction is HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + N031-(aq)

A 0.01 M solution of nitric acid contains 0.01 M of H+ and 0.01 M N03- ions and almost no HN03 molecules. The pH of the solution would be 2.0. 1. HCl 2. H2SO4 3. HNO3 4. HClO4 5. HBr 6. HI Note: when a strong acid dissociates only one H+ ion is removed. H2S04 dissociates giving H+ and HS04- ions. H2SO4 H+ + HSO41-

There are only 6 strong acids: You must learn them. The remainder of the acids therefore are considered weak acids.

A 0.01 M solution of sulfuric acid would contain 0.01 M H+ and 0.01 M HSO41(bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate ion).

2. Weak acids:
a weak acid only partially dissociates in water to give H+ and the anion for example, HF dissociates in water to give H+ and F-. It is a weak acid. with a dissociation equation that is HF(aq) H+(aq) + F-(aq)

Note the use of the double arrow with the weak acid. That is because an equilibrium exists between the dissociated ions and the undissociated molecule. In the case of a strong acid dissociating, only one arrow ( ) is required since the reaction goes virtually to completion. An equilibrium expression can be written for this system: Ka = [ H+][F-] / [HF]

Which are the weak acids? Anything that dissociates in water to produce H and is not one of the 6 strong acids. 1. Molecules containing an ionizable proton. (If the formula starts with H then it is a prime candidate for being an acid.) Also: organic acids have at least one carboxyl group, COOH, with the H being ionizable. 2. Anions that contain an ionizable proton. ( HSO41- H+ + SO42- ) 3. Cations: (transition metal cations and heavy metal cations with high charge) also NH4+ dissociates into NH3 + H+

Bases
1. Strong Bases:

They dissociate 100% into the cation and OH- (hydroxide ion). example: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

a. 0.010 M NaOH solution will contain 0.010 M OH- ions (as well as 0.010 M Na+ ions) and have a pH of 12. Which are the strong bases? The hydroxides of Groups I and II. Note: the hydroxides of Group II metals produce 2 mol of OH- ions for every mole of base that dissociates. These hydroxides are not very soluble, but what amount that does dissolve completely dissociates into ions. exampIe: Ba(OH)2(aq) Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

a. 0.000100 M Ba(OH)2 solution will be 0.000200 M in OH- ions (as well as 0.00100 M in Ba2+ ions) and will have a pH of 10.3.

2. Weak Bases:
What compounds are considered to be weak bases? 1. Most weak bases are anions of weak acids. 2. Weak bases do not furnish OH- ions by dissociation. They react with water to furnish the OH- ions. Note that like weak acids, this reaction is shown to be at equilibrium, unlike the dissociation of a strong base which is shown to go to completion. 3. When a weak base reacts with water the OH- comes from the water and the remaining H+ attaches itsef to the weak base, giving a weak acid as one of the products. You may think of it as a two-step reaction similar to the hydrolysis of water by cations to give acid solutions. examples: NH3(aq) + H2O(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) CH3NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)

methylamine: CH3NH2(aq) + H20(l)

acetate ion: C2H3O2-(aq) + H2O(aq) HC2H302(aq) + OH-(aq)

General reaction: weak base(aq) + H2O(aq) weak acid(aq) + OH-(aq)

Since the reaction does not go to completion relatively few OH- ions are formed.

Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions:

definition of a salt: an ionic compound made of a cation and an anion, other than hydroxide. the product besides water of a neutralization reaction

determining acidity or basicity of a salt solution: 1. split the salt into cation and anion 2. add OH- to the cation a. if you obtain a strong base. the cation is neutral b. if you get a weak base, the cation is acidic 3. Add H+ to the anion a. if you obtain a strong acid, the anion is neutral b. if you obtain a weak acid. the anion is basic 4. 5. 6. 7. Salt solutions are neutral if both ions are neutral Salt solutions are acidic if one ion is neutral and the other is acidic Salt solutions are basic is one of the ions is basic and the other is neutral. The acidity or basicity of a salt made of one acidic ion and one basic ion cannot be determined without further information.

Examples: determine if the following solutions are acidic, basic, or neutral Click on each one to find out the answer. KC2H3O2 Cu(NO3)2 KClO4 NaHPO4 LiHS NH4Cl

6. Acid-Base Reactions:
Strong acid + strong base: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O net ionic reaction: H+ + OH- H2O Strong acid + weak base: example: write the net ionic equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl, and aqueous ammonia, NH3. What is the pH of the resulting solution? Strong base + weak acid:

example: write the net ionic equation for the reaction between citric acid (H 3C6H507) and sodium hydroxide. What is the pH of the resulting solution?

7. Titrations
1. Nomenclature: these are terms that are used when talking about titrating one substance with another. You need to learn these definitions well enough to explain them to someone else.
titration titrant indicator equivalence point end point titration cuve

2. Strong acid-strong base titration

example: titration curve pH at equivalence point species present appropriate indicators

3. Strong acid-weak base titration

example titration curve pH at end point species present appropriate indicators

4. Weak acid-strong base titrations

example: titratio n curve for the titration of vinegar with NaOH pH at end pointapproximately 8.5 species presentH2O and NaC2H3O2 appropiate indicatorphenolphthalein

Note: no matterwhat type of titration you do, at the equivalence (end) point the number of moles of H+ is equivalent to the number of moles of OH-. This applies whether you have weak or strong acids and/or bases.
Problems: l. Citric acid (C6H807) contains a mole of ionizable H+/mole of citric acid. A sample containing citric acid has a mass of 1.286 g. The sample is dissolved in 100.0 mL of water. The solution is titrated with 0.0150 M of NaOH. If 14.93 mL of the base are required to neutralize the acid. then what is the mass percent of citric acid in the sample? 2. A sample of solid calcium hydroxide is mixed with water at 30 oC and allowed to stand. A 100.0 mL sample of the solution is titrated with 59.4 mL of a 0.400 M solution of hydrobromic acid. a. What is the concentration of the calcium hydroxide solution? b. What is the solubility of the calcium hydroxide in water at 30 oC? Express your answer in grams of Ca(OH)2 / 100 mL water?

8. Three models of acids:

l. Arrhenius Model
Basis for the model--action in water

acid definition: produces H<sup+< sup=""> in water solution </sup+<>

base definition: produces OH1- in water solution

2. Bronsted-Lowry Model
Basis for the model-- proton transfer acid definition: donates a proton ( H<sup+< sup=""> ) </sup+<> base definition: accepts a proton conjugate acid definition: the acid becomes the conjugate base after it donates the proton because it can now accept it back. conjugate base definition: the base becomes the conjugate acid after it accepts the proton because it can now donate it back.

3. Lewis Model
Basis for model--electron pair transfer acid definition: accepts a pair of electrons base definition: donates a pair of electrons

Reflection (physics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The reflection of Mount Hood in Mirror Lake.

Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light,sound and water waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular reflection. In acoustics, reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar. In geology, it is important in the study of seismic waves. Reflection is observed with surface waves in bodies of water. Reflection is observed with many types ofelectromagnetic wave, besides visible light. Reflection of VHF and higher frequencies is important for radiotransmission and for radar. Even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at shallow angles with special "grazing" mirrors.

Contents
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Reflection of light[edit]

Double reflection: The sun is reflected in the water, which is reflected in the paddle.

Reflection of light is either specular (mirror-like) or diffuse (retaining the energy, but losing the image) depending on the nature of the interface. Furthermore, if the interface is between a dielectric and a conductor, the phase of the reflected wave is retained, otherwise if the interface is between two dielectrics, the phase may be retained or inverted, depending on the indices of refraction.[citation needed] A mirror provides the most common model for specular light reflection, and typically consists of a glass sheet with a metallic coating where the reflection actually occurs. Reflection is enhanced in metals by suppression of wave propagation beyond their skin depths. Reflection also occurs at the surface of transparent media, such as water or glass.

Diagram of specular reflection

In the diagram at left, a light ray PO strikes a vertical mirror at point O, and the reflected ray is OQ. By projecting an imaginary line through point Operpendicular to the mirror, known as the normal, we can measure the angle of incidence, i and the angle of reflection, r. The law of reflection states that i = r, or in other words, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. In fact, reflection of light may occur whenever light travels from a medium of a given refractive index into a medium with a different refractive index. In the most general case, a certain fraction of the light is reflected from the interface, and the remainder is refracted. Solving Maxwell's equations for a light ray striking a boundary allows the derivation of the Fresnel equations, which can be used to predict how much of the light is reflected, and how much is refracted in a given situation. Total internal reflection of light from a denser medium occurs if the angle of incidence is above the critical angle. Total internal reflection is used as a means of focusing waves that cannot effectively be reflected by common means. X-ray telescopes are constructed by creating a converging "tunnel" for the waves. As the waves interact at low angle with the surface of this tunnel they are reflected toward the focus point (or toward another interaction with the tunnel surface, eventually being directed to the detector at the focus). A conventional reflector would be useless as the X-rays would simply pass through the intended reflector. When light reflects off a material denser (with higher refractive index) than the external medium, it undergoes a polarity inversion. In contrast, a less dense, lower refractive index material will reflect light in phase. This is an important principle in the field of thin-film optics. Specular reflection forms images. Reflection from a flat surface forms a mirror image, which appears to be reversed from left to right because we compare the image we see to what we would see if we were rotated into the position of the image. Specular reflection at a curved surface forms an image which may be magnified or demagnified; curved mirrors have optical power. Such mirrors may have surfaces that are spherical or parabolic.

Refraction of light at the interface between two media.

Home PhysicsPhysics IIReflection of Light

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Reflection of Light by a Plane Surface

The figure shows how a ray of light is reflected by a plane surface. Let MM' represent a reflecting surface. When a ray of light is incident on MM' in the direction IO it gets reflected along the direction OR. IO is the incident ray; O is the point of incidence and OR is the reflected ray.

Reflection of a Ray Light by a Plane Mirror

Let ON be the normal drawn perpendicular to the surface MM' at the point of incidence. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence is called the angle of incidence and is denoted by the letter 'i'. The angle that the reflected ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence is called the angle of reflection 'r'. Mirror is an example of a reflecting surface. (i) of (ii) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point incidence all lie in the same plane. The ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence (i) and of the angle of refraction (r) is a

constant quantity for two given media, which is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first. (sin i / sin r) = constant = When light propagates through a series of layers of different medium as shown in the figure, then 1 sin the 1 = Snells 2 sin 2 law = 3 sin may 3 = be 4 sin written 4 = as constant

In general, sin = constant

Fig a (series of transparent layers of different refractive indices), Fig b (A light ray passing from air to water bends toward the normal) When light passes from rarer to denser medium it bends toward the normal as shown in the fig. According 1 sin 1 to = Snells 2 sin law 2

When a light ray passes from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal as shown in the fig. b above

For a given point object, the image formed by refraction at plane surface is illustrated by the following diagrams.

The same result is obtained for the other case also. The image distance from the refracting surface Apparent surface. y (apparent shift) t = 1 - -1 observer Total apparent and shift where t is the object distance and the = = 1/ 2 object. yi is also known as Apparent depth or height. Shift

Apparent shift = Object distance from refracting surface image distance from refracting

If there are a number of slabs with different refractive indices placed between the

Illustration 3:

A person looking through a telescope T just sees the point A on the rim at

the bottom of a cylindrical vessel when the vessel is empty. When the vessel is completely filled with a liquid (? = 1.5), he observes a mark at the centre, B, of the vessel. What is the height of the vessel if the diameter of its cross-section is 10cm?

Solution: because

It is mentioned in the problem that on filling the vessel with the liquid, point B of refraction of the ray at C.

is observed for the same setting; this means that the images of point B, is observed at A,

For refraction at C : sin r / sin i = 1 = 1.5 sin r = AD / AC = 10/ ( 102 + h2), where h is height of vessel

Laws of reflection[edit]

An example of the law of reflection

Main article: Specular reflection If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows: 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence lie in the same plane. 2. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray makes to the same normal. 3. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal. These three laws can all be derived from the reflection equation.

Mechanism[edit]
In the classical electrodynamics, light is considered as electromagnetic wave, which is governed by the Maxwell Equations. Light waves incident on a material induce small oscillations of polarisation in the individual atoms (or oscillation of electrons, in metals), causing each particle to radiate a small secondary wave (in all directions, like a dipole antenna). All these waves add up to give specular reflection and refraction, according to the Huygens-Fresnel principle. In case of dielectric (glass), the electric field of the light acts on the electrons in the glass, the moving electrons generate a field and become a new radiator. The refraction light in the glass is the combined of the forward radiation of the electrons and the incident light and; the backward radiation is the one we see reflected from the

surface of transparent materials, this radiation comes from everywhere in the glass, but it turns out that the total effect is equivalent to a reflection from the surface. In metals, the electrons with no binding energy are called free electrons. The density number of the free electrons is very large. When these electrons oscillate with the incident light, the phase differences between the radiation field of these electrons and the incident field are , so the forward radiation will compensate the

incident light at a skin depth, and backward radiation is just the reflected light. Lightmatter interaction in terms of photons is a topic of quantum electrodynamics, and is described in detail by Richard Feynman in his popular bookQED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter.

Diffuse reflection[edit]

General scattering mechanism which gives diffuse reflection by a solid surface

Main article: Diffuse reflection When light strikes the surface of a (non-metallic) material it bounces off in all directions due to multiple reflections by the microscopic irregularities inside the material (e.g. the grain boundaries of a polycrystalline material, or thecell or fiber boundaries of an organic material) and by its surface, if it is rough. Thus, an 'image' is not formed. This is called diffuse reflection. The exact form of the reflection depends on the structure of the material. One common model for diffuse reflection is Lambertian reflectance, in which the light is reflected with equal luminance (in photometry) or radiance (in radiometry) in all directions, as defined by Lambert's cosine law. The light sent to our eyes by most of the objects we see is due to diffuse reflection from their surface, so that this is our primary mechanism of physical observation.[1]