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24/02/2010
Assignment C
Title:
Thermodynamics
Task 1- P33.4
Apply the important concepts relating to sensible and latent enthalpy and changes of state within building services engineering applications. You must clearly explain the concepts of the kinetic theory of matter and how why a material may changes by recognising building services engineering applications whereby a change of state occurs or where latent heat is encountered and may have to be quantified.
Latent Heat
When a substance changes phase, that is it goes from either a solid to a liquid or liquid to gas, the energy, it requires energy to do so. The potential energy stored in the interatomics forces between molecules needs to be overcome by the kinetic energy the motion of the particles before the substance can change phase. If we measure the temperature of the substance which is initially solid as we heat it we produce a graph like Figure 1.
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Figure 1: - Temperature change with time. Phase changes are indicated by flat regions where heat energy used to overcome attractive forces between molecules Starting a point A, the substance is in its solid phase, heating it brings the temperature up to its melting point but the material is still a solid at point B. As it is heated further, the energy from the heat source goes into breaking the bonds holding the atoms in place. This takes place from B to C. At point C all of the solid phase has been transformed into the liquid phase. Once again, as energy is added the energy goes into the kinetic energy of the particles raising the temperature, (C to D). At point D the temperature has reached its boiling point but it is still in the liquid phase. From points D to E thermal energy is overcoming the bonds and the particles have enough kinetic energy to escape from the liquid. The substance is entering the gas phase. Beyond E, further heating under pressure can raise the temperature still further is how a pressure cooker works.
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Substance
Specific latent heat of vaporisation kJ.kg-1 2258 838 395 254 294 1406 449 213 199
Water Ethanol Ethanoic acid Chloroform Mercury Sulphur Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen
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When cooling the steam to water, the latent heat removed is called the "latent heat of condensation." There are two latent heats for each substance, solid to liquid (melting and freezing) and liquid to gaseous (vaporizing and condensing). Figure below (C) shows the latent heat for water and several common refrigerants.
The latent heat of fusion of ice is 144 Btu/lb (335kJ/kg). The latent heat of vaporization for water (at 212F, 100.C) = 970 Btu /lb. (2257 kJ/kg). The addition of heat to a solid increases the vibration of the molecules. This continues until they separate at the change-of-state point. In the liquid form, the molecules are oily weakly attracted to other molecules. Thus, they are free to move around. At the transition from a solid to a liquid, some molecules ale attached in a solid form. Others are weakly attracted in a liquid form.
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When all the solid attachments are broken, further heating causes the molecules in liquid form to move. It requires as much energy to change the molecular attachment of a block of ice as it does to raise the temperature of the same amount of liquid from 32Fio 176F In SI metric, it requires as much heat to change 1 kg of ice to 1 kg of water as it does to raise the temperature of that same amount of water from 0Cto 80C. All of the basic operations of the compression refrigeration cycle are based upon these two heats- sensible and latent
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Sensible Heat
Heat which causes a change in temperature in a substance is called sensible heat. When a substance is heated (heat added) and the temperature rises as the heat is added, the increase in heat is called sensible heat. Likewise, heat may be removed from a substance (heat subtracted). If the temperature falls, the heat removed is, again sensible heat.
A = Sensible heat of ice B = Latent heat of fusion of ice C = Sensible heat of water D = Latent heat of vaporization of water E = Sensible heat of steam
Enthalpy
Enthalpy can be described as the total heat content of sample, with reference to 0C. For the particular example of water (C) shown in the figure above, the steam (E) at 100C has a much higher total heat content than liquid water at 100C. Steam at high temperature and pressure has a very high enthalpy, which makes it useful for transferring large amounts of energy such as from boiler to a turbine. This steam is also very dangerous if it escapes.
Conclusion
Heat is one of the many forms of energy and is commonly generated from chemical sources. The heat of a body is its thermal or internal energy, and a change in this energy may show as a change of temperature or a change between the solid, liquid and gaseous states. Matter may also have other forms of energy, potential or kinetic, depending on pressure, position and movement. Enthalpy is the sum of its internal energy and flow work and is given by:
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In the process where there is steady flow, the factor P v will not change appreciably and the difference in enthalpy will be the quantity of heat gained or lost. Enthalpy may be expressed as a total above absolute zero, or any other base which is convenient. Tabulated enthalpies found in reference works are often shown above a base temperature of -40C, since this is also - 40 on the old Fahrenheit scale. In any calculation, this base condition should always be checked to avoid the errors which will arise if two different bases are used. If a change of enthalpy can be sensed as a change of temperature, it is called sensible heat. This is expressed as specific heat capacity, i.e. the change in enthalpy per degree of temperature change, in kJ/ (kg K). If there is no change of temperature but a change of state (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa) it is called latent heat. This is expressed as kJ/kg but it varies with the boiling temperature, and so is usually qualified by this condition. The resulting total changes can be shown on a temperatureenthalpy diagram (Figure below).
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Task 2- P33.5
Define the important concepts and factors relating to pressure, saturation temperature and enthalpy for water and refrigerant gases. Explain that thermodynamic properties, including values for saturation temperature and enthalpy at saturation, vary with pressure. Use tables of thermodynamic properties for water and refrigerant gases. Recognise and explain that pressure/enthalpy diagrams are graphical representations of thermodynamic tables.
All air conditioner units must have the five basic components to work: The compressor The condenser The expansion device The evaporator The copper refrigerant tube These four majors components are divided into two difference pressure: high pressure and low pressure.
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The high pressure side is the condenser units (outdoor) and the low pressure side is the air conditioning evaporator (indoor). The divided point between high and low pressure cut through the compressor and the expansion valve. The evaporator: -The air conditioning evaporator is a heat exchanger that absorbs heat into the air conditioner system but it does not exactly absorb heat! Its the cooled refrigerant fed from the bottom of the evaporator coils absorb the heat. The liquid refrigerant usually flows from the bottom of the evaporator coils and boils as it moves to the top of the evaporator coils. The reason is to ensure the liquid refrigerant boils before it leave the evaporator coils. If a refrigerant was too fed from the top, the liquid refrigerant would easily drop to the bottom of the coils before it absorbs enough heat and boil. The air conditioner evaporator has three important tasks: Its absorb heat Boils all the refrigerant to vapour Superheat The compressor: - The air conditioning compressor is known as the most important thing of the air conditioner units. As you can see in the refrigeration cycle diagram; the compressor has a refrigerant inlet line and refrigerant outlet line. The compressor absorbs vapour refrigerant from the suction line and compresses that heat to high superheat vapour. The air conditioner units compressor produce the pressure different, its the air conditioner compressors that cause the refrigerant to flow in a cycle. The condenser: - In this refrigeration cycle diagram, the air conditioner condenser is air cooled condenser. It functions the same way as the evaporator but it does the opposite. The condenser units are located outdoor with the compressor. It purposes is to reject both sensible and latent heat of vapour absorb by the air conditioner units. The condenser receives high pressure and high temperature superheats vapour from the compressor and rejects that heat to the low temperature air. After rejected all the vapour heat, it turns back to liquid refrigerant. The condenser has three important steps: Its remove sensible heat or (de-superheat) Remove latent heat or (condense) Remove more sensible heat or (sub cooled) The expansion device: - All expansion device or metering device has similar function (to some extent); its responsible for providing the correct amount of refrigerant to the evaporator. This is done by creating a restriction within the thermostatic expansion valve. The restriction causes the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant entering the evaporator to reduce
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Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure thus providing the latent heat to make it vaporize. The vapour is then mechanically compressed to a higher pressure and a corresponding saturation temperature at which its latent heat can be rejected so that it changes back to a liquid. The cycle is shown in the figure below. The cooling effect is the heat transferred to the working fluid in the evaporation process, i.e. the change in enthalpy between the fluid entering and the vapour leaving the evaporator. In order to study this process more closely, refrigeration engineers use a pressureenthalpy or Ph diagram (figure below). This diagram is a useful way of describing the liquid and gas phase of a substance. On the vertical axis is pressure, P, and on the horizontal, h, enthalpy. The saturation curve defines the boundary of
pure liquid and pure gas, or vapour. In the region marked vapour, the fluid is superheated vapour. In the region marked liquid, it is subcooled liquid. At pressures above the top of the curve, there is no distinction between liquid and vapour. Above this pressure the gas cannot be liquefied. This is called the critical pressure. In the region beneath the curve, there is a mixture of liquid and vapour. The simple vapour compression cycle is superimposed on the Ph diagram in the figure below. The evaporation process or vaporization of refrigerant is a constant pressure process and therefore it is represented by a horizontal line. In the compression process the energy used to compress the vapour turns into heat and increases its temperature and enthalpy, so that at the end of compression the vapour state is in the superheated part of the diagram and outside the saturation curve. A process in which the heat of compression raises the enthalpy of the gas is termed adiabatic compression. Before condensation can start, the vapour must be cooled. The final compression temperature is almost always above the condensation temperature as shown, and so some heat is rejected at a temperature above the condensation temperature. This represents a deviation from the ideal cycle. The actual condensation process is represented by the part of the horizontal line within the saturation curve.
Karl Attard Class: - NDBS2
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If some vapour is present here, it can cause excessive pressure drop and reduction in performance of the system. Therefore in the figure below the gas leaving the evaporator is superheated to point A 1 and the liquid subcooled to C 1. Taking these factors into account, the refrigerating effect per unit mass flow rate (A 1 -D) and the compressor energy (B - A 1) may be read off directly in terms of enthalpy of the fluid. In practice pressure losses will occur across the compressor inlet and outlet, and there will be pressure drops through the heat exchangers and piping and these can also be plotted on the chart. There will also be some heat loss to atmosphere from the compressor and discharge piping.
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The position of D inside the curve indicates the proportion of fl ash gas at that point. The condenser receives the high-pressure superheated gas, B, cools it down to saturation temperature, condenses it to liquid, C, and finally subcools it slightly, C 1. The energy removed in the condenser, or heat rejection (B - C 1) is seen to be the refrigerating effect plus the heat of compression.
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Task 3- P33.4
a) A standard temperature and pressure a certain sample of gas occupies 50litres in volume. Calculate the pressure required to compress this sample to a volume of 20 litres while allowing the temperature to rise to 30C.
b) For the following condenser temperatures find the pressure and specific enthalpy, at the saturated liquid stage, from the Thermodynamic Tables for R134A. Take 0C as 273.15K i. 45C ii. 35C iii. 42C Temperature 45C 35C 42C Pressure (bar) 11.597 8.868 10.720 Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 156.69 167.15 159.94
c) For the following evaporator temperatures find the pressure and specific enthalpy, at the saturated liquid stage, from the Thermodynamic Tables for R134A. Take 0C as 273.15K i. 5C ii. 0C iii. -3C iv. -8C Temperature 5C 0C -3C -8C Pressure (bar) 3.496 2.928 2.623 2.170 Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg) 193.40 197.20 199.42 202.99
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Reference Sheet
1. 2. 3. 4.
Building Services Technology and Design: - Roger Greeno Building Services Handbook: - Fred Hall and Roger Greeno Advanced Physics: - Tom Duncan Hughes Electrical Technology: - McKenzie Smith
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