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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010


Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Assignment C

Title:

Thermodynamics

Task 1- P33.4
Apply the important concepts relating to sensible and latent enthalpy and changes of state within building services engineering applications. You must clearly explain the concepts of the kinetic theory of matter and how why a material may changes by recognising building services engineering applications whereby a change of state occurs or where latent heat is encountered and may have to be quantified.

Kinetic Theory of Matter


When molecules are in continuous motion they exert strong electrical forces on one another when they are close together. The forces are both attractive and repulsive. Kinetic theory is based on the existence of the solid, liquid and gases states. In solids the molecules are close together and the attractive and repulsive forces between neighbouring molecules balance. Each molecule vibrates to and fro about one position. Solids therefore ha a regular, repeating molecular pattern. In liquids the molecules are usually slightly farther apart than in solids and when the vibrate they can at the same time move rapidly over short distances. However they are never near another molecule long enough to get trapped in a regular pattern and a liquid can flow. In gases the molecules are much farther apart than in solids or liquids. They have around a very high speed nearly to 500m/s in all the space available. Its only during the brief spells when they collide with other molecules or with the walls of the container that the molecular forces act.

Latent Heat
When a substance changes phase, that is it goes from either a solid to a liquid or liquid to gas, the energy, it requires energy to do so. The potential energy stored in the interatomics forces between molecules needs to be overcome by the kinetic energy the motion of the particles before the substance can change phase. If we measure the temperature of the substance which is initially solid as we heat it we produce a graph like Figure 1.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Figure 1: - Temperature change with time. Phase changes are indicated by flat regions where heat energy used to overcome attractive forces between molecules Starting a point A, the substance is in its solid phase, heating it brings the temperature up to its melting point but the material is still a solid at point B. As it is heated further, the energy from the heat source goes into breaking the bonds holding the atoms in place. This takes place from B to C. At point C all of the solid phase has been transformed into the liquid phase. Once again, as energy is added the energy goes into the kinetic energy of the particles raising the temperature, (C to D). At point D the temperature has reached its boiling point but it is still in the liquid phase. From points D to E thermal energy is overcoming the bonds and the particles have enough kinetic energy to escape from the liquid. The substance is entering the gas phase. Beyond E, further heating under pressure can raise the temperature still further is how a pressure cooker works.

Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation


The energy required to change the phase of a substance is known as a latent heat. When the phase change is from solid to liquid we must use the latent heat of fusion, and when the phase change is from liquid to a gas, we must use the latent heat of vaporisation. The energy require is Q= m L, where m is the mass of the substance and L is the specific latent heat of fusion or vaporisation which measures the heat energy to change 1 kg of a solid into a liquid.
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Substance

Specific latent heat of fusion kJ.kg-1 334 109 192 74 11 54 60 14 25

Specific latent heat of vaporisation kJ.kg-1 2258 838 395 254 294 1406 449 213 199

Water Ethanol Ethanoic acid Chloroform Mercury Sulphur Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen

0 -114 17 -64 -39 115 -259 -219 -210

100 78 118 62 357 445 -253 -183 -196

Latent heat on the refrigeration and air condition


Heat which brings about a change of state with no change in temperature is called latent (hidden) heat. All pure substances are able to change their state. Solids become liquids, liquids become gas. These changes of state occur at the same temperature and pressure combinations for any given substance. It takes the addition of heat or the removal of heat to produce these changes In the figures below (A and B), note that considerable heat (144 Btu/Ib., 335kJ/kg) was added between Points B and C. Even so, the temperature did not change. This heat was required to change the ice to water. This heat is called "latent heat of melting" or "latent heat of fusion," which means the same thing. Likewise, between points D and E, 970 Btu/lb. (2257 kJ /kg) were added and the temperature did not change. This heat was required to change the water to steam. This heat is called "latent heat of vaporisation

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

When cooling the steam to water, the latent heat removed is called the "latent heat of condensation." There are two latent heats for each substance, solid to liquid (melting and freezing) and liquid to gaseous (vaporizing and condensing). Figure below (C) shows the latent heat for water and several common refrigerants.

The latent heat of fusion of ice is 144 Btu/lb (335kJ/kg). The latent heat of vaporization for water (at 212F, 100.C) = 970 Btu /lb. (2257 kJ/kg). The addition of heat to a solid increases the vibration of the molecules. This continues until they separate at the change-of-state point. In the liquid form, the molecules are oily weakly attracted to other molecules. Thus, they are free to move around. At the transition from a solid to a liquid, some molecules ale attached in a solid form. Others are weakly attracted in a liquid form.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

When all the solid attachments are broken, further heating causes the molecules in liquid form to move. It requires as much energy to change the molecular attachment of a block of ice as it does to raise the temperature of the same amount of liquid from 32Fio 176F In SI metric, it requires as much heat to change 1 kg of ice to 1 kg of water as it does to raise the temperature of that same amount of water from 0Cto 80C. All of the basic operations of the compression refrigeration cycle are based upon these two heats- sensible and latent

Application of Latent Heat


In refrigeration work, the physics of latent heat is especially important. Applications of this principle give the cold or freezing temperature desired. As ice melts, its temperature remains constant. Nevertheless it absorbs a considerable amount of heat in changing from ice to water. To melt 1 lb. of ice, 144Btu are required. (To melt 1 ton of ice, 288,000 Btu are required.) To melt one kg of ice, 335 kJ of heat are requiredWhen a substance passes from a liquid to a vapour its ability to absorb heat is very high. This principle is useful in the operation of the mechanical refrigerator. The temperature at which a substance changes its state depends on the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the temperature needed to bring about the change. The opposite is also true. If the pressure is lowered, the temperature at which the change of state will take place is also lowered. A liquid under low pressure will boil at a lower temperature. If the vapour resulting from this boiling is then compressed, it will condense back into a liquid at a higher temperature. Every substance has a different latent heat value. This is because each substance has a different molecular structure. Latent heat temperatures for water and the more common refrigerants are shown in Figure C. In a modern refrigeration, freezer, or air conditioner, liquid refrigerant is piped under pressure to the evaporator. In the evaporator, the pressure is greatly reduced. The refrigerant boils (vaporizes), absorbing heat from the evaporator. This produces a low temperature and cools the evaporator. The compressor pumps this vaporized refrigerant out of the evaporator it compresses (squeezes) the refrigerant into the condenser. Here the heat that was absorbed in the evaporator is "squeezed out." It is released to the surrounding atmosphere. Having lost this heat of vaporization, the refrigerant becomes a liquid again. The cycle is then repeated.
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Sensible Heat
Heat which causes a change in temperature in a substance is called sensible heat. When a substance is heated (heat added) and the temperature rises as the heat is added, the increase in heat is called sensible heat. Likewise, heat may be removed from a substance (heat subtracted). If the temperature falls, the heat removed is, again sensible heat.

A = Sensible heat of ice B = Latent heat of fusion of ice C = Sensible heat of water D = Latent heat of vaporization of water E = Sensible heat of steam

Enthalpy
Enthalpy can be described as the total heat content of sample, with reference to 0C. For the particular example of water (C) shown in the figure above, the steam (E) at 100C has a much higher total heat content than liquid water at 100C. Steam at high temperature and pressure has a very high enthalpy, which makes it useful for transferring large amounts of energy such as from boiler to a turbine. This steam is also very dangerous if it escapes.

Conclusion
Heat is one of the many forms of energy and is commonly generated from chemical sources. The heat of a body is its thermal or internal energy, and a change in this energy may show as a change of temperature or a change between the solid, liquid and gaseous states. Matter may also have other forms of energy, potential or kinetic, depending on pressure, position and movement. Enthalpy is the sum of its internal energy and flow work and is given by:

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

In the process where there is steady flow, the factor P v will not change appreciably and the difference in enthalpy will be the quantity of heat gained or lost. Enthalpy may be expressed as a total above absolute zero, or any other base which is convenient. Tabulated enthalpies found in reference works are often shown above a base temperature of -40C, since this is also - 40 on the old Fahrenheit scale. In any calculation, this base condition should always be checked to avoid the errors which will arise if two different bases are used. If a change of enthalpy can be sensed as a change of temperature, it is called sensible heat. This is expressed as specific heat capacity, i.e. the change in enthalpy per degree of temperature change, in kJ/ (kg K). If there is no change of temperature but a change of state (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa) it is called latent heat. This is expressed as kJ/kg but it varies with the boiling temperature, and so is usually qualified by this condition. The resulting total changes can be shown on a temperatureenthalpy diagram (Figure below).

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Task 2- P33.5
Define the important concepts and factors relating to pressure, saturation temperature and enthalpy for water and refrigerant gases. Explain that thermodynamic properties, including values for saturation temperature and enthalpy at saturation, vary with pressure. Use tables of thermodynamic properties for water and refrigerant gases. Recognise and explain that pressure/enthalpy diagrams are graphical representations of thermodynamic tables.

The Refrigeration Cycle

All air conditioner units must have the five basic components to work: The compressor The condenser The expansion device The evaporator The copper refrigerant tube These four majors components are divided into two difference pressure: high pressure and low pressure.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

The high pressure side is the condenser units (outdoor) and the low pressure side is the air conditioning evaporator (indoor). The divided point between high and low pressure cut through the compressor and the expansion valve. The evaporator: -The air conditioning evaporator is a heat exchanger that absorbs heat into the air conditioner system but it does not exactly absorb heat! Its the cooled refrigerant fed from the bottom of the evaporator coils absorb the heat. The liquid refrigerant usually flows from the bottom of the evaporator coils and boils as it moves to the top of the evaporator coils. The reason is to ensure the liquid refrigerant boils before it leave the evaporator coils. If a refrigerant was too fed from the top, the liquid refrigerant would easily drop to the bottom of the coils before it absorbs enough heat and boil. The air conditioner evaporator has three important tasks: Its absorb heat Boils all the refrigerant to vapour Superheat The compressor: - The air conditioning compressor is known as the most important thing of the air conditioner units. As you can see in the refrigeration cycle diagram; the compressor has a refrigerant inlet line and refrigerant outlet line. The compressor absorbs vapour refrigerant from the suction line and compresses that heat to high superheat vapour. The air conditioner units compressor produce the pressure different, its the air conditioner compressors that cause the refrigerant to flow in a cycle. The condenser: - In this refrigeration cycle diagram, the air conditioner condenser is air cooled condenser. It functions the same way as the evaporator but it does the opposite. The condenser units are located outdoor with the compressor. It purposes is to reject both sensible and latent heat of vapour absorb by the air conditioner units. The condenser receives high pressure and high temperature superheats vapour from the compressor and rejects that heat to the low temperature air. After rejected all the vapour heat, it turns back to liquid refrigerant. The condenser has three important steps: Its remove sensible heat or (de-superheat) Remove latent heat or (condense) Remove more sensible heat or (sub cooled) The expansion device: - All expansion device or metering device has similar function (to some extent); its responsible for providing the correct amount of refrigerant to the evaporator. This is done by creating a restriction within the thermostatic expansion valve. The restriction causes the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant entering the evaporator to reduce

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

The Vapour Compression Cycle


The vapour compression cycle is used for refrigeration in preference to gas cycles; making use of the latent heat enables a far larger quantity of heat to be extracted for a given refrigerant mass flow rate. This makes the equipment as compact as possible. A liquid boils and condenses the change between the liquid and the gaseous states at a temperature which depends on its pressure, within the limits of its freezing point and critical temperature (see the figure below). In boiling it must obtain the latent heat of evaporation and in condensing the latent heat is given up.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure thus providing the latent heat to make it vaporize. The vapour is then mechanically compressed to a higher pressure and a corresponding saturation temperature at which its latent heat can be rejected so that it changes back to a liquid. The cycle is shown in the figure below. The cooling effect is the heat transferred to the working fluid in the evaporation process, i.e. the change in enthalpy between the fluid entering and the vapour leaving the evaporator. In order to study this process more closely, refrigeration engineers use a pressureenthalpy or Ph diagram (figure below). This diagram is a useful way of describing the liquid and gas phase of a substance. On the vertical axis is pressure, P, and on the horizontal, h, enthalpy. The saturation curve defines the boundary of

pure liquid and pure gas, or vapour. In the region marked vapour, the fluid is superheated vapour. In the region marked liquid, it is subcooled liquid. At pressures above the top of the curve, there is no distinction between liquid and vapour. Above this pressure the gas cannot be liquefied. This is called the critical pressure. In the region beneath the curve, there is a mixture of liquid and vapour. The simple vapour compression cycle is superimposed on the Ph diagram in the figure below. The evaporation process or vaporization of refrigerant is a constant pressure process and therefore it is represented by a horizontal line. In the compression process the energy used to compress the vapour turns into heat and increases its temperature and enthalpy, so that at the end of compression the vapour state is in the superheated part of the diagram and outside the saturation curve. A process in which the heat of compression raises the enthalpy of the gas is termed adiabatic compression. Before condensation can start, the vapour must be cooled. The final compression temperature is almost always above the condensation temperature as shown, and so some heat is rejected at a temperature above the condensation temperature. This represents a deviation from the ideal cycle. The actual condensation process is represented by the part of the horizontal line within the saturation curve.
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

The pressure/enthalpy diagram


A pressureenthalpy chart in which the liquid and the vapour states of the fluid are to scale, sometimes called a Mollier chart , is drawn in the figure below for R404A. A refrigeration cycle is represented by A, A 1, B, C, C 1, and D. With a compression efficiency of 70% the final temperature at the end of compression, as shown on the chart, is approximately 65C. The value is dependent on the refrigerant and the compressor efficiency. This is a more practical cycle because the vapour leaving the evaporator is superheated (A to A 1) and the liquid leaving the condenser subcooled (C to C 1). Superheat and subcooling occupy quite small sections of the diagram, but they are very important for the effective working of the system. Superheat ensures that no liquid arrives at the compressor with the vapour where it could cause damage. Subcooling ensures that liquid only flows through the line from the condenser to the control or expansion valve.

If some vapour is present here, it can cause excessive pressure drop and reduction in performance of the system. Therefore in the figure below the gas leaving the evaporator is superheated to point A 1 and the liquid subcooled to C 1. Taking these factors into account, the refrigerating effect per unit mass flow rate (A 1 -D) and the compressor energy (B - A 1) may be read off directly in terms of enthalpy of the fluid. In practice pressure losses will occur across the compressor inlet and outlet, and there will be pressure drops through the heat exchangers and piping and these can also be plotted on the chart. There will also be some heat loss to atmosphere from the compressor and discharge piping.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

The position of D inside the curve indicates the proportion of fl ash gas at that point. The condenser receives the high-pressure superheated gas, B, cools it down to saturation temperature, condenses it to liquid, C, and finally subcools it slightly, C 1. The energy removed in the condenser, or heat rejection (B - C 1) is seen to be the refrigerating effect plus the heat of compression.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Task 3- P33.4
a) A standard temperature and pressure a certain sample of gas occupies 50litres in volume. Calculate the pressure required to compress this sample to a volume of 20 litres while allowing the temperature to rise to 30C.

b) For the following condenser temperatures find the pressure and specific enthalpy, at the saturated liquid stage, from the Thermodynamic Tables for R134A. Take 0C as 273.15K i. 45C ii. 35C iii. 42C Temperature 45C 35C 42C Pressure (bar) 11.597 8.868 10.720 Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 156.69 167.15 159.94

c) For the following evaporator temperatures find the pressure and specific enthalpy, at the saturated liquid stage, from the Thermodynamic Tables for R134A. Take 0C as 273.15K i. 5C ii. 0C iii. -3C iv. -8C Temperature 5C 0C -3C -8C Pressure (bar) 3.496 2.928 2.623 2.170 Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 193.40 197.20 199.42 202.99

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology


BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2009/2010
Unit 33: Building Services Science

24/02/2010

Reference Sheet
1. 2. 3. 4.
Building Services Technology and Design: - Roger Greeno Building Services Handbook: - Fred Hall and Roger Greeno Advanced Physics: - Tom Duncan Hughes Electrical Technology: - McKenzie Smith

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