Physics 2.

Electromagnetism
Lecture 1. Vector and tensor analysis

1
1.1

Fields
Scalar eld

A scalar eld is a function U (r, t). Field means that in each point of space r there is a number U (r) given. Scalar means that this number does not depend on the choice of coordinates. If we choose new coordinates xi = xi (xj ) this number does not change although the functional dependence does change: U (xi ) = U (xj ). Example 1.1. Let U = x2 + y 2 and we rotate the coordinates: x = x cos + y sin , y = x sin + y cos . In order to nd U we only have to substitute x and y in the original expression, which gives U = x 2 + y 2 . Example 1.2. Let U = x2 and we stretch the coordinate x = Cx, C = const. Then U (x ) = U (x) = x2 = (x /C )2 = x 2 /C 2 , that is, U = x 2 /C 2 .

1.2

Vector eld

A vector eld is a vector function A(r, t). Field means that in each point of n-dimensional space r there are n numbers Ai (r), i = 1, . . . , n given. Vector means that these numbers change in a very special way when we change the coordinates. Namely, let us choose new coordinates xi = xi (xj ). We can also express the old coordinates in terms of the new ones: xi = xi (xj ). The n number Ai are components of a vector (or simply a vector) if Ai =
j

xi xi Aj Aj . xj xj

(1)

In the right hand side of (1) we used the Einsteins rule: if an index is repeated in the expression a summation over this index is implied. It should be understood that Ai depend on xj , while Ai depend on xj . Example 1.3.
L et Ax = x2 , Ay = xy + y 2 , and we rotate the coordinates: x = x cos + y sin ,

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y = x sin + y cos . According to (1) we have Ax = x x Ax + Ay x y (2) (3)

= cos x2 + sin (xy + y 2 ) = cos (x cos y sin )2 + sin ((x cos y sin )(x sin + y cos ) + (x sin + y cos )2 ) Simplify and calculate Ay respectively. Example 1.4.

(4)

L et Ax = x2 and x = Cx (one-dimensional case). According to our rule Ax =

(x /x)Ax = Cx2 = C (x /C )2 = x 2 /C . Compare to U = x 2 /C 2 !

Tensor eld

Let us recall that a (second rank) tensor is a two-indices construction Tij , i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , n (n2 numbers). In accordance with the previous denition the coordinate transformation xi = xi (xj ) results in the following transformation of the tensor: Tij (x ) = xi xj Tkl (x) xk xl (5)

(Einsteins summation rule applied !). In a more general way, a construction Ti1 i2 ...is with s indices (ns numbers) is a s-rank tensor if the coordinate transformation xi = xi (xj ) results in the transformation T i1 . . . is (x ) = xi1 x . . . is Tj1 ...js (x). xj1 xjs (6)

In other words, we rst have to perform all dierentiations, all summations, and nally substitute xi = xi (xj ). Example 2.1. Let Txx = y 2 + z 2 , Txy = Tyx = xy , Tyy = x2 + z 2 , Txz = Tzx = xz , Tyz = Tzy = yz , Tzz = x2 + y 2 (this is taken from the functional form of the inertia tensor Tij = r2 ij xi xj ). The coordinate rotation x = x cos + y sin , y = x sin + y cos , z = z will give Tzz = Tzz , (7)

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Txz = cos Txz + sin Tyz = cos xz sin yz = x z , Txx = cos cos Txx + 2 cos sin Txy + sin sin Tyy = cos2 (y 2 + z 2 ) 2 cos sin xy + sin2 (x2 + z 2 ) =y +z , Txy = cos sin Txx + cos cos Txy sin sin Tyx + sin cos Tyy = x2 cos sin xy (cos2 sin2 ) + y 2 cos sin = x y Find other components.
2 2

(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Vector analysis

In the previous course (Physics 1) we dened the vector dierential operator which can be applied to a scalar to give a vector (gradient) grad U = U , to a vector to give a scalar (divergence) div A = A, or to a vector to give a new vector (curl or rotor) rot A = A. Here we consider these operations in more detail.

3.1

Gradient

In the past gradient was dened as (grad U )i = (U/xi ). Such denition is good for Cartesian coordinates but would be not quite useful in curvilinear coordinates. Let us consider, for example, spherical coordinates x = r sin cos , y = sin sin , z = r cos . According to the naive denition, we would have (grad U )r = (U/r), (grad U ) = (U/), and (grad U ) = (U/). Let us now recall that the rst and the most important use of the gradient is to get the force from the potential energy F = grad U . According to the above denition we would have Fr and F in dierent units (if Fr is in N, then F is in Nm), which is not physical. Thus, we have to give a more successful denition of the gradient. The proper denition is given in terms of scalars : grad U dr = dU, where dU is the full dierential. 3.1.1 Cartesian coordinates (15)

In the cartesian coordinates we have + (grad U )y y + (grad U )z z , grad U = (grad U )x x + dy y + dz z , dr = dxx (16) (17)

Physics 2. Electromagnetism U U U dx + dy + dz, x y dz U U U dx + dy + dz, x y dz (grad U )y = U , y

Lecture 1

dU = so that

(18)

(grad U )x dx + (grad U )y dy + (grad U )z dz = and therefore (grad U )x = as usual. 3.1.2 Spherical coordinates U , x U , y

(19)

(grad U )y =

(20)

Let us consider now spherical coordinates, where + (grad U ) , grad U = (grad U )r r + (grad U ) + r sin d, dr = dr r + rd dU = Putting al this together we get (grad U )r dr + (grad U ) rd + (grad U ) r sin d = and therefore (grad Ur ) = U U U dr + d + d, r 1 U . r sin (24) U U U dr + d + d. r (21) (22) (23)

U , r

(grad U ) =

1 U , r

(grad U ) =

(25)

Now all components of the force would be measures in the same units. Show that in the cylindrical coordinates x = r cos , y = r sin , z , the gradient is (grad Ur ) = U , r (grad U ) = 1 U , r (grad U )z = U . z (26)

3.2

Divergence

Divergence was dened earlier as div A = (Ax /x) + (Ay /y ) + (Az /z ). As we have seen above denitions in Cartesian coordinates are not general enough and we have to think of a generalization. For this purpose let us consider a small (innitesimal) volume dV and it surface. In each point of the and the a vector eld ux d = A n dS surface we dene an outward directed (unit) normal vector n dS be the ux from the volume dV in the (here dS is the innitesimal area). Let d = A n outward direction. Then we dene dS. div AdV = A n (27)

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3.2.1

Cartesian coordinates

We again start the analysis with the Cartesian coordinates. The corresponding innitesimal volume will be a cube with the coordinates (x, y, z ), (x + dx, y, z ), (x, y + dy, z ), (x, y, z + dz ), (x + dx, y + dy, z ), (x + dx, y, z + dz ), (x, y + dy, z + dz ), (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ), so that the volume is dV = dxdydz . Let us consider the ux from inside the cube through the sides parallel to the x y plane. The area of at the side passing through z + dz and z at the side each of these sides is dxdy , while the normal is z passing through z . Thus, the ux will be Az [x, y, z + dz ]dxdy Az [x, y, z ]dxdy = (Az /z )dxdydz (from now on we shall use square brackets to denote functional dependence). In the same way (SHOW !) the ux through other sides will give (Ax /x)dxdydz and (Ay /y )dxdydz , so that we have div Adxdydz = ( which gives usual Cartesian divergence. 3.2.2 General orthogonal curvilinear coordinates Ax Ay Az + + )dxdydz, x y z (28)

For the following it is more convenient to consider general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 ), such that the distance in these coordinates is given by ds2 =
i 2 h2 i dxi .

(29)

The coecients hi depend on the coordinates, in general. The vector dr is written as follows: dr =
i

i , hi dxi e

(30)

i e j = ij . where e 1 = x , e 2 = y , e 3 = z . 1. Cartesian coordinates: x1 = x, x2 = y , x3 = z , hi = 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, e , 1 = 2 = 2. Spherical coordinates: x1 = r, x2 = , x3 = , h1 = 1, h2 = r, h3 = r sin , e r, e . 3 = e , e 1 = 2 = 3 = z . 3. Cylindrical coordinates: x1 = r, x2 = , x3 = z , h1 = 1, h2 = r, h3 = 1, e r, e Now let us consider the innitesimal volume dV which is between (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and (x1 + dx1 , x2 + dx2 , x3 + dx3 ), so that dV = h1 h2 h3 dx1 dx2 dx3 . Let us calculate the ux across the sides parallel to x1 x2 plane: A3 [x1 , x2 , x3 + dx3 ]dS [x3 + dx3 ] A3 [x1 , x2 , x3 ]dS [x3 ]. The area dS = (h1 dx1 )(h2 dx2 ), where h1 and h2 depend on x3 too. Therefore, d3 = (h1 h2 A3 )[x3 + dx3 ]dx1 dx2 (h1 h2 A3 )[x3 ]dx1 dx2 = (h1 h2 A3 /x3 )dx1 dx2 dx3 . Calculating in the same way we have d =
i

h1 h2 h3 Ai /hi dx1 dx2 dx3 = div Ah1 h2 h3 dx1 dx2 dx3 , xi

(31)

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so that div A =

1 h1 h2 h3

h1 h2 h3 Ai /hi . xi

(32)

1. Cartesian coordinates: all hi = 1 therefore div A = i (Ai /xi ). 2. Spherical coordinates: substituting the corresponding hi we have h1 h2 h3 = r2 sin and div A = 1 sin A 1 A 1 r2 Ar + + . r2 r r sin r sin (33)

Derive div A in cylindrical coordinates.

Rotor

The previous Cartesian denition of rot A was as follows: (rot A)i =

ijk

Ak xj

(34)

(Einstein summation rule applied !). Again we need a generalization, which requires denition of a circulation.

4.1

Circulation

to Let us consider a closed path which encloses some surface. Let us dene together a normal n the surface (which changes with the position on the surface) and the direction of the path l (which changes along the path). The unit vector l is always tangential to the path and its direction is always in the direction of our movement along this path (we do not turn back). The two unit vectors n l always points inside the path. Circulation of the and l must be chosen consistently, so that n vector A along the path is dened as = A ldl, (35) where l is the length.

4.2

Rotor in general

(since the area is innitesimal the Let us consider and innitesimal dS area with the normal n direction of the normal does not change) enclosed in an innitesimal path. Then rotor is dened as follows: dS = A rot A n ldl. (36)

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4.2.1

Cartesian coordinates

Let us choose a small rectangle (x, y ), (x + dx, y ), (x + dx, y + dy ), (x, y + dy ). If we move along =z . The circulation will be d = Ax [x, y ]dx + the rectangle in this order, then the normal is n Ay [x + dx, y ]dy Ax [x, y + dy ]dx Ay [x, y ]dy = ((Ay /x) (Ax /y ))dxdy . Comparing with d = (rot A)z dxdy we nd Ay Ax (37) (rot A)z = x y that is, the usual expression. 4.2.2 General orthogonal curvilinear coordinates

Let the rectangle be (x1 , x2 ), (x1 + dx1 , x2 ), (x1 + dx1 , x2 + dx2 ), (x1 , x2 + dx2 ). Then the circulation =e 3 ): is calculated as follows (dl1 = h1 dx1 , dl2 = h2 dx2 , dS = h1 h2 dx1 dx2 , n d = (A1 h1 )[x1 , x2 ]dx1 + (A2 h2 )[x1 + dx1 , x2 ]dx2 (A1 h1 )[x1 , x2 + dx2 ]dx1 (A2 h2 )[x1 , x2 ]dx2 h2 A2 h1 A1 =( )dx1 dx2 . x1 x2 Comparison with d = (rot A)3 h1 h2 dx1 dx2 gives (rot A)3 = 1 h1 h2 h2 A2 h1 A1 x1 x2 . (39) (38)

Similar relations can be derived for other components. The order 1,2,3 should be conserved. Spherical coordinates: 1 r sin A rA , sin Ar r sin A 1 (rot A = , r sin r 1 rA Ar (rot A) = r r (rot A)r = r2 Calculate rotor in cylindrical coordinates. (40) (41) (42)

Gauss-Stokes-Greens theorems

The two theorems result immediately from the denitions of the divergence and rotor. Let us consider a nite (not innitesimal) volume and the integral div AdV . We can divide the volume into many dS for each small volume small volumes so that div AdV = i (div AdV )i , where div AdVi = i A n 7

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dVi . Thus div AdV =

i i

dS = An

dS An

(43)

where in the last integral the integration is carried out only over the outer surface, since the integral over the surfaces, which belong to two pieces simultaneously, vanish because the corresponding normals are pointing in the opposite directions, while the areas are the same. In a similar way (prove) we nd dS = rot A n A ldl. (44)

Second order operations

We can apply once again to get the following second order operations: div grad U , grad div A, rot rot A. The two other operations vanish identically: rot grad U 0 and div rot A 0 (prove). The operator div grad acting on a scalar is usually called a Laplacian and denoted . Exercise. Show that in the Cartesian coordinates U = i ( 2 U/x2 i ). Exercise. Show that in the spherical coordinates U = 1 r2 r r2 U r + 1 2 r sin sin U + 1 2U . r2 sin2 2 (45)

What can you do with tensors

In what follows we apply the Einsteins rule of summation over the repeated indices. Let Ai be a vector and Tij be a tensor. Then Ai Ai is a scalar, Tij Aj is a vector, Tij Ai Aj is a scalar, Tii (summation !) is a scalar, Tij Tjk is a tensor, etc. There are two special tensors. The Kronecker delta ij is dened as follows: 1 i = j, ij = 0 i = j. The following equalities are easily derived: ii = 3, ij Aj = Ai , ij Tjk = Tik , etc. The Levy-Civita fully antisymmetric tensor ijk is dened as follows 123 = 1 and ikj .

(46)

ijk

jik

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Area and volume in curvilinear coordinates

An innitesimal area built on dxi and dxj will be dS = hi dxi hj dxj (no summation over i and j !). Example 8.1. Cylindrical coordinates. In the plane perpendicular to the axis z = const, so that we have an area built on dr and d, with hr = 1, h = r: dS = rdrd. On the cylindrical surface r = const and dS = hz dzh d = rdzd. Example 8.2. Spherical coordinates. On a sphere r = const and dS = h dh d = rdr sin d = r2 sin dd. An innitesimal volume is dV = h1 h2 h3 dx1 dx2 dx3 . Example 8.3. Cylindrical coordinates: dV = rdrddz . Spherical coordinates: dV = r2 sin drdd.