INTEGRATING PIANO TECHNIQUE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND MOTOR LEARNING: STRATEGIES FOR PERFORMING THE CHOPIN ETUDES by Tracy D.

Lipke-Perry

_____________________ Copyright Tracy D. Lipke-Perry 2008

A Document Submitted to the Faculty of the SCHOOL OF MUSIC In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2008

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Document Committee, we certify that we have read the document prepared by Tracy D. Lipke-Perry entitled, Integrating Piano Technique, Physiology, and Motor Learning: Strategies for Performing the Chopin Etudes, and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the document requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Musical Arts.
_______________________________________________________________________

Date: 6/9/08 Date: 6/9/08 Date: 6/9/08

Paula Fan
_______________________________________________________________________

Tannis Gibson
_______________________________________________________________________

Lisa Zdechlik Final approval and acceptance of this document is contingent upon the candidates submission of the final copies of the document to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this document prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the document requirement. ________________________________________________ Date: 6/9/08 Document Director: Paula Fan

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This document has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this document are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.

SIGNED: Tracy D. Lipke-Perry

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................9 ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY PIANO ETUDE: TECHNICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS......................... 13 Exercises, Etudes, and Concert Studies...................................................................... 13 The Rise of the Nineteenth-Century Piano Etude ....................................................... 14 The Chopin Etudes .................................................................................................... 15 Piano Technique and Philosophical Changes: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries ................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 2: CHOPINS TEACHING PHILOSOPHY AND METHODOLOGY....... 21 General Principles: Technique Building.................................................................... 21 Scales and arpeggios.............................................................................................. 21 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 22 Chopin and Psychological Processes Involved in Playing the Piano........................... 23 CHAPTER 3: THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM, HAND PHYSIOLOGY, AND PIANO PRACTICE AND PERFORMANCE: AN OVERVIEW OF SELECT ISSUES......................................................................................................................... 25 The Nature-Nurture Debate ....................................................................................... 25 Skill Training and the Central Nervous System.......................................................... 28 Neural Plasticity .................................................................................................... 29 Motor Cortex ..................................................................................................... 31

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Spinal Mechanisms ............................................................................................ 34 Motor Units ....................................................................................................... 35 -Motoneurons .............................................................................................. 37 Hand Physiology ....................................................................................................... 39 Skeletal Muscles and Motor Units.......................................................................... 39 Structural Differences Within Individual Muscle Fibers..................................... 40 Physiology of Movement Control .............................................................................. 41 Speed..................................................................................................................... 41 Exercise Training and Maximal Velocity (Vmax)................................................. 41 Force ..................................................................................................................... 42 Gradation of Force............................................................................................. 43 Force and Efficiency.......................................................................................... 44 Two-joint and multi-joint muscles.................................................................. 44 Bilateral deficit .............................................................................................. 44 The Fingers and Thumb............................................................................................. 45 Finger Independence.............................................................................................. 45 The Thumb ............................................................................................................ 47 Pianists and Hand Physiology.................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER 4: SKILL ACQUISITON: SENSORIMOTOR LEARNING ..................... 51 Feedback ................................................................................................................... 51 Stages of Learning, Specificity of Practice, and Feedback...................................... 52

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Auditory Feedback ................................................................................................ 53 Visual Feedback .................................................................................................... 55 Multi-Sensory Integration.......................................................................................... 56 Audio-Motor Coupling .......................................................................................... 57 Mirror Neurons...................................................................................................... 61 Music and Mental Rehearsal...................................................................................... 67 Motor Imagery....................................................................................................... 68 Visual Imagery ...................................................................................................... 70 Musical Imagery.................................................................................................... 71 Imagery, Performance, and Brain Activity................................................................. 76 Attention ................................................................................................................... 77 Motor Learning and the Human Hand........................................................................ 82 Handedness and Facility of the Non-Dominant Hand............................................. 82 Bi-manual Coordination......................................................................................... 84 Modes of Interlimb Coordination ....................................................................... 85 Finger Tapping and Polyrhythms ....................................................................... 88 Bi-manual Transfer ............................................................................................ 90 Musical Skills and Acquisition of New Coordination Patterns............................ 94 CHAPTER 5: THE CHOPIN ETUDES AND SKILL ACQUISITION......................... 98 Force Gradation: Chopin Etudes Op. 10, Nos. 3, 6, and 11; Op. 25, No. 3; and KK II b/3 Nr. 2 .......................................................................................................... 98

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Etude Op. 10, No. 3 ............................................................................................. 102 Finger Independence: Chopin Etudes Op. 10, Nos. 2, 4, 8 and 12 ........................... 104 Etude Op. 10, No. 8 ............................................................................................. 106 Left Hand Facility: Chopin Etude Op. 10, No. 12 .................................................... 108 Etude Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 1-2 ............................................................................ 109 Etude Op. 10, No. 12, m. 9................................................................................... 110 The Thumb: Chopin Etude Op. 10, No. 5................................................................. 112 Speed: Chopin Etudes Op. 10, No. 4 and Op. 25, and 12 ......................................... 115 Etude Op. 10, No. 4 ............................................................................................. 115 Etude Op. 25, No. 12 ........................................................................................... 115 Flexibility and Suppleness via Imagery: Etude Op. 25, No. 1................................... 120 Polyrhythms: Drei Etden: KK II b/3, No. 1........................................................... 123 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................. 126 Strategies for Learning and Teaching....................................................................... 126 Practice and Performance..................................................................................... 126 Aural feedback and aural representations ......................................................... 131 Observational learning ..................................................................................... 132 Scales, piano literature, and the brain ............................................................... 132 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 135 APPENDIX A: HENLE URTEXT EDITION PERMISSION...................................... 137

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued APPENDIX B: WIENER URTEXT EDITION PERMISSION.................................... 138 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 139

9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 3, mm. 1-4........................................................... 98 Figure 2. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 6, mm. 1-3........................................................... 98 Figure 3. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 11, mm. 1-3......................................................... 99 Figure 4. Chopin Etude, Op. 25, No. 3, mm. 1-3........................................................... 99 Figure 5. Chopin Nouvelles Etudes KK II b/3, No. 2, mm. 1-4...................................... 99 Figure 6. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 3, mm. 5-8......................................................... 102 Figure 7. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 2, mm. 1-2......................................................... 104 Figure 8. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 4, mm. 1-2......................................................... 104 Figure 9. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 8, mm. 1-2......................................................... 105 Figure 10. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 8, mm. 8-13 ..................................................... 106 Figure 11. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 8, mm. 26-29 ................................................... 106 Figure 12. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 1-3 ..................................................... 107 Figure 13. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 10-12 ................................................. 107 Figure 14. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 13-18 ................................................. 108 Figure 15. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 61-66 ................................................. 111 Figure 16. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 19-21 ................................................. 111 Figure 17. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 20-26 ................................................... 112 Figure 18. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 1-7....................................................... 113 Figure 19. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 4, mm. 1-8....................................................... 115 Figure 20. Chopin Etude, Op. 10, No. 4, mm. 24-29 ................................................... 117 Figure 21. Chopin Etude, Op. 25, No. 12, mm. 1-2 ..................................................... 118

10 LIST OF FIGURES - Continued Figure 22. Chopin Etude, Op. 25, No. 1, mm. 1-2....................................................... 120 Figure 23. Chopin Nouvelles Etudes KK II b/3, No. 1, mm. 1-11................................ 123

11 ABSTRACT Chopins twenty-seven tudes are both unique and standard within the genre of advanced piano literature. Having been composed as the instrument itself was standardized and on the heels of the didactic studies of the classical period, Chopins tudes are widely heralded as exemplary pedagogical material for their uniform quality and comprehensiveness. Nevertheless, despite the vast number of resources devoted to the topic of how one might approach the tudes and the innumerable endorsements which tout their incomparable worth, relatively cursory mention is made of their musical value. From a physiological perspective, what makes Chopins tudes exceptional amongst vast pedagogical repertory, and how does their musical value impact what pianists learn from their study? From a modern perspective, a musical image is both the model and the yardstick for the measure of technical achievement as one compares performance with his or her musical image. The Chopin tudes are therefore unique in two ways. First, a pianists musical image of each of the Chopin tudes initiates an individual process of motor learning. The musical images, and therefore the goals and the processes, are inherently different from the vast majority of purely didactic studies and exercises. Secondly, the genius of Chopin permeates the overall conception of the tudes as he intuitively employed the human ability to develop motor skills in natural ways which continue to be understood and supported by ongoing research. This paper explores the Chopin tudes from a largely physiological and psychological perspective such that modern studies of mental imagery, skill acquisition,

12 and human motor abilities converge and highlight what is readily available in the music itself.

13 CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY PIANO ETUDE: TECHNICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS Exercises, Etudes, and Concert Studies Exercises, tudes, and concert studies are intended to strengthen a particular aspect of piano technique. Each type of piece uniquely reflects the changes occurring throughout the course of music history with regard to stylistic characteristics and taste, the development and evolution of instruments themselves, and the period of time during which the piece is composed. In his discussion of the Chopin tudes entitled, The Twenty-Seven Etudes and Their Antecedents, Finlow notes the following distinctions within the genre of didactic keyboard music: (i) exercises, in which a didactic objective--the isolation and repetition of a specific technical formula--is assigned primary attention, any musical or characteristic interest being incidental; (ii) etudes, wherein musical and didactic functions properly stand in a complementary and indivisible association; and (iii) concert studies, in which the didactic element is mostly incidental to the primary characteristic substance (though the music will invariably involve some particular exploitation and demonstration of virtuoso technique).1 Because individual tudes typically focus on one aspect of technique, they often evolve from a single musical germ. As a result, the degree to which musical qualities are woven into the fabric of the tude is dependent upon the individuality of the composer.

Simon Finlow, The Twenty-Seven Etudes and Their Antecedents, in The Cambridge Companion to Chopin, ed. Jim Samson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 53.
1

14 The Rise of the Nineteenth-Century Piano Etude The growing popularity of the piano and the rise of the middle class in the nineteenth century spurred the demand for piano pedagogues and teaching material related to the capabilities of the instrument and the demands of contemporary repertoire. Among the virtuoso studies written in the nineteenth century were those by Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), Robert Schumann (1810-1856), Frdric Chopin (18101849), Franz Liszt (1811-1886), Charles-Valentin Alkan (1813-1888), Adolph von Henselt (1814-1889), Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), and Camille Saint-Sans (18351921). Only a select few remain a significant part of modern concert repertory, however. Schumann, Chopin, and Liszt are the three musicians who by their work saved piano composition from the shallowness into which it was in danger of falling or had already fallen. . . . In all of these, this impulse [toward seriousness of thought] was lively and effective, although in Chopin it had less of a controversial tinge than it did in Schumann, and less of an exhibitionistic attitude than it did in the virtuoso Liszt.2 Schumann, Chopin, and Liszt were all fine pianists, and each extended the scope of the piano tude by incorporating musical challenges into their studies which were technically more demanding as well. In some ways, their tudes represented the culmination of a particular type of tude and more closely exemplified the spirit of the original meaning of the word. As Ganz noted in his survey of the history of the piano tude, in French the term tude has been in use since the twelfth century; initially it denoted, as did the

Alfred Einstein, Music in the Romantic Era (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1947), 202.
2

15 original Latin studium, application or taste, the latter word referring to its critical and artistic sense of implication.3 The Chopin Etudes Writing in 1900, Donald Tovey declared, Chopins Etudes stand alone.4 Indeed, by many accounts, Chopins twenty-seven tudes are both unique and standard within the genre of advanced piano literature. Composed as the instrument itself was standardized and on the heels of the didactic studies of the classical period, they have become part of standard teaching literature and performance repertoire. As noted by the eminent pianist and scholar, Paul Badura-Skoda, . . . these are the Etudes on which the worlds elite pianists have cut their teeth, so to speak, ever since they were composed a century and a quarter ago.5 The significance of Chopins contribution to the genre was recognized early on by both Franz Liszt and Robert Schumann. In his article, Some Piano Studies Arranged According to Their Technical Aims, published in the Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik in 1836, Robert Schumann named Chopin as one of five composers who are clearly the most important writers of tudes, the others being J. S. Bach, Clementi, Cramer, and

Oscar Bloch, Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue franaise (Paris: Les Presses universitaires de France, 1932), I, 277; quoted in Peter Felix Ganz, The Development of the Etude for Pianoforte, (Ph. D. diss., Northwestern University, 1960), 8-9.
3

Donald Tovey, Observations on Chopins Etudes, in Essays in Musical Analysis: Chamber Music (London, 1944), 155-6.
4

Paul Badura-Skoda, preface to Etudes Op. 10, by Frdric Chopin (Vienna: Wiener Urtext Edition, 1973), vi.
5

16 Moscheles.6 In the second half of his article which categorized tudes according to their technical features, Schumann indicated with an asterisk those tudes which, in addition to their technical worth, were judged to be poetic as well. Schumann highlighted eleven of the twelve Op. 10 Chopin tudes with asterisks leaving out only Op. 10, No. 2.7 Despite the vast number of resources devoted to the topic of how one might approach the Chopin tudes and the innumerable endorsements which tout their technical worth, the technical and musical value of the tudes often seem to be considered independent of one another. For example, Finlow states that the Chopin tudes are matchless in their capacity to train the fingers, while their musical quality clearly permits or rather demands public performance.8 What has yet to have been considered are the ways in which musical and technical qualities are intertwined mentally and physically and the impact that such an arrangement might have on the development of piano technique. Piano Technique and Philosophical Changes: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries One of the striking aspects of discussion regarding piano technique in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is the emphasis on not simply the fingers, but the relationship between the mind and physical execution in technical development and piano
6

Finlow, The Twenty-Seven Etudes, 51-2.

Robert Schumann, Die Pianoforte-Etuden, ihren Zwecken nach geordnet, Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik 4 (1836): 45-6.
7

Idem, 50.

17 performance. Tobias Matthay is widely remembered for his philosophy regarding the invisible aspects of playing the piano and for developing the principle of rotation, but he was also a proponent of the use of imagery. In The Visible and Invisible in Pianoforte Technique Being a Digest of the Authors Technical Teachings up to Date, he stated that technique means the power of expressing oneself musically. . . . Technique is rather a matter of the Mind than of the fingers. . . . To Acquire Technique therefore implies that you must induce and enforce a particular mental-muscular association and co-operation for every possible musical effect.9 Matthays view is corroborated by many. English pianist and music educator, Sidney Harrison, noted that we cannot make a sharp division between technique and interpretation. As the technique gains in command and confidence, it actually seems to prompt the imagination to bolder and bolder flights.10 Describing Artur Schnabels approach to technique, one of his students wrote that it was his constantly expressed belief that if you knew exactly what you wanted, you would findinvent if necessary the means to achieve it.11 Leon Fleisher concurs suggesting that, its your musical ideas that form or decide for you what kind of technique you are going to use. In other

Tobias Matthay, The Visible and Invisible in Pianoforte Technique Being a Digest of the Authors Technical Teachings up to Date (London: Oxford University Press, 1932), 3.
9

Sidney Harrison, Piano Technique (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1953), 57.
10

David Goldberger, Artur Schnabels Master Classes, The Piano Teacher 5(4) (1963): 6.
11

18 words, if you are trying to get a certain sound, you just experiment around to find the movement that will get this sound.12 Another prominent figure and one of the significant pedagogues in the first half of the twentieth century was Abby Whiteside. Many of her views are described in The Indispensables of Piano Playing published in 1955 and Mastering the Chopin Etudes and Other Essays published posthumously in 1969.13 Most significantly for the topic at hand, the principles and methodology that were the foundation of her teaching can now be understood and substantiated with the most recent scientific advances of the twenty-first century. While advocating a holistic approach to piano technique, Whiteside suggested that the impetus for pianistic development and performance lies in imagery and the power of the mind. It is only when the emotional response to the aural image of the music creates in the performers body a physical response, a basic rhythm, as a counterpart to the rhythmic flow in a composition, that he is enabled to realize to the fullest extent the beauty inherent in the music.14 Likewise, Whiteside encouraged mental rehearsal and imagery as part of a pianists daily routine and wrote the following. Just never take it for granted that the fingers have given up. Instead, set up a daily dozen of thinking
12

Leon Fleisher, About Practicing and Making Music, Clavier 2(4) (1963): 12.

See A. Whiteside, Indispensables of Piano Playing (New York: Coleman-Ross Co., 1955) and Ibid., Mastering the Chopin Etudes, ed. Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1969).
13

Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff, foreword to Mastering the Chopin Etudes and Other Essays, by Abby Whiteside (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1969), 4.
14

19 patterns before the hands are allowed on the keyboard.15 Whiteside further noted the importance of imagery and emotional involvement in practice, not just performance. Two of her students, Joseph Prostakoff and Sophia Rosoff, recalled the following: She constantly stressed the necessity of being emotionally involved in practicing a performance. Early in her career she learned that the human body is so constituted that the physical coordination used when one is emotionally involved in a performance is different from the one operating when one is not. This, incidentally, is the reason why the knowledge of which bones are moved by which muscles is, by itself, of comparatively little value to the pianist or teacher. Because she was searching for the basis of a beautiful performance, it was clear to her that an automatic, uninvolved performanceunfortunately, a commonplace state for the musician practicing exercises--is not merely negative, it is an actively harmful experience. An essential element of a superlative performance is systematically ignored, avoided. The ultimate result of automatic, uninspired practicing can only be an automatic, uninspired performance.16 It would come as no surprise therefore, that Whiteside was not a particular proponent of scales or Hanon and Czerny exercises. Regarding the latter, Whiteside wrote the following. Czerny has been responsible for untold boredom, and that is exactly why his exercises should be discarded. Creativeness in ideas is fostered by response to beauty, not to boredom. It is time we learned to use beautiful music for achieving results if we are interested in producing beautiful playing. Hanon is used for developing independent fingers with equal hitting power. Obviously this cannot be accomplished. Each finger may gain more power, but there will still be inequality in the fingers. Fingers need to be expert only in transmitting the power of the arm. That is a different and far simpler problem, which does not demand mechanical and uninteresting patterns.17

15

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 38. Prostakoff and Rosoff, foreword, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 20. Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 177-8.

16

17

20 Not only did Whiteside espouse the virtues of imagery in performance, but imagery was central to her approach to teaching as well. Even then she believed that imagery was much more important in transferring the desired coordination to the student than a prosaic listing of the various factors of this coordination. Above all, she was always a teacher and was as much concerned with the means for communicating an analysis to a pupil as with the analysis itself. For example, in the early Thirties she had read and very much approved of Otto Ortmanns book, The Physiological Mechanics of Piano Technique.18 Commenting many years later, almost at the end of her career, she said, I am still convinced that his analysis of what happens when one plays well is accurate. My question is, how would he teach it?19 In addition to her insistence on the importance of imagery, another of Whitesides significant tenets as a pianist and pedagogue was her unwavering belief in the value of the Chopin tudes. Each Etude brings into relief a special balance in activity. One can say, here are the ingredients. For this or that Etude add a bit more of this or that action. In these Etudes there is a completely fascinating handling of the various problems of a skilled coordination. There is no other set of Etudes which so comprehensively presents every necessary aspect of virtuosity, always combined with musical beauty.20 Whitesides insight into the mental components of pianistic development and performance and her views regarding the Chopin tudes combined with recent developments in physiology and motor learning set the stage for enhancing our understanding of how pianists approach practice, performance, and pedagogy.

O. Ortmann, The Physiological Mechanics of Piano Technique (New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1929).
18
19

Prostakoff and Rosoff, foreword, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 8. Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 43-4.

20

21 CHAPTER 2 CHOPINS TEACHING PHILOSOPHY AND METHODOLGY Chopin was an influential pedagogue despite contributing very few words on the subject of pedagogy. Of particular interest are the annotated scores of his pupils, exercises he wrote for his niece, sketches of a method book, his compositions, and the reminiscences of several of his students. General Principles: Technique Building Scales and Arpeggios For Chopin, The development of technical skill was not an end in itself, but merely a means of freeing the hands for musical expression.21 He [Chopin] recommended daily work on scales and arpeggios played with regularity [presumably of rhythm], and set great store by scales lightly accented in groups of three or four, or even played three against four and vice versa.22 Now Chopin, from the very first lesson, insisted upon the hands retention of its position [fingers fall freely and lightly; hand held as though suspended in the air]; . . . the hand still retaining its horizontal position; the hand was thus prepared for the more difficult scales, and for arpeggio passages, in which the wide intervals were eventually reached without effort and without greatly raising the fingers.23

Jeanne Holland, Chopin the Teacher, Journal of the American Liszt Society 17 (1985): 42.
21

Maria von Grewingk, Eine Tochter Alt-Rigas, Schlerin Chopins (Riga: Lffler, 1928), 20.
22

Jean Kleczynski, How to Play Chopin. The Works of Frederic Chopin, Their Proper Interpretation, trans. Alfred Whittingham (London: William Reeves, 1913), 2932.
23

22 Due to the ease of placing longer fingers on the black keys, Chopin approached scales beginning with B, F-sharp, and D-flat whereas C major was taught last.24 It is useless to start learning scales on the piano with C major, the easiest to read, and the most difficult for the hand, as it has no pivot. Begin with one that places the hand at ease, with the longer fingers on the black keys, like B major for instance.25 Exercises Mikuli noted that Chopins students studied Clementis Prludes et Exercices in a sequence corresponding to their scale practice.26 As his students progressed, Chopin also assigned selections from Cramers Etudes, Clementis Gradus ad Parnassum, Moscheless Stylstudien zur hheren Vollendung, J.S. Bachs Suites, and fugues from Das Wohltemperirte Clavier. 27 His most advanced students were also assigned selections from his Etudes, Opp. 10 and 25.28

Carl Mikuli, foreword to Fr. Chopins Pianoforte-Werke, 17 vols., ed. Carl Mikuli (Leipzig: Kistner, 1880), 3.
24

Frdric Chopin, Projet de Mthode; quoted in Jean-Jacques, Eigeldinger, Chopin: Pianist and Teacher as Seen By His Pupils, trans. Naomi Shohet with Krysia Osostowicz and Roy Howat, ed. Roy Howat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 34.
25
26

Mikuli, Fr. Chopins Pianoforte-Werke, 3. Ibid., 3-4. Ibid.

27

28

23 Chopin and Psychological Processes Involved in Playing the Piano In the sketches for his method, Chopin differentiated between three categories of technical study based on intervals: those based on adjacent notes, disjunct notes, and double notes. Writing there is nothing more to be invented for study as far as mechanism of piano playing [Chopins italics] is concerned, Chopin seemed to imply the existence of other areas of study related to piano playing aside from what he termed, the mechanism.29 Particular mention can be made of Chopins thoughts regarding touch, sentiment, and psychological processes in approaching a piece of music. With regard to his teaching style, Mikuli and Kleczynski each made reference to Chopins attention to touch and tone. A maximum of suppleness (facilement, facilement [easily, easily] he would repeat tirelessly), and a cultivation of sensitivity of hearing and touchthese were the purposes of the exercises he prescribed in the first lessons.30 Chopins philosophy also directed that, any work selected for study should be carefully analysed for its formal structure, as well as for the feelings and psychological processes which it evokes.31 As a pedagogue, Chopin advocated inspired concise practice. He feared above all . . . the abrutissement [stupefaction by overwork] of the pupils. One day he heard me Frdric Chopin, Projet de Mthode; quoted in Jean-Jacques Eigeldinger, Chopin: Pianist and Teacher as Seen By His Pupils, ed. Roy Howat, trans. Naomi Shohet with Krysia Osostowicz and Roy Howat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 25.
29 30

Eigeldinger, Chopin, 17.

Raoul Koczalski, Frdric Chopin. Betrachtungen, Skizzen, Analysen (Kln: Tischer & Jagenberg, 1936), 13.
31

24 say that I practiced six hours a day. He became quite angry, and forbade me to practise more than three hours.32 Duboiss experience was corroborated by Gretsch as well. He always advised the pupil not to work for too long at a stretch and to intermit between hours of work by reading a good book, by looking at masterpieces of art, or by taking an invigorating walk.33 Finally, as part of his teaching, Chopins students had ample opportunity to observe and imitate their teacher. Fields and his own Nocturnes also figured to some extent as Etudes, for through them the pupil would learnpartly from his explanations, partly from observing and imitating Chopin, who played them indefatigably to the pupilto recognize, love and produce the beautiful bound [gebunden] vocal tone and the legato.34 Chopins methods, revolutionary for their time in comparison to many of his contemporaries, sound familiar to pianists of this day and age. His approach to both composition and pedagogy was exceptional in that he intuitively demonstrated attitudes and ideas which, having since been accepted and practiced ubiquitously amongst pianists, are now finding support in the sciences. These aspects will be addressed in a subsequent chapter.

Frederick Niecks, Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician, Vol. II (London: Novello, 1902), 183-4.
32 33

Grewingk, Eine Tochter Alt-Rigas, 20. Mikuli, foreword to Fr. Chopins Pianoforte-Werke, 4.

34

25 CHAPTER 3 THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM, HAND PHYSIOLOGY, AND PIANO PRACTICE AND PERFORMANCE: AN OVERVIEW OF SELECT ISSUES The Nature-Nurture Debate One of most enduring discussions in science and medicine concerns the naturenurture debate, an argument regarding the extent to which a person is a product of either his or her genes or his or her environment and experiences.35 The debate has drawn increasing interest, particularly with regard to human intellectual and physical performance. With respect to genetic influences and variability, molecular biologists have attempted to identify single gene variants that might either lead to a particular disease or profoundly impact individual performance. For example, efforts have been made to identify sprinters and endurance runners on the basis of differing forms of a single gene.36 Rarely, however, is one gene solely responsible for a particular trait. Furthermore, studies on human behavior have demonstrated that genes work in combined networks to

See V. J. Vitzthum, A Number No Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts: The Use and Abuse of Heritability, Human Biology 75 (2003): 539-88; E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975); H. Hellman, Great Feuds in Science: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever (New York: Wiley, 1998); S. Ceci and W. Williams, The Nature-Nurture Debate: The Essential Readings (New York: Blackwell Publishing Co., 2000), and R. C. Lewontin, It Aint Necessarily So: The Dream of the Human Genome and Other Illusions (London: Granta Books, 2000).
35

See A. Coghlan, Elite Athletes Born to Run, New Scientist 30 (2003): 4-5 and N. Yang et al., ACTN3 Genotype is Associated with Human Elite Athletic Performance, American Journal of Human Genetics 73 (2003): 627-31.
36

26 influence biological function.37 All observable properties of an organism are determined by the workings of a degenerate network of many genes.38 Degeneracy in gene networks promotes evolutionary fitness of a species by ensuring that genetic diversity supports functional adaptation to variable environments.39 On the other hand, significant support for the importance of environment and experience is drawn from studies involving skills such as cigar rolling40 and reading inverted text,41 studies which have demonstrated a strong correlation between time spent practicing and improvements in performance. Ericsson et al. also concluded that the primary factor distinguishing violinists at different skill levels was the number of hours spent in deliberate practice, practice characterized by focused attention; relevant, effortful activities; and specific performance goals.42 While it has also been demonstrated

T. D. Johnston and L. Edwards, Genes, Interactions and the Development of Behaviour, Psychological Review 109 (2002): 26-34.
37

G. M. Edelman and J. A. Gally, Degeneracy and Complexity in Biological Systems, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98 (2001): 13766.
38

K. Davids and J. Baker, Genes, Environment and Sport Performance: Why the Nature-Nurture Dualism is No Longer Relevant, Sports Medicine 37(11) (2007): 975.
39

E. R. F. W. Crossman, A Theory of the Acquisition of Speed-Skill, Ergonomics 2 (1959): 153-66.

40

P. A. Kolers, Memorial Consequences of Automatized Encoding, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1 (1975): 689-701.
41

K. A. Ericsson, R. T. Krampe, and C. Tesch-Rmer, The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance, Psychological Review 100 (1993): 363-406.
42

27 that expert athletes accumulate more training hours than non-experts,43 the notion that simply acquiring a particular number of training hours to develop expertise has received significant criticism. As noted by Davids and Baker, however, there seems to be little doubt that attention to high-quality training is critical for promoting the development of expert performance.44 That leads one to consider the processes involved in training and the increasing emphasis on what appears to be, a complementary relationship between nature and nurture since neither environmental nor genetic constraints are able to account for all the data on performance variability.45 The complementary nature of phenomena in the natural world suggests that it is highly important for geneticists to identify many single gene variants, although the role of these genes in regulating behaviour needs to be framed by their overarching tendencies to network and to cooperate or compete with environmental constraints.46 One of the formidable challenges facing behavioral researchers is that performance-related variables are not completely predictable, and yet it seems reasonable that we might be able to better

See J. L. Starkes et al., Deliberate Practice in Sports: What is it Anyway? in The Road to Excellence: The Acquisition of Expert Performance in the Arts, Sciences, Sports and Games, ed. K. A. Ericsson (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), 80-106; W. F. Helsen, J. L. Starkes, and N. J. Hodges, Team Sports and the Theory of Deliberate Practice, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 20 (1998): 12-34; and T. Hodge and J. Deakin, Deliberate Practice and Expertise in the Martial Arts: The Role of Context in Motor Recall, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 20 (1998): 260-79.
43 44

Davids and Baker, Genes, Environment and Sport Performance, 966.

J. A. S. Kelso and D. A. Engstrm, The Complementary Nature (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006).
45 46

Davids and Baker, Genes, Environment and Sport Performance, 962-80.

28 understand a range of influence of particular variables which might affect performance. The following will focus on integrating principles regarding the neuromuscular system and hand physiology with piano practice and performance. Skill Training and the Central Nervous System The dynamic relationship of biological factors and environmental influences is exemplified by research regarding the plasticity, or changing structure, of the central nervous system in response to learning and experience.47 Morphological and functional characteristics of the neuromuscular system change with chronic levels of physical activity. These changes, or adaptations, affect performance variables such as muscle contraction force, power, and the rate of force development (RFD).48 Research has demonstrated that significant effects associated with motor training include neural adaptations,49 such as experience-specific patterns of plasticity induced across the motor

K. A. Dodge, The Nature-Nurture Debate and Public Policy, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 50 (2004): 418-27.
47

See P. Aagaard et al., A Mechanism for Increased Contractile Strength of Human Pennate Muscle in Response to Strength Training: Changes in Muscle Architecture, Journal of Physiology 534 (2001): 613-23.
48

See P. Aagaard et al., Neural Inhibition During Maximal Eccentric and Concentric Quadriceps Contractions: Effects of Resistance Training, Journal of Applied Physiology 89 (2000): 2249-57; P. Aagaard et al., Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training: Changes in Evoked V-Wave and H-Reflex Responses, Journal of Applied Physiology 92 (2002): 2309-18; and M. Van Cutsem, J. Duchateau, and K. Hainuat, Changes in Single Motor Unit Behavior Contribute to the Increase in Contraction Speed After Dynamic Training in Humans, Journal of Physiology 513 (1998): 295-305.
49

29 cortex and spinal cord50 and changes in motor unit behavior and muscle. Furthermore, with regard to both neural and physiological adaptations, the adaptations appear to be in response to differential motor experience and training. The following discussion will focus on neural plasticity associated with skill training. Neural Plasticity Significant evidence supporting the role of neural factors comes from studies involving limb immobilization, aging, and those demonstrating phenomena particular to strength training. For example, increases in strength occur in the first few weeks of training prior to any significant increase in muscle mass.51 Furthermore, observed

See M. J. N. McDonagh and C. T. M. Davies, Adaptive Response of Mammalian Skeletal Muscle to Exercise with High Loads, European Journal of Applied Physiology 52 (1984): 139-55; D. G. Sale, Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20 (1988): S135-45; R. M. Enoka, Neural Adaptations with Chronic Physical Activity, Journal of Biomechanics 30 (1996): 44755; DeAnna L. Adkins et al., Motor Training Induces Experience-Specific Patterns of Plasticity Across Motor Cortex and Spinal Cord, Journal of Applied Physiology 101 (2006): 1776-82; and D. Gabriel, G. Kamen, and G. Frost, Neural Adaptations to Resistive Exercise: Mechanisms and Recommendations for Training Practices, Sports Medicine 36 (2): 133-49.
50

See R. C. Hickson et al., Successive Time Courses of Strength Development and Steroid Hormone Responses to Heavy-Resistance Training, Journal of Applied Physiology 76 (1994): 663-70; D. A. Jones and O. M. Rutherford, Human Muscle Strength Training: The Effects of Three Different Regimes and the Nature of the Resultant Changes, Journal of Physiology (London) 391 (1987): 1-11; P. V. Komi, Training of Muscle Strength and Power: Interaction of Neuromotoric, Hypertrophic, and Mechanical Factors, International Journal of Sports Medicine 7 (1986): 10-5; N. McCartney et al., The Effects of Strength Training in Patients with Selected Neuromuscular Disorder, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20 (1988): 362-8; M. V. Narici et al., Changes in Forces, Cross-Sectional Areas and Neural Activation During Strength Training and Detraining of the Human Quadriceps, European Journal of Applied Physiology 66 (1989): 310-9; and L. L. Ploutz et al., Effect of Resistance
51

30 increases in strength are evident not only in the trained limb, but in the contralateral, untrained limb as well, an effect known as cross-education.52 Finally, increases in strength do not transfer to all activities in which the trained muscle is involved.53 While this evidence supports the likelihood that neural mechanisms are significant in neuromuscular adaptations associated with physical activity and training, it has been much more difficult to identify the particular mechanisms involved. This has led some scientists to conclude that the mechanisms mediating neuromuscular adaptations probably vary across conditions, but, in general, must be related to the maximality, specificity, or pattern of the neural drive to the muscle.54 For example, most normally active individuals find it difficult to maximally activate a particular muscle by voluntary command which in turn limits the force one might elicit as well.55 It appears, however that this ability may be influenced by ones level of chronic physical activity.

Training on Muscle Use During Exercise, Journal of Applied Physiology 76 (1994): 1675-81. R. M. Enoka, Muscle Strength and its Development: New Perspectives, Sports Medicine 6 (1988): 146-68.
52

O. M. Rutherford and D. A. Jones, The Role of Learning and Coordination in Strength Training, European Journal of Applied Physiology 55 (1986): 100-5.
53

R. M. Enoka, Neural Adaptations with Chronic Physical Activity, Journal of Biomechanics 30(5) (1997): 448.
54

See Allen et al., Reliability of Measurements of Muscle Strength and Voluntary Activation Using Twitch Interpolation, Muscle & Nerve 18 (1995): 583-600; Adams et al., Mapping of Electrical Muscle Stimulation Using MRI, Journal of Applied Physiology 74 (1993): 532-7; R. M. Enoka and A. J. Fuglevand, Neuromuscular Basis of the Maximum Voluntary Force Capacity of Muscle, in Current Issues in Biomechanics,
55

31 Motor Cortex The primary motor cortex is organized into highly interconnected neural assemblies that control discrete movements across different joints.56 Motor skill acquisition apparently involves changes in the connectivity between these neural assemblies,57 changes particular to the nature of ones motor experience. With regard to skill training, Adkins et al. suggest that these changes include synaptogenesis, synaptic potentiation, and the reorganization of movement representations within motor cortex.58 ed. M. D. Grabiner (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1993), 215-35; F. Bellemare et al., Motor-Unit Discharge Rates During Maximal Voluntary Contractions of Three Human Muscles, Journal of Neurophysiology 50 (1983): 1380-92; C. J. De Luca et al., Behavior of Human Motor Units in Different Muscles During Linearly Varying Contractions, Journal of Physiology (London) 329 (1982): 113-28; A. Y. Belanger and A. J. McComas, Extent of Motor Unit Activation During Effort, Journal of Applied Physiology 51 (1981): 381-93; C. G. Kukulka and H. P. Clamann, Comparison of the Recruitment and Discharge Properties of Motor Units in Human Brachial Biceps and Adductor Pollicis During Isometric Contractions, Brain Research 219 (1981): 45-55; A. W. Monster and H. Chan, Isometric Force Production by Motor Units of Extensor Digitorum Communis Muscle in Man, Journal of Neurophysiology 40 (1977): 1432-43; H. J. Freund, H. J. Bdingen, and V. Dietz, Activity of Single Motor Units from Human Forearm Muscles During Voluntary Isometric Contractions, Journal of Neurophysiology 38 (1975): 933-46; and J. Tanji and M. Kato, Firing Rate of Individual Motor Units in Voluntary Contraction of Abductor Digit Minimi Muscle in Man, Experimental Neurology 40 (1973): 771-83. See J. P. Donoghue and S. P. Wise, The Motor Cortex of the Rat: Cytoarchitecture and Microstimulation Mapping, The Journal of Comparative Neurology 212 (1982): 76-88; A. Keller, Intrinsic Synaptic Organization of the Motor Cortex, Cerebral Cortex 3 (1993): 430-41; and Schieber, Constraints on Somatotopic Organization, 2125-43.
56

M. Graziano, The Organization of Behavioral Repertoire in Motor Cortex, Annual Review of Neuroscience 29 (2006): 105-34.
57 58

Adkins et al., Motor Training Induces Experience-Specific Patterns of

32 Transcranial magnetic stimulation and neuroimaging studies have demonstrated changes in the human motor cortex59 similar to results obtained in studies involving rats.60

Plasticity, 1776-82. See J. Classen et al., Multimodal Output Mapping of Human Central Motor Representation on Different Spatial Scales, Journal of Physiology 512 (1998): 163-79; M. Hund-Georgiadis and D. Y. von Cramon, Motor-Learning-Related Changes in Piano Players and Non-Musicians Revealed by Functional Magnetic-Resonance Signals, Experimental Brain Research 125 (1999): 417-25; A. Karni et al., Functional MRI Evidence for Adult Motor Cortex Plasticity During Motor Skill Learning, Nature 377 (1995): 155-8; and A. Pascual-Leone et al., The Role of Reading Activity on the Modulation of Motor Cortical Outputs to the Reading Hand in Braille Readers, Annals of Neurology 34 (1993): 33-7.
59

See R. P. Allred and T. A. Jones, Unilateral Ischemic Sensorimotor Cortical Damage in Female Rats: Forelimb Behavioral Effects and Dendritic Structural Plasticity in the Contralateral Homotopic Cortex, Experimental Neurology 190 (2004): 433-45; S. D. Bury and T. A. Jones, Unilateral Sensorimotor Cortex Lesions in Adult Rats Facilitate Motor Skill Learning with the Unaffected Forelimb and Training-Induced Dendritic Structural Plasticity in the Motor Cortex, Journal of Neuroscience 22 (2002): 8597-8606; W. T. Greenough, J. R. Larson, and G. S. Withers, Effects of Unilateral and Bilateral Training in a Reaching Task on Dendritic Branching of Neurons in the Rat Motor-Sensory Forelimb Cortex, Behavioral and Neural Biology 44 (1985): 301-14; T. A. Jones, Multiple Synapse Formation in the Motor Cortex Opposite Unilateral Sensorimotor Cortex Lesions in Adult Rats, Journal of Comparative Neurology 414 (1999) 57-66; T. A. Jones, C. J. Chu, L. A. Grande, and A. D. Gregory, Motor Skills Training Enhances Lesion-Induced Structural Plasticity in the Motor Cortex of Adult Rats, Journal of Neuroscience 19 (1999): 10153-63; J. A. Kleim et al., Motor Learning-Dependent Synaptogenesis is Localized to Functionally Reorganized Motor Cortex, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 77 (2002): 63-77; J. A. Kleim, S. Barbay, and R. J. Nudo, Functional Reorganization of the Rat Motor Cortex Following Motor Skill Learning, Journal of Neurophysiology 80 (1998): 3321-25; J. A. Kleim et al., Cortical Synaptogenesis and Motor Map Reorganization Occur During Late, but Not Early, Phase of Motor Skill Learning, Journal of Neuroscience 24 (2004): 628-33; J. A. Kleim et al., Synaptogenesis and Fos Expression in the Motor Cortex of the Adult Rat After Motor Skill Learning, Journal of Neuroscience 16 (1996): 4529-35; and Y. Wang et al., Motor Learning Changes GABAergic Terminals on Spinal Motoneurons in Normal Rats, European Journal of Neuroscience 23 (2006): 141-50.
60

33 Individuals trained to produce skilled digit movements on a piano display an increase in the area of digit representation corresponding to the trained hand and a decrease in motorevoked potential (MEP) threshold.61 Similar cortical changes have been observed in blind braille readers62 and subjects trained in ankle63 and tongue tasks.64 Furthermore, highly skilled volleyball players have larger map areas and more overlapping representations of medial deltoid and carpi radialis muscles than runners, a finding consistent with volleyball players acquisition of coordinated shoulder movement sequences.65

A. Pascual-Leone et al., Modulation of Muscle Responses Evoked by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation During the Acquisition of New Fine Motor Skills, Journal of Neurophysiology 74 (1995): 1037-45.
61

See A. Pascual-Leone et al., Modulation of Motor Cortical Outputs to the Reading Hand of Braille Readers, Annals of Neurology 34 (1993): 33-7; A. PascualLeone, J. Grafman, and M. Hallett, Procedural Learning and Prefrontal Cortex, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 769 (1995): 61-70; and Pascual-Leone et al., The Role of Reading Activity, 910-15.
62

M. A. Perez et al., Motor Skill Training Induces Changes in the Excitability of the Leg Cortical Area in Healthy Humans, Experimental Brain Research 159 (2004): 197-205.
63

P. Svensson et al., Plasticity in Corticomotor Control of the Human Tongue Musculature Induced by Tongue-Task Training, Experimental Brain Research 152 (2003): 42-51.
64

F. Tyc, A. Boyadjian, and H. Devanne, Motor Cortex Plasticity Induced by Extensive Training Revealed by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Human, The European Journal of Neuroscience 21 (2005): 259-66.
65

34 Spinal Mechanisms The spinal cord is the final common pathway involved in motor behavior, but the ways in which it is specifically involved in motor skill are largely unknown. Research involving operant conditioning of spinal reflexes has demonstrated how learning may induce spinal cord plasticity. Specifically, studies involving operant conditioning of the spinal stretch reflex (SSR) and its electrical analog, the H reflex, have shown that humans,66 monkeys,67 and rats68 can gradually increase or decrease the SSR or H reflex. A conditioned decrease in the H reflex is due to an increase in motoneuron firing threshold whereas an increase in the reflex is the result of reduced inhibition of the motoneuron.69 Decreasing the H reflex causes an increase of inhibitory synapses onto the spinal cord70 and reduced motoneuron axon conductance.71

R. L. Segal et al., Uncoupling of Human Short and Long Latency Stretch Reflex Responses with Operant Conditioning, Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 17 (2000): 17-22.
66

J. S. Carp and J. R. Wolpaw, Motoneuron Properties After Operantly Conditioned Increase in Primate H-Reflex, Journal of Neurophysiology 73 (1995): 136573.
67

X. Y. Chen, L. Chen, and J. R. Wolpaw, Time Course of H-Reflex Conditioning in the Rat, Neuroscience Letters 302 (2001): 85-8.
68

See J. S. Carp and J. R. Wolpaw, Motoneuron Plasticity Underlying Operantly Conditioned Decrease in Primate H-Reflex, Journal of Neurophysiology 72 (1994): 43142 and Carp and Wolpaw, Motoneuron Properties, 1365-73.
69

See K. C. Feng-Chen and J. R. Wolpaw, Operant Conditioning of H-Reflex Changes Synaptic Terminals on Primate Motoneurons, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93 (1996): 9206-11 and Wang et al., Motor Learning Changes GABAergic Terminals, 141-50.
70

35 Several studies have demonstrated that changes in spinal reflexes also occur during long-term training of more complex limb movements.72 Collectively, the data indicate that operant conditioned motor skills induce alterations in the spinal cord. Further studies are necessary, however, to better understand the exact nature of these adaptations. Motor Units Several observations suggest the likelihood of motoneuron adaptation to training. For example, in a study of motor units of the first dorsal interosseus, Adam, De Luca, and Erim demonstrated that average firing rates, initial firing rates, and firing rate discharge variability were all significantly lower for the dominant as opposed to the nondominant hand.73 Furthermore, while several studies have demonstrated that humans are unable to fully activate muscles voluntarily,74 some evidence suggests that adaptations in motor unit

J. S. Carp et al., Operant Conditioning of Rat H-Reflex Affects Motoneuron Axonal Conduction Velocity, Experimental Brain Research 136 (2001): 269-73.
71

See J. Meyer-Lohmann, C. N. Christakos, and H. Wolf, Dominance of the Short-Latency Component in Perturbation Induced Electromyographic Responses of Long-Trained Monkeys, Experimental Brain Research 64 (1986): 393-9 and R. V. Ung et al., On the Potential Role of the Corticospinal Tract in the Control and Progressive Adaptation of the Soleus H-Reflex During Backward Walking, Journal of Neurophysiology 94 (2005): 1133-42.
72

A. Adam, C. J. De Luca, and Z. Erim, Hand Dominance and Motor Unit Firing Behavior, Journal of Neurophysiology 80 (1998): 1373-82.
73

See Enoka and Fuglevand, Neuromuscular Basis, 215-35; J. J. Dowling et al., Are Humans Able to Voluntarily Elicit Maximum Muscle Force? Neuroscience Letters 1994 (179): 25-8; S. Gandevia, Spinal and Supraspinal Factors in Human Muscle Fatigue, Physiological Reviews 2001 (81): 1725-89; and C. A. Knight and G. Kamen,
74

36 activity may contribute to improvements in motor performance. On one hand, for example, Kamen and Knight demonstrated that increases in the maximal rate of torque development following six weeks of strength training were accompanied by increases in the maximal discharge rate of motor units.75 This is significant since the force a muscle exerts is dependent upon motor unit activity,76 specifically, the number of motor units recruited and the rate at which they discharge action potentials. On the other hand, force modulation training results in decreased recruitment thresholds in young adults and reduced firing frequencies of motor units at percentages of maximal voluntary contraction.77 This in turn allows more precise and accurate control with regard to various increments of muscle force.78

Adaptations in Muscular Activation of the Knee Extensor Muscles with Strength Training in Young and Older Adults, Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 11 (2001): 405-12. G. Kamen and C. A. Knight, Training-Related Adaptations in Motor Unit Discharge Rate in Young and Older Adults, The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 59 (2004): 1334-8.
75

E. Adrian and D. Bronk, The Discharge of Impulses in Motor Nerve Fibres. II. The Frequency of Discharges in Reflex and Voluntary Contractions, Journal of Physiology 204 (1929): 231-57.
76

C. Patten and G. Kamen, Adaptations in Motor Unit Discharge Activity with Force Control Training in Young and Older Human Adults, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 83 (2000): 128-43.
77

M. Bernardi et al., Motor Unit Recruitment Strategy Changes with Skill Acquisition, European Journal of Applied Physiology 74 (1996): 52-9.
78

37 It is important to note that the force a muscle exerts during a voluntary contraction is not constant. Instead, it is influenced by factors such as the intensity of the contraction, the type of muscle contraction, the muscle group involved in the task, the level of physiological arousal, and fatigue and therefore fluctuates around an average intended value.79 This variability is exacerbated at low levels of force because recruited motor units are contributing an unfused tetanus to the net force.80 -Motoneurons Properties of -motoneurons change under a variety of conditions, during development81 and following spinal cord injury,82 for example. Gardiner, Dai, and

See E. A. Christou, M. Grossman, and L. G. Carlton, Modeling Variability of Force During Isometric Quadriceps Femoris Muscle Contractions, Journal of Motor Behavior 34 (2002): 67-81; E. A. Christou, M Zelent, and L. G. Carlton, Force Control is Greater in Upper Compared with the Lower Extremity, Journal of Motor Behavior 35 (2003): 322-4; M. E. Galganski, A. J. Fuglevand, and R. M. Enoka, Reduced Control of Motor Output in a Human Hand Muscle of Elderly Subjects During Submaximal Contractions, Journal of Neurophysiology 69 (1993): 2108-15; C. J. Mottram et al., Frequency Modulation of Motor Unit Discharge Has Task-Dependent Effects on Fluctuations in Motor Output, Journal of Neurophysiology 94 (2005): 2878-87; and T. Rudroff et al., Net Excitation of the Motor Unit Pool Varied with Load Type During Fatiguing Contractions, Muscle & Nerve 29 (2005): 78-87.
79

See Z. Erim et al. Rank-Ordered Regulation of Motor Units, Muscle & Nerve 19 (1996): 563-73; V. G. Macefield, A. J. Fuglevand, and B. Bigland-Ritchie, Contractile Properties of Single Motor Units in Human Toe Extensors Assessed by Intraneural Motor Axon Stimulation, Journal of Neurophysiology 75 (1996): 2509-19; Monster and Chan, Isometric Force Production, 1432-43; and C. T. Moritz et al., Discharge Rate Variability Influences the Variation in Force Fluctuations Across the Working Range of a Hand Muscle, Journal of Neurophysiology 93 (2005): 2449-59.
80

N. Alessandri-Haber et al., Molecular Determinants of Emerging Excitability in Rat Embryonic Motoneurons, Journal of Physiology 541 (2002): 25-39.
81

38 Heckman note that these changes include changes in properties that would be expected to alter the ways in which neurons, and neuronal circuits, translate and transfer excitation patterns into trains of action potentials at the end organ.83 They also cite the following as known adaptations to -motoneurons in response to exercise training: increased dendritic arbor; increased protein synthesis and altered gene expression; altered ion conductances in soma and the initial segment; increased axon transport of maintenance proteins, neurotrophins and receptors; metabolic signals from muscles, and enhanced neuromuscular transmission efficacy.84 While the functional implications of some of these adaptations are less obvious and require further study, several of these adaptations likely have functional consequences during endurance exercise. One significant observation is increased synaptic efficacy resulting from enhanced neurotransmitter release occurring with increased activity.85 The effect is decreased likelihood that neuromuscular propagation might be impaired during sustained activation of the neuromuscular junction. See E. Beaumont et al., Passive Exercise and Fetal Spinal Cord Transplant Both Help to Restore Motoneuronal Properties After Spinal Cord Transection in Rats, Muscle & Nerve 29 (2004): 234-42 and S. Hochman and D. McCrea, Effects of Chronic Spinalization on Ankle Extensor Motoneurons. II. Motoneuron Electrical Properties, Journal of Neurophysiology 71(1994): 1468-79.
82

P. Gardiner, Y. Dai, and C. J. Heckman, Effects of Exercise Training on Motoneurons, Journal of Applied Physiology 101 (2006): 1228.
83 84

Ibid., 1229.

See A. Argaw, P. Desaulniers, and P. F. Gardiner, Enhanced Neuromuscular Transmission Efficacy in Overloaded Rat Plantaris Muscle, Muscle & Nerve 29 (2004): 97-103; P. Desaulniers, P. A. Lavoie, and P. F. Gardiner, Habitual Exercise Enhances
85

39 Further research is necessary to study motoneurons in conditions closer to those in vivo during exercise. Hand Physiology Philosophies of piano practice with regard to motor learning and skill acquisition continue to evolve in order to enhance efficiency and maintain physical health. Training of skeletal muscle is a complicated issue with many interrelated variables, the relationships of which may not be fully understood. Nevertheless, the aspiring pianist may benefit from the most recent research regarding physiology and training techniques. Discussion of basic properties of muscles, how muscles function, and issues particular to the human hand will lay the foundation for considering physiological aspects of several Chopin tudes. Skeletal Muscles and Motor Units Histochemical characteristics, those related to the composition of cells and tissues in the body, and structural and behavioral characteristics underlie functional properties of muscle such as the magnitude of force a muscle is capable of generating, the speed with which force is developed, and the length of time force may be maintained.86 There are two general categories of muscle fibers, fast twitch and slow twitch. The primary

Neuromuscular Transmission Efficacy of Rat Soleus Muscle in Situ, Journal of Applied Physiology 90 (2001): 1041-8; and M. Dorlchter et al., Effects of Enhanced Activity on Synaptic Transmission in Mouse Extensor Digitorum Longus Muscle, Journal of Physiology 436 (1991): 283-92. Walter F. Boron and Emile L. Boulpaep, Medical Physiology: A Cellular and Molecular Approach (China: Elsevier Science, 2003), 147.
86

40 functional difference between them is the time required for each to reach peak tension. Fast twitch, or type II fibers, require approximately one-seventh of the time required by slow twitch, or type I fibers, to reach peak tension.87 Another significant difference between muscle types is the length of time they are able to maintain force, in other words the extent to which the muscles resist fatigue. Whereas slow-twitch fibers have the ability to sustain moderate contractions for tens of minutes or even hours, fast-twitch fibers, those fibers associated with maximal contractions of a muscle group, fatigue within tens of seconds or minutes.88 The soleus in the lower leg is an example of a muscle comprised of mainly slow-twitch fibers while muscles of the eye are mainly fasttwitch. Interestingly, muscles of the human hand have a significantly greater proportion of fast-twitch fibers than slow-twitch fibers in the dominant hand and vice versa.89 Structural Differences Within Individual Muscle Fibers Muscle fibers comprise several types of proteinsmyosin, actin, and six accessory proteins. Although the contraction of muscle occurs as a result of a chain of events associated with the interaction of actin and myosin, the characteristics of muscle contractions are thought to be significantly related to the structure of myosin. Each molecule of myosin is comprised of two heavy chains (HC) and four light chains (LC), and different muscles express different forms of myosin heavy chains (MHC) and myosin

87

Ibid., 152. Ibid., 1244.

88

L. Jsza et al., Specific Fibre Composition of Human Hand and Arm Muscles, Handchirurgie 10 (3) (1978): 153-7.
89

41 light chains (MLC). Differences in the proportions in which these chains are expressed are implicated in contraction velocity and result in several types of type II fibers. Physiology of Movement Control Speed It is apparent that training-induced adaptations in contractile function and fibertype characteristics depend upon duration, intensity, frequency, and the type of training program used. Results of current research indicate that resistance training enhances crosssectional area of muscle and force generated by muscle fibers while endurance training increases maximal unloaded shortening velocity of muscles. Exercise Training and Maximal Shortening Velocity (Vmax) It is a consistent finding that dynamic, but not isometric training, increases maximal shortening velocity (Vmax) of muscles. Isometric training is a type of strength training in which joint angle and muscle length are maintained either by working against an immovable force or in opposition to fixed resistance. On the other hand, dynamic training keeps the joints and muscles moving. Examples of dynamic training include biking, running, swimming, and weight training. Duchateau and Hainaut found that three months of isometric training at peak voluntary force failed to alter Vmax, but a similar period of dynamic training performed at a resistance equivalent to thirty to forty percent of peak force increased Vmax by twenty-one percent.90 It is thought that this increase may be the result of an increase in the Vmax of individual fibers expressing a particular MHC J. Duchateau and K. Hainaut, Isometric or Dynamic Training: Differential Effects on Mechanical Properties of a Human Muscle, Journal of Applied Physiology 56(2) (1984): 296-301.
90

42 isoform.91 Strength training increases the number of Type IIa MHC at the expense of fibers expressing Types IIx or IIb MHC. Because human skeletal muscle fibers expressing either IIb or IIx MHC have greater maximal shortening velocity than fibers expressing Type IIa MHC (R. H. Fitts and J. J. Widrick, unpublished data 1995),92 a change in MHC expression would be expected to affect the Vmax of the whole muscle. Force Two basic types of training influence both the force a muscle is capable of generating and its ability to resist fatigue. Endurance training promotes increased resistance to fatigue and therefore greater ability to maintain submaximal power output while strength training facilitates the ability to generate greater force.93 Strength is defined as the capacity to exert force under a particular set of biomechanical conditions; however, most movements arise from the cooperation of a number of muscles acting together. The amount of force that can be generated in a particular movement is therefore determined not only by intramuscular factors but by the relative coordination of muscles as well. While it is likely that neural adaptations contribute to increases in strength by facilitating coordination amongst muscles, it is widely documented that resistance training can lead, not only to neural adaptations, but R. H. Fitts and J. J. Widrick, Muscle Mechanics: Adaptations with ExerciseTraining, Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 24 (1996): 427-73.
91

See L. Larsson and R. L. Moss, Maximum Velocity of Shortening in Relation to Myosin Isoform Composition in Single Fibres From Human Skeletal Muscles, The Journal of Physiology 472(1) (1993): 595-614 and R. H. Fitts and J. J. Widrick, unpublished data, 1995.
92
93

Boron and Boulpaep, Medical Physiology, 1244.

43 changes in structural and histochemical properties of muscle resulting in increased muscular strength. Gradation of Force Properties of muscle are dependent upon a balance of characteristics which facilitate the variety of movements of which human beings are capable. Of primary importance to the pianist is the ability to control the speed at which the piano key descends which is in turn dependent upon the force with which it is depressed. The ability to depress piano keys with an infinite variety of movements relies on the ability to exert force in such a way that movements are both smooth and graded. Muscle fibers belonging to a single motor unit are all of the same type but may interdigitate with those from another. The interdigitation, together with the orderly recruitment of motor units, permits a graded response that is evenly distributed through the cross section of the muscle. Not only are musicians more accurate than non-musicians in reaching a desired force, but musicians also exhibit better control over the fingers at all levels of force.94 It has also been demonstrated that accuracy of force production increases as a function of practice, and this accuracy is largely attributed to neural adaptation and/or motor learning.95 Deficient coordination, or the inability of muscles to contract at the most

S. M. Slobounov et al., Modulated Cortical Control of Individual Fingers in Experienced Musicians: An EEG Study, Clinical Neurophysiology 113 (2002): 201324.
94

H. Chiang, S. M. Slobounov, and W. Ray, Practice-Related Modulations of Force Enslaving and Cortical Activity as Revealed by EEG, Clinical Neurophysiology
95

44 optimal force levels for a particular motor task, is largely related to high brain mechanisms including the neocortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem. Force and Efficiency Two-joint and multi-joint muscles Many muscles in the human body, including those crossing the wrist and all finger joints, cross two or more joints. Because the amount of tension present in any muscle is essentially constant throughout its length as well as at the sites of tendinous attachment to bone, these muscles affect motion at both or all of the joints crossed. One disadvantage associated with two-joint and multi-joint muscles is known as active insufficiency. Active insufficiency refers to the fact that two-joint and multi-joint muscles are incapable of shortening to the extent required to produce a full range of motion at all joints simultaneously. For example, finger flexors are unable to produce as tight a fist when the wrist is in flexion as when it is in a neutral position. Bilateral deficit In normally active individuals, the maximum force a muscle can exert decreases when the homologous muscle in the contralateral limb is activated concurrently.96 In

115 (2004): 1033-43. See T. Ohtsuki, Decrease in Human Voluntary Isometric Arm Strength Induced by Simultaneous Bilateral Exertions, Behavioural Brain Research 7 (1983): 165-78; P. Schantz et al., Maximal Voluntary Force of Bilateral and Unilateral Leg Extension, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 136 (1989): 185-92; N. J. Secher, S. Rorsgarrd, and O. Secher, Contralateral Influence on Recruitment of Curarized Muscle Fibres During Maximal Voluntary Extension of the Legs, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 103 (1978): 456-62; and N. H. Secher, N. Rube, and J. Ellers, Strength of Two- and One- Leg Extension in Man, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 134 (1988): 333-39.
96

45 most people, the bilateral deficit during slow contractions is less than twenty percent,97 but for rapid contractions it has been reported to be as high as twenty-five to forty-five percent.98 Interestingly enough, bilateral deficit can be obviated with training.99 For example, individuals who participate in training that requires concurrent activation of homologous muscles with intense contractions but not other types of training, rowers and weightlifters, for example, have been observed to exhibit a bilateral facilitation rather than a bilateral deficit.100 In these subjects, the maximum force a muscle can exert occurs during a bilateral rather than a unilateral contraction. The Fingers and Thumb Finger Independence While humans seem to demonstrate significant independence amongst the digits in daily activities, they apparently lack the ability to move the fingers completely See J. D. Howard and R. M. Enoka, Maximum Bilateral Contractions are Modified by Neurally Mediated Interlimb Effects, Journal of Applied Physiology 70 (1991): 306-16 and T. J. Koh, M. D. Grabiner, and C. A. Clough, Bilateral Deficit is Larger for Step Than for Ramp Isometric Contractions, Journal of Applied Physiology 74(3) (1993): 1200-5.
97

See Koh, Grabiner, and Clough, Bilateral Deficit, 1200-5 and A. A. Vandervoort, D. G. Sale, and J. Moro, Comparison of Motor Unit Activation During Unilateral and Bilateral Leg Extension, Journal of Applied Physiology 56 (1984): 4651.
98

N. Rube and N. H. Secher, Effect of Training on Central Factors in Fatigue Following Two- and One-Leg Static Exercise in Man, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 141 (1990): 87-95.
99

See Howard and Enoka, Maximum Bilateral Contractions, 306-16 and N. H. Secher, Isometric Rowing Strength of Experienced and Inexperienced Oarsmen, Medicine and Science in Sports 7 (1975): 280-3.
100

46 independently. For example, studies by Schieber, Hger-Ross and Schieber, and Lang and Schieber have shown that primates and humans are unable to voluntarily flex one finger without incurring movement of the other fingers as well.101 This phenomenon has been referred to as enslavement. It appears that the degree to which one finger is enslaved to another is influenced by whether the finger is the index, middle, ring, or little finger and the speed with which a particular movement is performed. Hger-Ross and Schieber have shown that the index finger is more independent than the other fingers, followed by the little, middle, and ring fingers, respectively, and that movements performed with greater speed tend to be less individuated than those performed more slowly.102 Perhaps surprisingly, it appears that hand dominance is not a significant factor affecting finger independence as research by Reilly has shown no difference between the individuation of the digits on the preferred and non-preferred hands during force production with single digits in isolation.103 The question then arises as to how neural and motor organization may impact the human ability to move the fingers and whether or not See Marc H. Schieber, Individuated Finger Movements of Rhesus Monkeys: A Means of Quantifying the Independence of the Digits, Journal of Neurophysiology 65 (1991): 1381-91 and C. Hger-Ross and M. H. Schieber, Quantifying the Independence of Human Finger Movements: Comparisons of Digits, Hands, and Movement Frequencies, Journal of Neuroscience 20(22) (2000): 8542-50; and Catherine Lang and Marc H. Schieber, Differential Impairment of Individuated Finger Movements in Humans After Damage to the Motor Cortex or the Corticospinal Tract, Journal of Neurophysiology 90 (2003): 1160-70.
101 102

Hger-Ross and Schieber, Quantifying the Independence, 8542-50.

K. T. Reilly, M. A. Nordstrom, and M. H. Schieber, Short-Term Synchronization Between Motor Units in Different Functional Subdivisions of the Human Flexor Digitorum Profundus Muscle, Journal of Neurophysiology 92 (2004): 734-42.
103

47 the ability might be amenable to adaptation or learning. Chiang, Slobounov, and Ray have suggested that finger control is not hard-wired but instead plastic and influenced by deliberate practice,104 a position supported by that fact that musicians demonstrate greater independence of the digits than non-musicians.105 While significant debate exists as to the mechanisms underlying finger independence, it is thought that, through practice, central control of movement of the fingers may be differentially developed in musicians in comparison with non-musicians who perhaps have less opportunity to practice individualized movements.106 The Thumb While at least one study suggests that the thumb is treated, not as a special digit, but as another finger by the nervous system,107 there are several anatomical and physiological reasons why the thumb has often been considered separate from the fingers. Most obviously, the thumb is capable of rotary and three-dimensional movement while movements of the other four digits involve primarily flexion and extension. Anatomically, the thumbs expanded metacarpal head and three additional muscles add

104

Chiang et al., Practice-Related Modulations, 1033-43. Slobounov et al., Modulated Cortical Control, 2013-24. Ibid.

105

106

Halla Olafsdottir, Vladimir M. Zatsiorsky, and Mark L. Latash, Is the Thumb a Fifth Finger? A Study of Digit Interaction During Force Production Tasks, Experimental Brain Research 160 (2005): 203-13.
107

48 strength and refined motor control to its movements108 while lacking the multi-digit, multi-tendon muscles that are involved in finger action.109 The structure of the thumb has evolved from non-human primates to humans,110 and its development has apparent ramifications in the brain as well. One study in particular has demonstrated that the representations of the thumb in the brain are very large and disparate from those of the fingers111 although recent work by Schieber challenges these results. 112 Patterns of brain activation involving the thumb also appear to be different than those involving the fingers. Two separate studies have shown that sensorimotor processing in the primary motor cortex and somatosensory cortices is different for the thumb and middle finger, an observation which is thought to indicate that specific somatosensory processing for the thumb may provide information for the motor

R. L. Susman, Fossil Evidence for Early Hominid Tool Use, Science 265 (1994): 1570-3.
108

K. L. Moore and A. F. Dalley, The Upper Limb, in Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 5th ed. (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006), 726-885.
109

See J. Napier, The Evolution of the Hand, Scientific American 207 (1962): 5662; Susman, Fossil Evidence, 1570-3; and Idem, Hand Function and Tool Behavior in Early Hominids, Journal of Human Evolution 35 (1998): 23-46.
110

W. Penfield and E. Boldrey, Somatic Motor and Sensory Representation in the Cerebral Cortex of Man as Studied by Electrical Stimulation, Brain 60 (1937): 389-443.
111

M. H. Schieber, Constraints on Somatotopic Organization in the Primary Motor Cortex, Journal of Neurophysiology 86 (2001): 2125-43.
112

49 cortex for fine motor control.113 Furthermore, Hamada has shown differences in patterns of cortical activation during movements of the thumb and index finger suggesting that sensory information from the index finger is processed more bilaterally than from the thumb.114 Pianists and Hand Physiology Knowledge of hand physiology is pertinent to pianists for several reasons. First, a basic understanding of muscles in the wrist and fingers encourages conscious choices in hand and wrist position which in turn facilitate ease and variety of movement. Furthermore, it is possible to train muscles and to therefore alter some of the properties they exhibit including behavioral characteristics. This is significant since, due to the demands of piano playing, pianists require muscles that are capable of contracting quickly but that are also resistant to fatigue. Quite interestingly, there appear to be some similarities and yet some differences in the way the thumb and fingers are treated by the nervous system. Not only do the thumb and fingers differ in their structure, but it is also apparent that patterns of brain activation involving them are also somewhat different. Because of these differences, particular attention should be given to the development of the thumb as well as the fingers. See Masato Tanosaki et al., Specific Somatosensory Processing in Somatosensory Area 3b for Human Thumb: A Neuromagnetic Study, Clinical Neurophysiology 112 (2001): 1516-22 and J. Jarvelainen and M. Schurmann, The Motor Cortex Approximately 20 Hz Rhythm Reacts Differently to Thumb and Middle Finger Stimulation: An MEG Study, NeuroReport 13 (2002): 1243-46.
113

Y. Hamada, et al., Different Laterality Between the Thumb and Index Finger in Human SII Activities, NeuroReport 11 (2000): 3603-06.
114

50 It is clear that musicians demonstrate neural as well as muscular adaptations in their abilities to grade force and move the fingers independently. Evidence demonstrating training-induced adaptations in muscle has shown that results are dependent upon the duration, intensity, frequency, and the type of training program used. The implications for pianists suggest specificity in how one practices, what one practices, and the results one desires.

51 CHAPTER 4 SKILL ACQUISITION: SENSORIMOTOR LEARNING Human beings interact with their environment via their motor repertoire, but changes in a persons environment, body, or task require motor learning to facilitate corresponding changes in motor performance. Some of the changes experienced by humans are a result of physical maturation or disease, but others are associated with the desire to learn new skills. In order to optimize strategies of learning, theorists and researchers continue to study the acquisition and development of skills, topics that have attracted their interest since the beginnings of modern psychology. With regard to motor learning, musicians are a particularly unique population since their training is largely devoted, not to the development of strength or endurance, but to skill acquisition resulting in technical facility, coordination, and artistic control. Based upon current research and information regarding processes involved in motor learning, numerous parameters of pianists training have the potential to influence their learning and performance. Feedback Feedback refers to information used for motor control and learning.115 Despite differences amongst several theories of learning, there is general agreement that motor learning appears to be strongly facilitated by the availability of feedback during

R. A. Schmidt and T. D. Lee, Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis, 3rd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999).
115

52 learning.116 Salmoni, Schmidt, and Walter, for example, suggest that information provided by the sense organsusually termed feedback is almost without dispute considered critical for learning new motor actions.117 Stages of Learning, Specificity of Practice, and Feedback Debate continues as to the degree to which feedback is used during skill acquisition.118 Two theories have emerged, however. One view highlights the importance of feedback during early stages of motor learning and suggests that, with practice, gradual online, feedback-based control diminishes.119 Specifically, proponents of this view suggest that motor skill progresses from an initial stage, in which slow performance is under close sensory guidance, through an intermediate stage to an advanced stage in which movements may be rapid and automated. The other theory concerns the specificity of practice and suggests that performance is specific to the sources of afferent information available during practice.120 See J. A. Adams, A Closed-Loop Theory of Motor Learning, Journal of Motor Behavior 9 (1971): 111-150; I. M. Bilodeau, Information Feedback, in Acquisition of Skill, ed. E. A. Bilodeau (New York: Academic Press, 1966), 255-96; and R. A. Schmidt, A Schema Theory of Discrete Motor Skill Learning, Psychological Review 82 (1975): 225-60.
116

Alan W. Salmoni et al., Knowledge of Results and Motor Learning: A Review and Critical Reappraisal, Psychological Bulletin 95(3) (1984): 356.
117

Olave Krigolson and Geraldine Van Gyn, Is There Feedback During Visual Imagery? Evidence From a Specificity of Practice Paradigm, Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 60(1) (2006): 24-32.
118

R. W. Pew, Acquisition of Hierarchical Control Over the Temporal Organization of a Skill, Journal of Experimental Psychology 71(5) (1966): 764-71.
119 120

See E. J. Gibson, Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development (New

53 In other words, a persons skill in a transfer condition will be affected by the degree to which feedback in the acquisition and transfer conditions is similar.121 For example, regarding musicians who intend to perform from memory, the specificity of practice hypothesis suggests that they will be most successful if also practicing from memory. Furthermore, if one has practiced from memory but performs with music, performance will likely be disrupted. Auditory Feedback Feedback in music learning and performance is of several types: tactile; proprioceptive; visual regarding hand position, etc.; visual as it may relate to reading notation; and auditory. What impact does auditory feedback have on motor performance? Early attempts to address the question suggest that altered auditory feedback disrupts feedback control of sequence production.122 However, it is apparent

York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969); L. Proteau et al., On the Type of Information Used to Control and Learn an Aiming Movement after Moderate and Extensive Practice, Human Movement Science 6 (1987): 181-9; L. Proteau and J. Cournoyer, Vision of the Stylus in a Manual Aiming Task: The Effects of Practice, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 42A (1990): 811-28; and L. Proteau et al., A Sensorimotor Basis for Motor Learning: Evidence Indicating Specificity of Practice, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 44(3) (1992): 557-75. See J. A. Adams, D. Gopher, and G. Lintern, Effects of Visual and Proprioceptive Feedback on Motor Learning, Journal of Motor Behavior 9 (1977): 1122; D. Elliot, and M. Jaeger, Practice and the Visual Control of Manual Aiming Movements, Journal of Human Movement Studies, 14, (1988): 279-91; Proteau and Cournoyer, Vision of the Stylus in a Manual Aiming Task, 811-28; and Proteau, Marteniuk, and Lvesque, A Sensorimotor Basis for Motor Learning, 557-75.
121

See J. W. Black, The Effect of Delayed Side-Tone Upon Vocal Rate and Intensity, Journal of Speech & Hearing Disorders 16 (1951): 56-60; R. A. Chase, An Information-Flow Model of the Organization of Motor Activity. I: Transduction, Transmission and Central Control of Sensory Information, Journal of Nervous & Mental
122

54 from studies involving speech that many, but not all, alterations of auditory feedback disrupt performance.123 Finney124 and Pfordresher125 provided evidence that some alterations of auditory feedback fail to disrupt music performance while several studies have demonstrated that performance often proceeds unhindered despite the absence of feedback. While discussion continues, Finney and Palmer suggest that, even if sound is not necessary for an adequate level of performance in music, it might be important for learning or recall.126 Repp also explicitly makes the claim that auditory feedback is important for music learning.127

Disease 140 (1965): 239-51; F. Fairbanks, Systematic Research in Experimental Phonetics: 1. A Theory of the Speech Mechanism as a Servosystem, Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders 19 (1954): 133-39; G. Fairbanks and N. Guttman, Effects of Delayed Auditory Feedback Upon Articulation, Journal of Speech & Hearing Research 1 (1958): 12-22; and B. S. Lee, Some Effects of Side-Tone Delay, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 22 (1950): 639-40. G. J. Borden, An Interpretation of Research on Feedback Interruption in Speech, Brain & Language 7 (1979): 307-19.
123

S. A. Finney, Auditory Feedback and Musical Keyboard Performance, Music Perception 15 (1997): 153-74.
124

P. Q. Pfordresher, Auditory Feedback in Music Performance: The Role of Melodic Structure and Musical Skill, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance 29 (2005): 1331-45.
125

Steven A. Finney, and Caroline Palmer, Auditory Feedback and Memory for Music Performance: Sound Evidence for an Encoding Effect, Memory & Cognition 31(1) (2003): 51-64.
126

Bruno Repp, Effects of Auditory Feedback Deprivation on Expressive Piano Performance, Music Perception 16(4) (1999): 409-38.
127

55 Visual Feedback Previous research has suggested that proprioceptive and visual feedback indicating the initial location of limbs is critical to facilitating accurate planning of movements.128 To determine how visual and proprioceptive information is combined in perception, scientists often employ distortion techniques to dissociate the usually corresponding relationship between vision and proprioception. Under these conditions which involve either optical prisms or virtual reality environments, subjects perceive their hand to be in a location in between those specified by either vision or proprioception.129

See M. Favilla, W. Hening, and C. Ghez, Trajectory Control in Targeted Force Impulses. VI. Independent Specification of Response Amplitude and Direction, Experimental Brain Research 75 (1989): 280-94; C. Ghez, W. Hening, and J. Gordon, Organization of Voluntary Movement, Current Opinion in Neurobiology 1 (1991): 664-71; C. Ghez et al., Discrete and Continuous Planning of Hand Movements and Isometric Force Trajectories, Experimental Brain Research 115 (1997): 217-33; J. Gordon and C. Ghez, Trajectory Control in Targeted Force Impulses. II. Pulse Height Control, Experimental Brain Research 67 (1987a): 241-52; Idem, Trajectory Control in Targeted Force Impulses. III. Compensatory Adjustments for Initial Errors, Experimental Brain Research 67 (1987b): 253-69; J. Gordon et al., Accuracy of Planar Reaching Movements. II. Systematic Extent Errors Resulting from Inertial Anisotropy, Experimental Brain Research 99 (1994a): 112-30; D. A. Rosenbaum, Human Movement Initiation: Specification of Arm, Direction, and Extent, Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 109 (1980): 444-74; and Y. Rossetti, M. Desmerget, and C. Problanc, Vectorial Coding of Movement: Vision, Proprioception, or Both? Journal of Neurophysiology 74 (1995): 457-63.
128

See C. S. Harris, Perceptual Adaptation to Inverted, Reversed, and Displaced Vision, Psychological Review 72 (1965): 419-44; J. C. Hay, H. L. Pick, and K. Ikeda, Visual Capture Produced by Prism Spectacles, Psychonomic Science 2 (1965): 215-6; H. L. Pick, D. H. Warren, and J. C. Hay, Sensory Conflict in Judgments of Spatial Direction, Perception and Psychophysics 6 (1969): 203-5; R. J. Van Beers et al., How Humans Combine Simultaneous Proprioceptive and Visual Position Information, Experimental Brain Research 111 (1996): 253-61; Idem, Integration of Proprioceptive and Visual Position-Information: An Experimentally Supported Model, Journal of Neurophysiology 81 (1999): 1355-64; D. H. Warren, Response Factors in Intermodality Localization Under Conflict Conditions, Perception and Psychophysics 27 (1980): 28129

56 Most of these studies have indicated that subjects perceive a hand position that is biased toward the position indicated by vision. This evidence suggests that, at least in some circumstances, visual feedback is a very important if not somewhat dominant source of afferent information. Multi-Sensory Integration It has been suggested that different types of representations built from reading music are based on complex relevant visual patterns, explicit knowledge of musical structure,130 rules governing music perception in the auditory modality, or the likely coexistence and interaction of such representations.131 While musicians are intimately familiar with auditory imagery, prior to recent use of functional imaging techniques, it has been difficult for the scientific community to substantiate the presence of this internal phenomenon. Recent research by Schn and Besson substantiates the likelihood that musicians have an auditory-like representation of the written music before they play it and suggests that, while visuomotor coding may be sufficient to play written notes, an anticipated auditory representation of written music is important for an expressive performance that assigns different significance to each note based upon its structural 32; and D. H. Warren and W. T. Cleaves, Visual-Proprioceptive Interaction Under Large Amounts of Conflict, Journal of Experimental Psychology 90 (1971): 206-14. Daniele Schn and Mireille Besson, Visually Induced Auditory Expectancy in Music Reading: A Behavioral and Electrophysiological Study, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 17(4) (April 2005): 694-705.
130

See Idem, Processing Pitch and Duration in Music Reading: A RT-ERP Study, Neuropsychologia 40 (2002a): 868-78 and D. Schn, C. Semenza, and G. Denes, Naming of Musical Notes: A Selective Deficit in One Musical Clef, Cortex 37 (2001): 407-21.
131

57 function.132 This hypothesis, that written music may induce both musical auditory expectancy and motor expectancy, may in fact influence the way music is perceived by performers and audiences. Audio-Motor Coupling Playing a musical instrument places great demands upon the human motor and auditory systems due to the speed and accuracy required in the coordination of movements and the necessary ability to perceive fine nuances aurally.133 Musicians demonstrate high-level function of both the motor and auditory systems and plasticity of the auditory and motor cortices as well.134 Not only have researchers been interested in the function and plasticity of these systems individually but in the likely interaction of the two systems as well. As utilized by Baumann et al. and other scientists, the term transmodal refers both to activity in the motor cortex elicited by auditory stimulation and to activity in the auditory cortex elicited by movements.135 It is significant that Whiteside made reference to just such a relationship. The player is told often enough that listening to oneself is the

132

Schn and Besson, Visually Induced Auditory Expectancy, 694-705.

Simon Baumann et al., A Network for Audio-Motor Coordination in Skilled Pianists and Non-Musicians, Brain Research 1161 (2007): 65-78.
133

See T. F. Mnte, E. Altenmller, and L. Jncke, The Musicians Brain as a Model of Neuroplasticity, Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 3 (2002): 473-8 and G. Schlaug, The Brain of Musicians: A Model for Functional and Structural Adaptation, Biological Foundations of Music 930 (2001): 281-99.
134 135

Baumann et al., Audio-Motor Coordination, 67.

58 important thing in practice and performance. But he should be told more often that the physical action of the performer conditions his listening.136 Furthermore, she highlighted the importance of improvisation because of such a relationship between the auditory and motor areas. Improvisation was another of her prime tools. It was used with two goals in mind: involving the ear and creating a basic rhythm in the student. . . . The improviser does not strike one note and then stop to decide what note to play next. From the standpoint of the ear, improvisation establishes the most immediate relationship between what the ear images and the playing mechanism performs.137 Evidence for transmodal activity was first based on the language processing studies of Aboitiz and Garcia138 and the research of Watkins and Paus139 and Watkins et al. 140 involving speech perception. Studies in speech production by Doupe and Kuhl141 and Hickok and Poeppel were also significant.142 These studies involving language

136

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 157. Ibid., 23.

137

F. Aboitiz and R. Garcia, The Anatomy of Language Revisited, Biological Research 30(4) (1997): 171-83.
138

K. Watkins and T. Paus, Modulation of Motor Excitability During Speech Perception: The Role of Brocas Area, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16(6) (2004): 978-87.
139

K. E. Watkins, A. P. Strafella, and T. Paus, Seeing and Hearing Speech Excites the Motor System Involved in Speech Production, Neuropsychologia 41(8) (2003): 98994. 141 A. J. Doupe and P. K. Kuhl, Birdsong and Human Speech: Common Themes and Mechanisms, Annual Review of Neuroscience 22 (1999): 567-31.
140

59 provided the groundwork for research investigating brain activity in motor performance in music.143 Studies by Bangert, Haeusler, and Altenmller,144 Bangert and Altenmller,145 Bangert et al.,146 and Baumann et al.147 have since focused upon the interaction of the two modalities. With regard to piano practice, Bangert et al. concluded that after practice, cortical auditory and sensorimotor hand areas are jointly activated for purely auditory as well as for mute motor tasks. Furthermore the degree of similarity [in activation] correlates to the accumulated practice time.148 Classen et al. found that corepresentation of the areas is established during the first few minutes of training and is consolidated

G. Hickok and D. Poeppel, Dorsal and Ventral Streams: A Framework for Understanding Aspects of the Functional Anatomy of Language, Cognition 92 (2004): 131-8.
142

See M. Lotze et al., The Musicians Brain: Functional Imaging of Amateurs and Professionals During Performance and Imagery, NeuroImage 20 (2003): 1817-29 and I. G. Meister et al., Playing Piano in the MindAn fMRI Study on Music Imagery and Performance in Pianists, Cognitive Brain Research 19 (2004): 219-28.
143

M. Bangert, U. Haeusler, and E. O. Altenmller, On Practice: How the Brain Connects Piano Keys and Piano Sounds, Biological Foundations of Music 930 (2001): 425-8.
144

M. Bangert and E. O. Altenmller, Mapping Perception to Action in Piano Practice: A Longitudinal DC-EEG Study, BMC Neuroscience 4 (2003), http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2202/4/26.
145

Bangert et al., Shared Networks for Auditory and Motor Processing in Professional Pianists, 917-26.
146 147

Baumann et al., A Network for Audio-Motor Coordination, 65-78. Bangert, Haeusler, and Altenmller, On Practice, 427.

148

60 within weeks. Furthermore, the researchers hypothesized that this process may provide the basis for further skill achievement.149 The aforementioned sensorimotor corepresentation appears to be largely automatized and, perhaps surprisingly, can be activated preattentively.150 Haueisen and Knsche demonstrated that pianists listening to well-studied piano music exhibit unconscious contralateral primary motor cortical activity which demonstrates that information transfer from the auditory to motor system has, at the very least, an involuntary component.151 Transmodal activity is observed in non-musicians as well as musicians. Lahav et al.152 have demonstrated that non-musicians are capable of forming audio-motor interactions with training, and it is thought that the previous existence of an audio-motor network is probably crucial for fast formation of interactions.153 Not surprising therefore, is what appears to be a strong overlap in audio-motor networks associated with

J. Classen et al., Rapid Plasticity of Human Cortical Movement Representation Induced by Practice, Journal of Neurophysiology 79 (1998): 1117-23.
149

S. Koelsch, E. Schroger, and M. Tervaniemi, Superior Pre-Attentive Auditory Processing in Musicians, Neuroreport 10 (1999): 1309-13.
150

J. Haueisen and T. R. Knsche, Involuntary Motor Activity in Pianists Evoked by Music Perception, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 13(6) (2001): 786-92.
151

A. Lahav et al., The Power of Listening: Auditory-Motor Interactions in Musical Training, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1060 (2005): 189-94.
152 153

Baumann et al., A Network for Audio-Motor Coordination, 73.

61 language tasks and musical tasks. 154 Furthermore, Speech, song and instrumental music performance have in common that feedback processes and an anticipation of the produced sound play an important role in all of them.155 Although non-musicians demonstrate transmodal activity with training, it is significant that pianists seem to demonstrate significantly stronger transmodal activity in the motor part of the network associated with music listening than non-musicians. For example, Baumann et al. recorded greater activity in the lateral dorsal premotor cortex and the pre-supplementary motor cortex which suggested an increased motor representation for piano sound in pianists. These results further suggest that an intermodal transformation network of auditory and motor areas is subject to plasticity as a result of intensive training.156 Mirror Neurons The notion that actions might be intrinsically linked to perception was first proposed in 1890 by William James who suggested that every mental representation of a movement awakens to some degree the actual movement which is its object.157 The implication is that observing, imagining, preparing, or in any way representing an action

154

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., 65-78. W. James, Principles of Physiology (New York: Holt, 1980), 293.

155

156

157

62 excites the motor program used to execute the same action.158 Developmental psychologists have long accepted the idea of observational learning, or modeling, on the belief that it is largely responsible for acquisition of language and social skills in children. Modeling and motor skill acquisition has also been an important topic in physical education. According to Bandura, an observer obtains a cognitive representation of an action from a models performance.159 Although the cognitive representation may be incomplete because important dimensions of the movement such as pressure and muscular tension are internal and not available to be observed,160 Adams has demonstrated that the timing of the segments of a movement sequence can be learned by observation.161 Observational learning, which incorporates viewing the models response to the activity and the observers understanding or knowledge of results regarding the activity, facilitates formation of a cognitive representation. Furthermore, Prinz has demonstrated that when an observer sees a motor event that shares features with a similar motor event in his or her own motor repertoire, he or she is primed to repeat it. The See M. Jeannerod, The Representing Brain. Neural Correlates of Motor Intention and Imagery, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (1994): 187-245 and W. Prinz, Perception and Action Planning, European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 9 (1997): 129-54.
158 159

A. Bandura, ed., Psychological Modeling (New York: Lieber-Atherton, 1971).

J. A. Adams, Learning of Movement Sequences, Psychological Bulletin 96 (1984): 3-28.

160

Idem, Use of the Models Knowledge of Results to Increase the Observers Performance, Journal of Human Movement Studies 12 (1986): 89-98.
161

63 greater the similarity between the observed event and the motor event, the stronger the priming is.162 Growing interest in the area has led to the discovery of mirror neurons and a mirror neuron system. Mirror neurons are a particular class of visuomotor neurons originally discovered in area F5 of the monkey premotor cortex. These neurons discharge both when the monkey performs a particular action and when it observes another individual performing a similar action.163 It has been suggested that the functional role of mirror neurons is twofold. First, mirror neuron activity mediates imitation.164 Second, mirror neurons appear to provide the basis for understanding an action.165 Kohler et al. have provided evidence for the latter in demonstrating that F5 mirror neurons are able to recognize actions from their sound.166 The researchers recorded F5 mirror neuron activity both while a monkey was observing a noisy action, such as ripping a piece of paper, and while presenting the same noise without observing the associated action. Results indicated that approximately
162

Prinz, Perception and Action Planning, 129-54.

See G. di Pellegrino et al., Understanding Motor Events: A Neurophysiological Study, Experimental Brain Research 91 (1992): 176-80; V. L. Gallese et al., Action Recognition in the Premotor Cortex, Brain 119 (1996): 593-609; and G. Rizzolatti et al., Premotor Cortex and the Recognition of Motor Actions, Cognitive Brain Research 3 (1996a): 131-41.
163 164

Jeannerod, The Representing Brain, 187-245.

G. Rizzolatti, L. Fogassi, and V. Gallese, Neurophysiological Mechanisms Underlying the Understanding and Imitation of Action, Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 2(9) (2001): 661-70.
165

Evelyne Kohler et al., Hearing Sounds, Understanding Actions: Action Representation in Mirror Neurons, Science 297(5582) (2002): 846-8.
166

64 fifteen percent of mirror neurons responsive to presentation of the action and sound also responded to presentation of the sound by itself. The neurons that responded specifically to the sounds of actions were called audio-visual mirror neurons. Evidence for a mirror neuron system has recently been extended to humans with studies indicating that mirror regions are activated when human subjects imitate or imagine an action. Filimon et al. have used fMRI to compare human cortical activations for executed, observed, and imagined reaching with the goal of identifying a mirror neuron system that represents reaching and reaching-related behaviors.167 Significantly, results suggest that such a mirror neuron system does exist and that it is both different from and similar to the mirror neuron system underlying grasping movements and object manipulation. Therefore, it appears that mirror neuron systems are specific to the type of hand action performed. Results from the same research also demonstrated an overlap between executed, observed, and imagined reaching activations in the human cortex, specifically the dorsal premotor cortex as well as the superior parietal lobe and the intraparietal sulcus. Furthermore, properties of the human mirror neuron system appear to be neither wholly innate nor final as Catmur, Walsh, and Heyes have recently demonstrated that these properties may be developed through sensorimotor learning.168

Flavia Filimon et al., Human Cortical Representations for Reaching: Mirror Neurons for Execution, Observation, and Imagery, NeuroImage 37(4) (2007): 1315-28.
167

C. Catmur, V. Walsh, and C. Heyes, Sensorimotor Learning Configures the Human Mirror System, Current Biology 17(17) (2007): 1527-31.
168

65 Discovery of audio-visual mirror neurons in monkeys gave rise to the hypothesis that premotor areas are inherently involved, not only when observing actions, but also when listening to action-related sound.169 Recent evidence indicates that humans possess an echo-neuron system, a system that motorically resonates when an individual listens to verbal material. For example, experiments by Fadiga et al.170 and Watkins et al.171 show activation of speech-related motor centers when an individual listens to verbal stimuli. Studies by Aziz-Zadeh et al. suggest that, as a person hears and recognizes a sound, the brain may also simulate the action.172 This might explain how the mirror neuron system responds to actions and sounds which do not have verbal meaning and which are well-controlled and newly acquired. Several researchers have found audiomotor activation patterns within the core regions of the frontoparietal mirror neuron circuit previously found in humans in a variety of action-observations tasks.173 Some of these observations involved watching

Amir Lahav, Elliot Saltzman, and Gottfried Schlaug, Action Representation of Sound: Audiomotor Recognition Network While Listening to Newly Acquired Actions, The Journal of Neuroscience 27(2) (2007): 308-14.
169

L. Fadiga et al., Speech Listening Specifically Modulates the Excitability of Tongue Muscles: A TMS Study, European Journal of Neuroscience 15 (2002): 399402.
170 171

Watkins, Strafella, and Paus, Seeing and Hearing Speech, 989-94.

L. Aziz-Zadeh et al., Left Hemisphere Motor Facilitation in Response to Manual Action Sounds, European Journal of Neuroscience 19 (2004): 2609-12.
172

See J. Grzes, et al., Activations Related to Mirror and Canonical Neurones in the Human Brain: An fMRI Study, NeuroImage 18 (2003): 928-37; M. Iacoboni et al., Grasping the Intentions of Others with Ones Own Mirror Neuron System, PLoS
173

66 chord progressions on the guitar174 or finger-playing movements on the piano.175 In studies involving music performance, it is particularly interesting that the posterior inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), including Brocas area, was active only when subjects listened to music they knew how to play. When subjects listened to music they had never played, auditory activation was dominant since subjects were unable to match the music with existing action representations. However, Lahav et al. have shown premotor activity when subjects listened to untrained music comprised of the same notes as learned music.176 The researchers hypothesized that premotor activity might reflect the ability of subjects to link some of the notes they heard with corresponding fingers and piano keys. Other evidence also suggests that mental simulations and operations of the mirror neuron system might either be functionally related to one another or a form of one another; further studies are needed to support this hypothesis, however. Furthermore, it has been suggested that a cross-modal neural system responsible for formally orchestrating mirror

Biol 3(3) (2005): 529-35; and M. Lotze, Differential Cerebral Activation During Observation of Expressive Gestures and Motor Acts, Neuropsychologia 44 (2006): 1787-95. G. Buccino, F. Finkofski, and L. Riggio, The Mirror Neuron System and Action Recognition, Brain and Language 89(2) (2004a): 362-9.
174

B. P. Haslinger et al., Transmodal Sensorimotor Networks During Action Observation in Professional Pianists, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 17(2) (2005): 282-93.
175 176

Lahav, Saltzman, and Schlaug, Action Representation of Sound, 308-14.

67 neurons might exist in humans.177 A questions then arises as to whether or not mirror neuron activity is triggered by mental representation of an action.178 Music and Mental Rehearsal Mental rehearsal incorporates both committing a score to memory and the ability to create an internalized representation of the sound. With the exception of the primary motor and sensory areas, many of the other cortical regions that are normally active while playing are also active during mental rehearsal.179 The effectiveness of mental practice in improving aspects of the dynamics of movement, such as the accuracy of a movement trajectory, has also been verified experimentally.180 While the gains achieved by those undertaking mental rehearsal have not been as significant as those undertaking physical practice, mental rehearsal is apparently better than no practice.181 Additionally, mental rehearsal may help to mediate injuries related to overuse.

See Kohler et al., Hearing Sounds, Understanding Actions, 846-8 and C. Keysers et al., Audiovisual Mirror Neurons and Action Recognition, Experimental Brain Research 153(4) (2003): 628-36.
177

M. A. Umilt et al., I Know What You Are Doing. A Neurophysiological Study, Neuron 31(1) (2001): 155-65.
178

See F. J. Langheim et al., Cortical Systems Associated with Covert Music Rehearsal, NeuroImage 16(4) (2002): 901-8; Lotze et al., The Musicians Brain, 1817-29; and Meister et al., Playing Piano in the Mind, 219-28.
179

L. Ygez et al., A Mental Route to Motor Learning: Improving Trajectorial Kinematics Through Imagery Training, Behavioural Brain Research 90(1) (1998): 95106.
180

A. Gabrielsson, The Performance of Music, in The Psychology of Music, 2nd ed., ed. D. Deutsch (San Diego: Academic Press, 1999), 501-602.
181

68 Motor Imagery Motor imagery has been defined as the covert process of imagining movement of ones own body (-part) without actually moving that body (-part).182 Motor imagery is significant since it leads to activation in motor areas of the brain.183 In addition to similar brain activation, Pascual-Leone et al. demonstrated that motor imagery of finger movements resulted in the same organizational changes as actual physical practice.184 The scientists studied the effects of mental and physical practice on the learning of a onehanded, five-finger piano exercise and the modulation of the cortical motor areas targeting muscles involved in the task. Over the course of five days, subjects rehearsed the sequence either mentally or physically, and both groups showed progressive improvement. Results showed that the size of the contralateral output map for the long finger flexor and extensor muscles increased progressively each day as the subjects practiced the task. The increases in size of the representations were equivalent in both physical and mental training conditions, but the level of performance in the mentalpractice condition after 5 days was equivalent to that of the physical-practice condition

Sjoerd de Vries and Theo Mulder, Motor Imagery and Stroke Rehabilitation: A Critical Discussion, Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 39 (2007): 5-13.
182

See Kristeva et al., Activation of Cortical Areas in Music Execution and Imagining: A High-resolution EEG Study, NeuroImage 20(3) (2003): 1872-83; Lotze, The Musicians Brain, 1817-29; and Meister et al., Playing Piano in the Mind, 21928.
183

A. Pascual-Leone et al., Modulation of Muscle Responses Evoked by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation During the Acquisition of New Fine Motor Skills, Journal of Neurophysiology 74 (1995): 1037-45.
184

69 after 3 days. However, after adding 1 physical training session at the end of a period of 5 days of mental practice, subjects reached the same level of performance as those who were in the physical training group. The scientists interpreted the results as suggesting that mental practice has a preparatory effect on the task which in turn increases the efficiency of subsequent physical training. Studies using positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) also show that the cortical regions involved in the execution of a movement are active during motor imagery as well. Using fMRI, Lotze et al. studied brain activation during executed and imagined movements of the right and left hand using fMRI and found that the supplementary motor area (SMA), the premotor cortex (PMC), and the primary motor area (M1) are significantly activated during both actual and imagined movement.185 The SMA and PMC play a prominent role in the planning, generation, and execution of more complex motor tasks.186 In addition, although the underlying mechanisms are not yet clear, there is significant evidence supporting the hypothesis that overt movement, motor imagery, and observation are essentially based on the same processes.187 Some of the evidence supporting this is drawn from studies showing that the time to complete an imagined
185

M. Lotze et al., Activation of Cortical and Cerebellar Motor Areas, 491-501.

G. Abbruzzese, C. Trompetto, and M. Schieppati, The Excitability of the Human Motor Cortex Increases During Execution and Mental Imagination of Sequential but not Repetitive Finger Movements, Experimental Brain Research 111 (1996): 46572.
186 187

de Vries and Mulder, Motor Imagery and Stroke Rehabilitation, 5-13.

70 movement is similar to the time needed for actual execution of that movement, an observation that extends to the field of music as well. Two studies displayed a great deal of correlation in the times that it took string players to perform pieces and to imagine performances of the pieces.188 Visual Imagery Practice through use of visual imagery has been shown to benefit acquisition and performance of motor skills.189 This phenomenon is supported by behavioral, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging studies demonstrating that visual images and perceived stimuli recruit the same temporal and occipital brain areas necessary for visual perception.190 When utilizing visual imagery in practice, subjects experienced imagined visual feedback similar to the visual feedback available during physical practice.191

188

Langheim et al., Covert Music Rehearsal, 901-8.

See M. U. Lejeune, C. Decker, and X. Sanchez, Mental Rehearsal in Table Tennis Performance, Perceptual and Motor Skills 79(1) (1994): 627-41; W. G. Meacci and D. L. Pastore, The Effects of Occluded Vision and Imagery on Putting Golf Balls, Perceptual and Motor Skills 80(1): 179-86; D. W. Mendoza and H. Wichman, Inner Dart: Effects of Mental Practice on Performance of Dart Throwing, Perceptual and Motor Skills 47 (1978): 1195-99; R. Noel, The Effect of Visuo-Motor Behavioural Rehearsal of Tennis Performance, Journal of Sport Psychology 2 (1980): 221-6; PascualLeone, Modulation of Muscle Responses, 1037-45; and G. Yue and K. J. Cole, Strength Increases From the Motor Program: Comparison of Training with Maximum Voluntary and Imagined Muscle Contractions, Journal of Neurophysiology 67 (1992): 1114-23. 190 See M. J. Farah, The Neural Bases of Mental Imagery, in The New Cognitive Neurosciences, ed. M. S. Gazzaniga (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 965-74 and S. M. Kosslyn and W. L. Thompson, Shared Mechanisms in Visual Imagery and Visual Perception: Insights from Cognitive Neuroscience, in The New Cognitive Neurosciences, ed. M. S. Gazzaniga (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 975-85.
189

191

Krigolson and Van Gyn, Feedback; During Visual Imagery, 24-32.

71 Although the benefits of visual imagery have been most significantly associated with first-person imaging, substantial gain has also been reported as a result of thirdperson observation. Considerable evidence suggests that observation of others actions and the preparation of ones own actions may lead to a common motor representation.192 Application of practice through use of imagery would therefore extend from lessons, masterclasses, and concerts in which one observes another to the concert stage where ones preparation might incorporate imagery. Musical Imagery Aleman et al. define musical mental imagery as the ability to hear melodic sound-sequences with the minds ear in the absence of external stimulation.193 While it is a common phenomenon amongst musiciansconductors, composers, and performers for example, it has only been relatively recently with the aid of imaging tools that musical imagery could be substantiated scientifically. In large part due to the work of Schrman et al. with magneto-encephalography,194 Halpern and Zatorre195 and Zatorre et al.196 with

M. Jeannerod, The 25th Bartlett Lecture. To Act or Not to Act: Perspectives on the Representation of Actions, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 52 (1999): 1-29.
192

A. Aleman et al., Music Training and Mental Imagery Ability, Neuropsychologia 38 (2000): 1664-8.
193

See M. Schurmann et al., Minds Ear in a Musician: Where and When in the Brain, NeuroImage 16 (2002): 434-40.
194

A. R. Halpern and R. J. Zatorre, When that Tune Runs Through Your Head: A PET Investigation of Auditory Imagery for Familiar Melodies, Cerebral Cortex 9 (1999): 697-704.
195

72 positron emission tomography, and Halpern et al.,197 Kraemer et al.,198 and Yoo et al.199 with functional MRI, converging evidence has demonstrated that neural activity in the auditory cortex can occur in the absence of sound and that the activity is likely mediated by the experience of imagining music. An fMRI study conducted by Nakada, Fujii, Suzuki, & Kwee200 and a magnetoencephalography (MEG) study by Schrmann, Raij, Fujiki, and Hari201 also clearly show audiocortical activity while musical notation is read.202 Furthermore, despite the fact that musicians are able to remember visuallypresented sequences of musical notes via musical imagery, nonmusicians are not able to transform visual notation into musical images.203

R. J. Zatorre et al., Hearing in the Minds Ear: A PET Investigation of Musical Imagery and Perception, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8 (1996): 29-46.
196

Halpern et al., Behavioral and Neural Correlates of Perceived and Imagined Musical Timbre, Neuropsychologia 42(9) (2004): 1281-92.
197

D. J. M. Kraemer et al., Musical Imagery: Sound of Silence Activates Auditory Cortex, Nature 434 (2005): 158.
198

S. S. Yoo, C. U. Lee, and B. G. Choi, Human Brain Mapping of Auditory Imagery: Event-Related Functional MRI Study, Neuroreport 12(14) (2001): 3045-9.
199

T. Nakada et al., Musical Brain Revealed by High-field (3Tesla) Functional MRI, NeuroReport 9 (1998): 3853-56.
200 201

Schurmann et al., Minds Ear in a Musician, 434-40.

J. A. Sloboda, review of Language, Music, and Mind, by Diana Raffman, Mind & Language 9 (1994): 377-85.
202

See Virpi Kalakoski, Effect of Level on Recall of Visually Presented Patterns of Musical Notes, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 48 (2007): 87-96; Warren Brodsky et al., Auditory Imagery from Musical Notation in Expert Musicians, Perception & Psychophysics 65(4) (2003): 6012-12; and M. Schrmann et al., Minds Ear in a
203

73 Recently, interest has grown in areas related to mental practice, and several individuals have shown the overall efficacy of mental practice in music performance.204 Recent studies have demonstrated that pianists mental practice with an auditory model resulted in advantages over mental practice alone205 while it has also been demonstrated that analytical score study often aided memorization of unfamiliar music.206 It has since been suggested that analytical study might lead to auditory imagery or motor imagery.207 Several studies have indicated that listening to a performance is effective in learning unfamiliar music.208 Highben and Palmer demonstrated that pianists with strong aural

Musician: Where and When in the Brain, NeuroImage 16 (2002): 434-40. D. D. Coffman, Effects of Mental Practice, Physical Practice, and Knowledge of Results in Piano Performance, Journal of Research in Music Education 38 (1990): 187-96 and S. L. Ross, The Effectiveness of Mental Practice in Improving the Performance of College Trombonists, Journal of Research in Music Education 33 (1985): 221-30.
204

See S. Lim and L. G. Lippman, Mental Practice and Memorization of Piano Music, Journal of General Psychology 118 (1991): 21-30 and A. M. Theiler and L. G. Lippman, Effects of Mental Practice and Modeling on Guitar and Vocal Performance, Journal of General Psychology 122 (1995): 329-43.
205

G. Rubin-Rabson, The Influence of Analytical Pre-Study in Memorizing Piano Music, Archives of Psychology 20 (1937): 3-53.
206

S. Lim and L. G. Lippman, Mental Practice and Memorization of Piano Music, Journal of General Psychology 118 (1991): 21-30.
207

See R. K. Rosenthal, The Relative Effects of Guided Model, Model Only, Guided Only, and Practice Only on the Accuracy of Advanced Instrumentalists Musical Performance, Accuracy, Journal of Research in Music Education 32 (1984): 265-73 and R. K. Rosenthal et al., Effects of Different Practice Conditions on Advanced Instrumentalists Performance Accuracy, Journal of Research in Music Education 36 (1988): 250-7.
208

74 skills were least affected by the absence of auditory feedback during learning and suggest that good performance in the absence of feedback could be due to little or no reliance on that type of feedback, or alternatively, to good imagery skills that allow performers to use mental practice to fill in for the missing feedback.209 In suggesting the likelihood of the latter, the scientists note a significant correlation between pianists aural skills measures and their performance from memory following the absence of auditory feedback during practice. Furthermore, this conclusion is consistent with earlier studies demonstrating increased efficacy of mental practice with an auditory model.210 How does a musical image compare to the music itself? Although literature concerning auditory imagery has not been as prevalent as literature concerning visual imagery, similar conclusions have been reached in several cases. Because musical images contain melodic and harmonic information and encode fairly precise information about tempo and pitch, they apparently possess a sensory quality similar to the experience of perceiving actual music.211 Furthermore, studies in which subjects demonstrate recruitment of the secondary auditory cortex as a result of imagining tones in familiar and Z. Highben and C. Palmer, Effects of Auditory and Motor Mental Practice in Memorized Piano Performance, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 159 (2004): 64.
209

See Lim and Lippman, Mental Practice and Memorization of Piano Music, 21-30; R. K. Rosenthal et al., Effects of Different Practice Conditions, 250-7; and Theiler and Lippman, Effects of Mental Practice and Modeling, 329-43.
210

See T. L. Hubbard and K. Stoeckig, Musical Imagery: Generation of Tones and Chords, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition 14 (1988): 656-67 and Idem, The Representation of Pitch in Musical Imagery, in Auditory Imagery, ed. D. Reisberg (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1992): 199-236.
211

75 unfamiliar melodies suggest that shared substrates exist for auditory perception and imagery.212 Auditory images also seem to demonstrate perceptual properties in that they influence perceptual processing of auditory stimuli.213 Farah and Smith used a signal detection test to show that the intensity threshold for detecting a pure tone in noise was lower when subjects formed an image of the target tone either before or during the observation than when subjects formed an image of a different tone.214 The researchers concluded that forming the mental image drew attention to the appropriate frequency and therefore facilitated perception. Similar results have been obtained regarding perception and the timing of events. Wright and Fitzgerald determined that forming an expectancy of a target tone based on a cue facilitates the tones detection compared to unexpected occurrences of the target tone.215 Furthermore, it is apparent that musical training affects perception of auditory stimuli. Janata and Paroo observed significant correlations

See Zatorre et al., Hearing in the Minds Ear, 29-46; Halpern and Zatorre, When that Tune Runs Through Your Head, 697-704; Kraemer et al., Sound of Silence, 158; P. Janata, Brain Electrical Activity Evoked by Mental Formation of Auditory Expectations and Images, Brain Topography 13 (2001a): 169-93; and Idem, Neurophysiological Measurements Underlying Auditory Image Formation in Music, in Musical Imagery, ed. R. I. Godoy and H. Jorgensen (Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger), 27-41.
212

Petr Janata and Kaivon Paroo, Acuity of Auditory Images in Pitch and Time, Perception & Psychophysics 68(5) (2006): 829-44.
213

M. J. Farah and A. F. Smith, Perceptual Interference and Facilitation with Auditory Imagery, Perception & Psychophysics 33 (1983): 475-8.
214

B. Z. Wright and M. B. Fitzgerald, The Time Course of Attention in a Simple Auditory Detection Task, Perception & Psychophysics 66 (2004): 508-16.
215

76 between the amount of musical training and image thresholds with regard to both intonation and context membership tasks such that greater musical training resulted in more finely tuned images.216 Imagery, Performance, and Brain Activity With the exception of the primary motor cortex, it has been demonstrated that essentially the same cortical regions are activated in imagining and performance activities.217 It is particularly interesting therefore that Parsons et al. have demonstrated that performing scales and J.S. Bachs Italian Concerto in F Major (BWV 971) from memory elicit different patterns of brain activation.218 Performance of scales and the concerto activated many of the same areas of the brain, but distinct areas of the brain were also active in each condition and can be linked to specific functions regarding performance of the particular task. Furthermore, the scientists observed a significant amount of deactivation throughout the brain, particularly during performance of the Bach. While differences in attention may account for some of the differences in brain activation, it may not be the only factor. Furthermore, the results of this research seem to
216

Janata and Paroo, Acuity of Auditory Images, 829-44.

See E. Gerardin et al., Partially Overlapping Neural Networks for Real and Imagined Hand Movements, Cerebral Cortex 10 (2000): 1093-1104; M. Lotze et al., Activation of Cortical and Cerebellar Motor Areas During Executed and Imagined Hand Movements: An fMRI Study, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 11 (1999): 491-501; and C. A. Porro et al., Primary Motor and Sensory Cortex Activation During Motor Performance and Motor Imagery: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study, Journal of Neuroscience 16 (1996) 7688-98.
217

Lawrence M. Parsons, et al., The Brain Basis of Piano Performance, Neuropsychologia 43 (2005): 199-215.
218

77 indicate that the human body is differentially involved in performing distinct musical activities. Attention Many factors interact and contribute to the performance of a well-learned skill: knowledge structures,219 memory capacities,220 problem-solving abilities,221 individual differences,222 and attentional mechanisms supporting skill execution.223 Attentional mechanisms incorporate the manner in which experienced performers allocate attention to skill processes and procedures as actual skill execution unfolds, as well as differences

M. T. Chi, P. J. Feltovich, and R. Glaser, Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices, Cognitive Science 5 (1981): 121-52.
219

See W. G. Chase and H. A. Simon, Perception in Chess, Cognitive Psychology 4 (1973): 55-81; A. de Groot, Thought and Choice in Chess (The Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton, 1978); and J. L. Starkes, and J. Deakin, Perception in Sport: A Cognitive Approach to Skilled Performance, in Cognitive Sport Psychology, eds. W. F. Straub & J. M. Williams (Lansing, MI: Sport Science Associates, 1984), 115-28.
220

See Priest and Lindsay, New Light on Novice-Expert Differences, 389-405 and Tenenbaum and Bar-Eli, Decision-Making in Sport, 171-92.
221

See P. L. Ackerman, Individual Differences in Skill Learning: An Integration of Psychometric and Information Processing Perspectives, Psychological Bulletin 102 (1987): 3-27; P. L. Ackerman and A. T. Cianciolo, Cognitive, Perceptual-Speed, and Psychomotor Determinants of Individual Differences During Skill Acquisition, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 6 (2000): 259-90; and R. Kanfer and P. L. Ackerman, Motivation and Cognitive Abilities: An Integrative/AptitudeTreatment Interaction Approach to Skill Acquisition, Journal of Applied Psychology 74 (1989): 657-90.
222 223

Beilock et al., When Paying Attention Becomes Counterproductive, 6-16.

78 in the attentional requirements of low- and high-level performances.224 Knowledge of attentional mechanisms in skill acquisition has the potential to aid the development of the most optimal techniques for skill acquisition225 and to help explicate suboptimal performances of well-learned skills.226 The role of attention in skill acquisition and execution seems to be dependent upon the three general stages of learning characterized by both qualitative differences in cognitive structures supporting performance and differences in performance. Research has suggested that early in learning, skill execution is supported by a set of nonintegrated control structures held in working memory and attended to in a step-by-step fashion.227 As a result of this close attentional monitoring to skill execution, attention

224

Ibid., 6.

See R. N. Singer, R. Lidor, and J. H. Cauraugh, To Be Aware or Not Aware? What to Think About While Learning and Performing a Motor Skill, The Sport Psychologist 7 (1993): 19-30; G. Wulf, M. Hob, and W. Prinz, Instructions for Motor Learning: Differential Effects of Internal Versus External Focus of Attention, Journal of Motor Behavior 30 (1998): 169-79; and G. Wulf et al., Attentional Focus in Complex Skill Learning, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 71 (2000): 229-39.
225

See R. F. Baumeister, Choking Under Pressure: Self-Consciousness and Paradoxical Effects of Incentives on Skillful Performance, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984): 610-20; S. L. Beilock and T. H. Carr, On the Fragility of Skilled Performance: What Governs Choking Under Pressure? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130 (2001): 701-25; and B. Lewis and D. Linder, Thinking About Choking? Attentional Processes and Paradoxical Performance, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997): 937-44.
226

See J. R. Anderson, The Architecture of Cognition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983); Idem, Rules of Mind (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1993); Fitts and Posner, Human Performance; and R. W. Proctor and A. Dutta, Skill Acquisition and Human Performance (Thousand oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
227

79 devoted to controlling task performance is largely unavailable for either interpretation or processing of non-task related stimuli. Therefore, in the early stages of the learning process, self-regulation may actually disrupt execution of a particular skill by recruiting attentional resources required for executing the task.228 With practice, procedural knowledge specific to the execution of the task develops and improves real-time skill execution leading to automated performance.229 This procedural knowledge operates largely outside of working memory and does not require constant control.230 As a result, attentional mechanisms may become available for processing stimuli that are not taskrelated. However, evidence suggests that performance of a second ancillary task may prevent learning of the principal task231 and diminish performance in the principal task.232

F. H. Kanfer and M. K. Stevenson, The Effects of Self-Regulation on Concurrent Cognitive Processing, Cognitive Therapy and Research 6 (1985): 667-84.
228

A. D. Fisk and W. Schneider, Memory as a Function of Attention, Level of Processing, and Automatization, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 10 (1984): 181-97.
229

See Anderson, The Architecture of Cognition; Fitts and Posner, Human Performance; S. W. Keele and J. J. Summers, The Structure of Motor Programs, in Motor Control: Issues and Trends, ed. G.E. Stelmach (New York: Academic Press, 1976); G. A. Kimble and L. C. Perlmuter, The Problem of Volition, Psychological Review 77 (1970): 361-84; and E. Langer, and G. Imber, When Practice Makes Imperfect: Debilitating Effects of Overlearning, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 2014-24.
230

M. J. Nissen and P. Bullemer, Attentional Requirements of Learning: Evidence from Performance Measures, Cognitive Psychology 19 (1987): 1-32.
231

R. DellAqua and P. Jolicoeur, Visual Encoding of Patterns is Subject to DualTask Interference, Memory & Cognition 28(2) (2000): 184-91.
232

80 Other studies involving musicians,233 hockey players,234 soccer players,235 and golfers236 have shown that experienced performers are better able to deal with conditions involving dual-task environments than novices which suggests that constant online attentional control may not be necessary once a high level of performance has been achieved. In fact, once skills have been well-learned, attention devoted to the step-by-step components of skill may be detrimental to the execution of the skill.237

233

Beilock et al., Attention Becomes Counterproductive, 6-16.

J. Leavitt, Cognitive Demands of Skating and Stick Handling in Ice Hockey, Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 4 (1979): 46-55.
234

M. D. Smith and C. J. Chamberlin, Effect of Adding Cognitively Demanding Tasks on Soccer Skill Performance, Perceptual and Motor Skills 75 (1992): 955-61.
235

See S. L. Beilock, S. A. Wierenga, and T. H. Carr, Expertise, Attention, and Memory in Sensorimotor Skill Execution: Impact of Novel Task Constraints on DualTask Performance and Episodic Memory, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 55(4) (2002): 1211-40 and Idem, Memory and Expertise: What Do Experienced Athletes Remember? in Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sport Expertise, ed. Janet L. Starkes and K. Anders Ericsson (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2003), 295-320.
236

See Baumeister, Choking Under Pressure, 610-20; S. L. Beilock and T. H. Carr, Fragility of Skilled Performance, 701-25; Kimble and Perlmuter, The Problem of Volition, 361-84; Langer and Imber, When Practice Makes Imperfect, 2014-24; and Lewis and Linder, Thinking About Choking? 937-44.
237

81 Masters and colleagues238 proposed that attention to high-level skills results in their breakdown, in which the compiled real-time control structure of a skill is broken down into a sequence of smaller, separate, independent unitssimilar to how performance may have been organized early in learning. Once broken down, each unit must be activated and run separately, which slows performance and, at each transition between units, creates an opportunity for error that was not present in the chunked control structure.239 Researchers have suggested that attention to step-by-step components of a welllearned skill may be prompted by pressure to perform at a high level which in turn may contribute to suboptimal performance of well-learned skills.240 It is apparent that novel and well-learned tasks require different levels of attentional resources for successful execution. If [skill-focused attention is] applied in other circumstances, such as practice situations, in which performers are consciously attempting to dismantle their skill and modify certain parts in accord with data collected by self-regulatory activities such as those mentioned above, skill-focused attention may actually be helpful. That is, when the goal is not to maximize real-time performance but instead to explicitly alter or change performance processes to achieve a different outcome, skill-focused attention may be beneficial. In this manner, skill-focused attention may become embedded in the metacognitive activities of self-regulation.241

See R. S. W. Masters, Knowledge, Knerves, and Know-How: The Role of Explicit Versus Implicit Knowledge in the Breakdown of a Complex Motor Skill Under Pressure, British Journal of Psychology 83 (1992): 343-58; R. S. W. Masters et al., Reinvestment: A Dimension of Personality Implicated in Skill Breakdown Under Pressure, Personality & Individual Differences 14 (1993): 655-66.
238 239

Beilock et al., Attention Becomes Counterproductive, 8.

See Baumeister, Choking Under Pressure, 610-20; Beilock and Carr, Fragility of Skilled Performance, 701-25 and Lewis and Linder, Thinking About Choking? 93744.
240 241

Beilock et al., Attention Becomes Counterproductive, 15.

82 The importance of attentional mechanisms and their training or practice implications are obvious with compulsory attention to step-by-step components in early stages shifting to self-regulation in later stages of skill acquisition. Motor Learning and the Human Hand Handedness and Facility of the Non-Dominant Hand Over the course of history, the number of left-handers in the general population has been estimated to be between approximately one and twenty-nine percent depending upon the testing method.242 On the basis of performance studies, Hardyck and Petrinovich have estimated the number to be between eight and ten percent.243 Several studies have been conducted to determine whether or not various groups might differ in measures of handedness from the general population. A study conducted by Oldfield244 found no differences in handedness between musicians and nonmusicians while other studies have found left and mixed-handers to be overrepresented in musician populations.245 A particularly interesting study by Byrne examined handedness of music

C. Hardyck and L. F. Petrinovich, Left-Handedness, Psychological Bulletin 84 (1977): 391.

242 243

Ibid.

R. C. Oldfield, Handedness in Musicians, British Journal of Psychology 60 (1969): 91-9.

244

See B. Byrne, Handedness and Musical Ability, British Journal of Psychology 65 (1974): 279-81; K. O. Gttestam, Left-Handedness Among Students of Architecture and Music, Perceptual and Motor Skills 70 (1990): 1323-27; and M. Hassler and N. Birbaumer, Handedness, Musical Abilities, and Dihaptic and Dichotic Performance in Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study, Developmental Neuropsychology 4 (1988): 129-45.
245

83 students and found that the proportion of mixed-handedness was greater among instrumentalists but not singers.246 Results of research by Christman also demonstrated that populations of musicians such as string players who, according to his definition, play instruments requiring greater bimanual coordination than others, display greater proportion of left- and/or mixed-handedness.247 However, recent studies have shown that the prevalence of left- or mixed-handedness in musicians is only four to six percent higher than in nonmusicians.248 What remains more difficult to assess is whether the observed differences amongst populations occur as musicians self-select with regard to their chosen profession or whether developing skills necessary to play particular instruments results in weakening the degree of ones handedness. Attempts to address this issue often involve studying the long-term effects of practice on hand skill asymmetry. Research by Jncke, Schlaug, and Steinmetz found that right-handed musicians demonstrated a reduced degree of hand skill asymmetry in comparison to right-handed nonmusicians.249 The reduced asymmetry demonstrated by

246

Byrne, Handedness and Musical Ability, 279-81.

Stephen Christman, Handedness in Musicians: Bimanual Constraints on Performance, Brain and Cognition 22 (1993): 266-72.
247

See J. P. Aggleton, R. W. Kentridge, and J. M. M. Good, Handedness and Musical Ability: A Study of Professional Orchestral Players, Composers, and Choir Members, Psychology of Music 22 (1994): 148-56; A. N. Gilbert and C. J. Wysocki, Hand Preference and Age in the United States, Neuropsychologia 30 (1992): 601-8; and I. B. Perelle and L. Ehrman, An International Study of Human Handedness: The Data, Behavior Genetics 24 (1994): 217-28.
248

Lutz Jncke, Gottfried Schlaug, and Helmuth Steinmetz, Hand Skill Asymmetry in Professional Musicians, Brain and Cognition 34 (1997): 424-32.
249

84 musicians was thought to be due to gains in skill of the non-dominant hand. Within musician populations, keyboardists performed better than string players in a finger tapping task, but better performance was not linked to performance asymmetry as the level of asymmetry was similar in both groups. Furthermore, results indicated that hand skill asymmetry was related to the age at musicians began their training with less asymmetry associated with earlier training. Bi-manual Coordination Many daily activities, such as tying ones shoes or pouring a glass of milk, for example, require coordinated bimanual movements. The motion of the limbs is coordinated with regard to each task and displays a great amount of temporal and spatial diversity between tasks. Numerous activities, such as walking, riding bike, or swimming, are cyclical and involve synchronized or alternated movement of muscle pairs, but other tasks, such as tying shoelaces, opening a bottle, or playing a musical instrument, require alternated movement of limb pairs. Interestingly enough, principles of interlimb coordination cannot be deduced from those regarding unimanual movements. Research indicates that biological systems often demonstrate synchronization. 250 Indeed, there is a basic tendency of limbs to operate in synchrony which results in

See S. L. Bressler and J. A. S. Kelso, Cortical Coordination Dynamics and Cognition, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5 (2001): 26-36; J. A. S. Kelso, Dynamic Patterns: The Self-Organization of Brain and Behavior (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1995); and F. Varela et al., The Brainweb: Phase Synchronization and Large-Scale Integration, Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 2 (2001): 229-39.
250

85 coordination constraints due to temporal and spatial parameters of movement.251 Even amputees with phantom limbs maintain a tendency toward bimanual coupling.252 Many activities, such as playing the piano, require that this synchronization be overcome. Modes of Interlimb Coordination Despite the fact that other modes exist, it is generally agreed that quadrupedal animals and humans display a basic tendency toward either in-phase or anti-phase coordination of the limbs with a prevalent one-to-one relationship in the frequency of movements.253 In-phase coordination of the index fingers, for example, occurs when similar muscles in the two fingers are active and the fingers mirror one another. Antiphase coordination occurs when nonhomologous muscles are active, when the index fingers point in the same direction, for example. Research regarding cyclical bimanual See E. A. Franz, Spatial Coupling in the Coordination of Complex Actions, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A50 (1997): 684704; J. A. S. Kelso, D. L. Southard, and D. Goodman, On the Coordination of Two-Handed Movements, Journal of Experimental. Psychology 5 (1979): 22938; Idem, On the Nature of Human Interlimb Coordination, Science 203 (1979): 102931; R. G. Marteniuk, C. L. MacKenzie, and D. M. Baba, Bimanual Movement Control: Information Processing and Interaction Effects, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A36(2) (1984): 335-65; D. E. Sherwood, Distance and Location Assimilation Effects in Rapid Bimanual Movement, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 62 (1991): 302-8; Idem, Hand Preference, Practice Order, and Spatial Assimilations in Rapid Bimanual Movement, Journal of Motor Behavior 26 (1994): 123-34; S. P. Swinnen et al., Control of Bilateral Asymmetrical Movements, Experimental Brain Research 85 (1991): 163-73; and C. B. Walter et al., Systematic Error in the Hierarchical Organization of Physical Action, Cognitive Science 25 (2001): 393-422.
251

E. A. Franz and V. S. Ramachandran, Bimanual Coupling in Amputees with Phantom Limbs, Nature Neuroscience 1(6) (1998): 443-4.
252

T. Wannier et al., Arm to Leg Coordination in Humans During Walking, Creeping and Swimming, Experimental Brain Research 14 (2001): 375-9.
253

86 movements in humans has demonstrated that, not only is the in-phase mode more accurate and stable,254 but it also requires less attention than the anti-phase mode.255 In order to understand basic principles of interlimb coordination, scientists have generally attempted to identify the limitations of the central nervous system by studying different movements performed simultaneously. Swinnen indicated that archaic response tendencies or coordination modes that the system settles into when stressed might also reflect what most easily potentiated pathways of neural wiring are.256 Observed limitations involve asymmetry between the hands and spatial and temporal features of movement. For example Ibbotson and Morton demonstrated that when right-handed individuals tap in synchrony with a metronome while simultaneously tapping as quickly as possible with the other hand, performance is better when the right See Kelso, Dynamic Patterns; R. G. Carson, The Dynamics of Isometric Bimanual Coordination, Experimental Brain Research 105 (1995): 46576; J. A. S. Kelso, Phase Transitions and Critical Behavior in Human Bimanual Coordination, American Journal of Physiology 246 (1984): R1000R1004; A. Semjen, J. J. Summers, and D. Cattaert, Hand Coordination in Bimanual Circle Drawing, Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception and Performance 21 (1995): 113957; S. P. Swinnen, and K. Jardin, Egocentric and Allocentric Constraints in the Expression of Patterns of Interlimb Coordination, Journal of Cognitive. Neuroscience 9 (1997): 348 77; S. P. Swinnen et al., Exploring Interlimb Constraints During Bimanual Graphic Performance: Effects of Muscle Grouping and Direction, Behavioural Brain Research 90 (1998): 7987; and J. Yamanishi, M. Kawato, and R. Suzuki, Two Coupled Oscillators as a Model for the Coordinated Finger Tapping by Both Hands, Biological Cybernetics 37 (1980): 21925.
254

J. J. Temprado et al., Attentional Load Associated with Performing and Stabilizing Preferred Bimanual Patterns, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 25 (1999): 157994.
255

S. P. Swinnen, Intermanual Coordination: From Behavioural Principles to Neural-Network Interactions, Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 3 (2002): 353.
256

87 hand performs the faster-paced tapping.257 Spatial constraints are observed in drawing lines of different amplitudes as there is a tendency for the amplitudes of the lines to become similar.258 Subjects in whom the corpus callosum has been severed have less difficulty in producing simultaneous movements with unique directional requirements than normal subjects.259 Perhaps somewhat surprisingly, in finger tapping, these subjects demonstrate temporal coupling during movements such as finger tapping;260 however, when tasks become more complicated and require coordination beyond basic in-phase coupling, they do not perform as well.261

257

N. R. Ibbotson, and J. Morton, Rhythm and Dominance, Cognition 9 (1981):

125-38. See Marteniuk, MacKenzie, and Baba, Bimanual Movement Control, 335-65; Sherwood, Distance and Location, 302-8; Idem, Rapid Bimanual Movement, 123-34; H. Heuer et al., The Time-Course of Cross-Talk During the Simultaneous Specification of Bimanual Movement Amplitudes, Experimental Brain Research 118 (1998): 381-92; and W. Spijkers and H. Heuer, Structural Constraints on the Performance of Symmetrical Bimanual Movements with Different Amplitudes, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A48 (1995): 716-40.
258

See J. C. Eliassen, K. Baynes, and M. S. Gazzaniga, Direction Information Coordinated Via the Posterior Third of the Corpus Callosum During Bimanual Movements, Experimental Brain Research 128 (1999): 573-77; Idem, Anterior and Posterior Callosal Contributions to Simultaneous Bimanual Movements of the Hands and Fingers, Brain 123 (2000): 2501-11; and E. A. Franz et al., Dissociation of Spatial and Temporal Coupling in the Bimanual Movements of Callosotomy Patients, Psychological Science 7 (1996): 306-10.
259

B. Tuller and J. A. S. Kelso, Environmentally-Specified Patterns of Movement Coordination in Normal and Split-Brain Subjects, Experimental Brain Research 75 (1989): 306-16.
260

See B. Preilowski, Possible Contribution of the Anterior Forebrain Sommissures to Bimanual Motor Coordination, Neuropsychologia 10 (1972): 267-77 and Idem, Bilateral Motor Interaction: Perceptual-Motor Performance of Partial and
261

88 Finger Tapping and Polyrhythms Studies involving finger tapping have often been used to study bimanual coordination. In these studies, a distinction is often made between simple rhythms, those in which one frequency is an integer multiple of another, and polyrhythms, such as 3:2 or 5:4. In general, research has shown that polyrhythms are more difficult to produce and are produced with greater variability than simple rhythms.262 Early studies involving polyrhythms required participants to play two to six notes per second and showed that, at those speeds, participants were able to keep up with the beat263 or even anticipate the beat.264 However, it appears that higher-order ratios comprised of large numerators and denominators are less stable than lower-order ratios. One reason why musicians must Complete Split-Brain Patients, in Cerebral Localization, ed. K. J. Zulch, O. Creutzfeld, and G. C. Galbraith (New York: Springer, 1975), 115-32. See Deutsch, Sequences in Parallel, 331-37; R. J. Jagacinski et al., Test of Parallel Versus Integrated Structure in Polyrhythmic Tapping, Journal of Motor Behavior 20 (1988): 416-42; S. Klapp et al., On Marching to Two Different Drummers: Perceptual Aspects of the Difficulties, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 11 (1985): 814-27; C. E. Peper, P. J. Beek, and P. C. W. van Wieringen, Multifrequency Coordination in Bimanual Tapping: Asymmetrical Coupling and Signs of Supercriticality, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 19 (1993): 416-28; and P. J. Treffner and M. T. Turvey, Resonance Constraints on Rhythmic Movements, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 19(6) (1993): 1221-37.
262

See J. Pressing, J. Summers, and J. Magill, Cognitive Multiplicity in Polyrhythmic Pattern Performance, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 22(5) (1996): 1127-48 and J. Summers et al., Productions of Polyrhythms, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 19(2) (1993): 416-28.
263

R. J. Jagacinski et al., Tests of Parallel Versus Integrated Structure in Polyrhythmic Tapping, Journal of Motor Behavior 20(4) (1988): 416-42.
264

89 practice so-called difficult rhythms stems from this differential stability.265 As the frequency of tapping is increased, a transition from higher-order ratios to lower-order ratios is observed.266 Although two studies have obtained results contrary to the following,267 Peters and Schwartz268 and Klapp et al.269 have demonstrated that the hands are not independent of one another even at intermediate speeds. Furthermore, performance of multi-frequency tasks is often associated with an asymmetrical coupling effect in which the fast hand has a larger influence on the slow hand than vice versa.270 Nevertheless, musically trained subjects are more accurate in performance of

P. G. Zanone and J. A. S. Kelso, Evolution of Behavioral Attractors With Learning: Nonequilibrium Phase Transitions, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18(2) (1992): 418.
265

See Ibid. and C. E. Peper, P. J. Beek, and P. C. W. van Wieringen, Bifurcation in Polyrhythmic Tapping: In Search of Farey Principles, in Tutorials in Motor Neuroscience, ed. G.E. Stelmach (New York: Kluwer, 1991): 413-31.
266

See R. T. Krampe, et al., The Fast and Slow of Skilled Bimanual Rhythm Production: Parallel Versus Integrated Timing, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 26(1) (2000): 206-33 and L. H. Shaffer, Performances of Chopin, Bach and Bartok: Studies in Motor Programming, Cognitive Psychology 13 (1981): 326-76.
267 268

Peters and Schwartz, Coordination of the Two Hands, 215-24.

S. T. Klapp, J. M. Nelson, and R. J. Jagacinski, Can People Tap Concurrent Bimanual Rhythms Independently? Journal of Motor Behavior 30(4) (1998): 301-22.
269

See Ibid.; Summers et al., Productions of Polyrhythms, 416-28; W. D. Byblow et al., Performance Asymmetries and Coupling Dynamics in the Acquisition of Multifrequency Bimanual Coordination, Psychological Research 61 (1998): 56-70; M. Peters, Constraints in the Coordination of Bimanual Movements and Their Expression in Skilled and Unskilled Subjects, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A37 (1985): 171-96; and Peters and Schwartz, Coordination of the Two Hands, 215-224.
270

90 polyrhythms than non-musicians271 which suggests the skill is amenable to practice. Researchers have demonstrated that the ability to play the correct rhythm apparently varies with ones skill level,272 focus of attention,273 and the complexity of the rhythm. Subsequent research has focused on the stability of the performance of polyrhythms and has attempted to resolve such as issues as what happens when motor control breaks down.274 Bi-manual Transfer Different kinds of transfer of learning are known to occur after the acquisition of a motor task, ranging from transfer of relational to specific parameters of control.275 One aspect that has received significant attention since the early twentieth century is bilateral transfer. Early studies of bilateral transfer often used tasks like handwriting, drawing, and maze learning.276 Criticism of this early body of work centered around the fact that,

271

Summers et al. Productions of Polyrhythms, 416-28.

272

Idem. Pressing, Summers, and Magill, Cognitive Multiplicity, 1127-48. Bogacz, Performance of Polyrhythms, 21-34.

273

274

D. E. Young and R. A. Schmidt, Transfer of Movement Control in Motor Skill Learning, in Transfer of Learning: Contemporary Research and Applications, ed. S. M. Cornier and J. D. Hagman (San Diego, Academic Press, 1987), 47-79.
275

See T. W. Cook, Studies in Cross Education: III. Kinesthetic Learning of an Irregular Pattern, Journal of Experimental Psychology 17 (1934): 749-62; E. Weig, Bilateral Transfer in the Motor Learning of Young Children and Adults, Child Development 3 (1932): 247-67; and R. B. Ammons, C. H. Ammons, and R. L. Morgan, Transfer of Skill and Decremental Factors Along the Speed Dimensions in Rotary Pursuit, Perceptual and Motor Skills 6 (1956): 43.
276

91 in general, the motor component of the tasks was not particularly demanding. Critics therefore suggested that any observed transfer of learning could largely be attributed to subjects acquisition of a cognitive representation of the structure of the task that could then be transferred to the other hand in order to reproduce the skill. More recent contributions to the literature provide additional support277 and some limitations for bilateral effects.278 More complicated tasks and those requiring greater motor skill have since provided some insight. For example, in a study by Shapiro, subjects learned a complex wrist-rotation task in which they were required to move to seven ordered target positions in a particular amount of time.279 Over the course of five days, subjects practiced the task with their right hand and received feedback from a computer screen after each trial. Results over the five days changed dramatically as a result of practice. On the fifth day, the subjects were unexpectedly asked to perform the same task but with the left hand. Results indicated that the left- and right-hand movements were nearly identical therefore demonstrating a high degree of transfer from the right to the left hand. These results were particularly interesting since the same

See P. Dunham, Effect of Bilateral Transfer on Coincidence/Anticipation Performance, Research Quarterly 48 (1977): 51-5; S. L. Puretz, Bilateral Transfer: The Effects of Practice on the Transfer of Complex Dance Movement Patterns, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 54 (1983): 48-54; and K. Tsuji and Y. Ide, Development of Bilateral Transfer Skills in the Mirror Tracing, Japanese Psychological Research 16 (1974): 171-8.
277

R. E. Hicks, J. M. Frank, and M. Kinsbourne, The Locus of Bimanual Skill Transfer, The Journal of General Psychology 107 (1982): 277-81.
278

D. C. Shapiro, Bilateral Transfer of a Motor Program. Paper presented at the AAHPER annual meeting, March, 1977.
279

92 direction of movement was required of each limb therefore employing non-homologous muscle groupings. Young and Schmidt interpret Shapiros results as suggesting a relatively abstract program structure that can employ various limb systems in producing a response.280 Previous studies by Bray,281 Raibert,282 and Merton283 support this view. Bray demonstrated transfer effects of mirror-tracing performance from the hand to the foot while Raiberts research showed similarities in movement patterns when writing with the dominant hand, the dominant arm, the nondominant hand, with the pen between his teeth, and with the pen taped to his foot. Likewise, Merton demonstrated the similarities between signatures of different sizes despite the difference in muscles involved. Completely specific acquisition of motor skills or perfect transfer of learning, however, is rarely observed.284 Several studies have demonstrated that the subdominant hand benefits more from dominant hand training than does the dominant hand from

280

Young and Schmidt, Transfer of Movement Control, 62.

C. W. Bray, Transfer of Learning, Journal of Experimental Psychology 11 (1928): 443-67.

281

M. H. Raibert, Motor Control and Learning by the State-Space Model, (Ph.D. diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1977).
282

P. A. Merton, How We Control the Contraction of Our Muscles, Scientific American 226 (1972): 30-7.
283

L. A. Teixeira, Timing and Force Components in Bilateral Transfer of Learning, Brain and Cognition 44 (2000): 455.
284

93 subdominant hand training.285 To assess the effects of practice on performance with regard to unimanual and bimanual movements, Schulze, et al.286 used a variant of the pegboard task, a task widely used in neuropsychology for the examination of complex uni- and bimanual motor functions.287 Results showed strong practice effects for each hand and for each training condition. Of particular interest were the effects for the untrained hands. After training, movement times were considerably reduced for all hands and for all training conditions. 2. Practice effects were found for the hand trained and also for the untrained hand. 3. There was not a great difference in the size of the practice effects for the right hand after left hand training or for the left hand after right hand training. 4. Task difficulty had no clear influence on the practice effect. 5. Bimanual movements not only profit from bimanual training but also from unimanual training and conversely unimanual movements benefit from bimanual training. However, unimanual training resulted in strong practice effects for the bimanual tasks. However, the practice effect of unimanual training on bimanual movements was smaller than the practice effect of bimanual training on bimanual movements.288

See U. Halsband, Left Hemisphere Preponderance in Trajectorial Learning, NeuroReport 3 (1992): 397-400; J. L. Laszlo, R. A. Baguley, and P. J. Bairstow, Bilateral Transfer in Tapping Skill in the Absence of Peripheral Information, Journal of Motor Behavior 2 (1970): 261-71; R. Milisen and C. V. Riper., Differential Transfer of Training in a Rotary Activity, Journal of Experimental Psychology 24 (1939): 640-6; and S. E. Parlow and M. Kinsbourne, Asymmetrical Transfer of Training Between Hands: Implications for Interhemispheric Communication in Normal Brain, Brain and Cognition 11 (1989): 98-113.
285

K. Schulze, E. Lders, and L. Jncke, Intermanual Transfer in a Simple Motor Task, Cortex 38 (2002): 805-15.
286

See M. Annett, Left, Right, Hand and Brain: The Right Shift Theory (London: Erlbaum, 1985) and A. L. Doyen and M. Carlier, Measuring Handedness: A Validation Study of Bishops Reading Card Test, Laterality 7 (2002): 115-30.
287 288

Schulze, Lders, and Jncke, Intermanual Transfer, 805.

94 Although mechanisms underlying transfer of learning have yet to have been identified, the body of evidence supporting bilateral transfer is significant. Most importantly, the mounting body of research enhances our ability to optimize training regiments, teaching methodologies, and ultimately performance. Musical Skills and Acquisition of New Coordination Patterns Numerous factors including hand dominance289, physiological functionality,290 and training and attention291 have been shown to influence coordination patterns. The effect of attention was studied by Peters and Schwartz who required subjects to count aloud one of the streams in a 3:2 polyrhythm.292 Results indicated that both musically skilled and unskilled subjects performed better when attending to the faster of the two streams. However, a study by Pressing et al. demonstrated that expert percussionists were able to perform a 4:3 polyrhythm with a high degree of accuracy regardless of which hand

P. J. Treffner and M. T. Turvey, Handedness and the Asymmetric Dynamics of Bimanual Rhythmic Coordination, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 23(1) (1997): 1-15.
289

See P. J. Beek, C. E. Peper, and A. Daffertshofer, Modeling Rhythmic Interlimb Coordination: Beyond the Kahen-Kelso-Bunz Model, Brain and Cognition 48 (2002): 149-65 and C. L. Peper, et al., Explanatory Limitations of the HKB Model: Incentives for a Two-Tiered Model of Rhythmic Interlimb Coordination, Human Movement Science 23 (2004): 673-97.
290

See Zanone and Kelso, Evolution of Behavioral Attractors with Learning, 40321; Klapp, Nelson, and Jagacinski, Can People Tap, 301-22; and J. Temprado et al., Attentional Demands Reflect Learning-Induced Alterations of Bimanual Coordination Dynamics, European Journal of Neuroscience 16 (2002): 1390-4.
291

292

Peters and Schwartz, Coordination of the Two Hands, 215-24.

95 performed which stream or which stream was the focus of attention.293 Summers suggested that the percussionists performance was perhaps a result of their training which requires the learning of a given polyrhythm in three ways: one stream as the fundamental pulse, the other stream as the fundamental pulse, and as a linear composite of the two.294 Summers et al. also examined the potential for transfer effects regarding practice of polyrhythms.295 Subjects who practiced a 5:3 polyrhythm were then asked to perform the polyrhythm under a variety of conditions: reverse-hand arrangement, as fast as possible, and with a concurrent memory task. Additionally, subjects were asked to perform previously unrehearsed 3:2, 5:2, 4:3, and 5:4 polyrhythms. Results indicated that the polyrhythms were performed with a high degree of accuracy in within-transfer conditions, but transfer to tasks involving the new polyrhythms was poor.296 Because coordinated patterns have been shown to be amenable to training, the mechanisms underlying learning and performance are of great interest to scientists and those in associated health-related fields. Acquisition of new coordination patterns is often considered in relationship to modes of coordination that have been previously
293

Pressing, Summers, and Magill, Cognitive Multiplicity, 1127-48.

J. Summers, Practice and Training in Bimanual Coordination Tasks: Strategies and Constraints, Brain and Cognition 48 (2002): 173.
294 295

Summers et al., Production of Polyrhythms, 416-28.

J. J. Summers, Learning and Transfer of Multifrequency Patterns. In Rhythm Perception and Production, ed. P. Desain and L. Windsor (Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger, 2000): 69-80.
296

96 discussed.297 Swinnen suggests that the nature of pre-existing preferred patterns and the tendency toward phase and frequency synchronization can often account for difficulties in learning new coordination patterns.298 This implies that learning coordination skills may involve two components: overcoming basic action patterns299 and re-integrating action patterns. Efficiency in formation of the neural connections associated with the new action patterns is dependent upon both extrinsic and intrinsic conditions. For example, differences between individuals may be the result of genetic predisposition for neural plasticity.300 On the other hand, it has been suggested that instructional techniques have the ability to enhance the learning process. This is particularly true when the See Kelso, Dynamic Patterns; Zanone and Kelso, The Evolution of Behavioral Attractors with Learning, 403-21; S. Swinnen et al., Preferred and Induced Coordination Modes During the Acquisition of Bimanual Movements with a 2:1 Frequency Ratio, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 23 (1997): 1087-1110; S. P. Swinnen, Age-Related Deficits in Motor Learning and Differences in Feedback Processing During the Production of a Bimanual Coordination Pattern, Cognitive Neuropsychology 15 (1998): 439-66; and P. Zanone and J. Kelso, Coordination Dynamics of Learning and Transfer: Collective and Component Levels, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance 23 (1997): 1454-80.
297
298

Swinnen, Intermanual Coordination, 355.

See T. D. Lee, S. P. Swinnen, and S. Verschueren, Relative Phase Alterations During Bimanual Skill Acquisition, Journal of Motor Behavior 27 (1995): 263-74; G. Schner et al., Learning as Change of Coordination Dynamics: Theory and Experiment, Journal of Motor Behavior 24 (1992): 29-48; S. P. Swinnen and C. B. Walter, Constraints in Coordinating Limb Movements, in Cognition and Action in Skilled Behaviour, ed. A. M. Colley and J. R. Beech (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1988), 12743; S. P. Swinnen et al., Acquiring Bimanual Skills: Contrasting Forms of Information Feedback for Interlimb Decoupling, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19 (1993): 1328-44; and Zanone, and Kelso, The Evolution of Behavioral Attractors with Learning, 403-21.
299 300

S. P. Swinnen, Intermanual Coordination, 355.

97 desired action is conceptualized as a familiar symbol or entity301 or when feedback techniques integrate information from the respective limbs in a meaningful way.302

E. A. Franz et al., Spatial Conceptual Influences on the Coordination of Bimanual Actions: When a Dual Task Becomes a Single Task, Journal of Motor Behavior 33 (2001): 103-12.
301

See S. P. Swinnen et al., Preferred and Induced Coordination Modes, 10871110; Swinnen, Age-Related Deficits, 439-66; Zanone, and Kelso, The Evolution of Behavioral Attractors with Learning, 403-21; Lee, Swinnen, and Verschueren, Relative Phase Alterations, 263-74, and F. Mechsner et al., Perceptual Basis of Bimanual Coordination, Nature 414 (2001): 69-73.
302

98 CHAPTER 5 THE CHOPIN ETUDES AND SKILL ACQUISITION Whiteside observed that, each Etude simply highlights one aspect of the technical equipment; each Etude uses all of the equipment all the time.303 If one studies the Chopin tudes for the purpose of developing particular aspects of technique, how does one learn to utilize the technical equipment to perform them successfully and to realize the artistic and physical ideals consistent with Chopins philosophy? Depending upon the motor skills one has developed, studying the tudes could involve learning to perform novel movements and/or enhancing the coordination of existing patterns of movement. To that end, when combined with musical intuition and basic physiological knowledge, Chopins interpretive markings may be of particular interest and help to the pianist. Upon close examination of the dynamic and articulation markings in particular, I believe that Chopins markings are not only interpretive but also suggest particular movements and gestures that facilitate playing the tudes. The following is a discussion of particular technical aspects and possible physical interpretation of Chopins stylistic markings in representative tudes. Force Gradation: Chopin Etudes Op. 10, Nos. 3, 6, and 11; Op. 25, No. 3; and KK II b/3 Nr. 2 Gradation of force is a vital component of playing the piano in terms of dynamics, color, and musical line, and it appears to be a particularly integral component of Chopin

303

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 109-10.

99 Etudes Op. 10, Nos. 3, 6, and 11 (see Figures 1, 2, and 3); Op. 25, No. 3 (see Figure 4); and KK II b/3 Nr. 2 (see Figure 5).

Figure 1. Etude Op. 10, No. 3, Measures 1-4. Matching tone and shaping the melodic line in the uppermost voice while integrating inner voices of the accompaniment in the right hand. (Quoted from Frdric Chopin, Smtliche Etden, hg. Von Paul BaduraSkoda, Wiener Urtext Edition, Wien 1973/2005 (UT 50205). Printed by permission).

Figure 2. Etude Op. 10, No. 6, Measures 1-3. Relatively slow tempo, long melodic notes, and intricate figuration marked sempre legatissimo in the left hand. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

100 Figure 3. Etude Op. 10, No. 11, Measures 1-3. Voicing the uppermost voice to project the melodic line amidst the harmonic support of the other voices. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Figure 4. Etude Op. 25, No. 3, Measures 1-3. Parallel and contrary motion between the hands. Small melodic germs requiring one to think of the longer phrase as well as the slur markings. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Figure 5. Nouvelles Etudes KK II b/3 Nr. 2, Measures 1-4. Voicing the melody amongst chords in close proximity requiring subtle and seamless changes of fingering. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

101 The tempo indication for Op. 10, No. 6 is Andante. The tude requires legato touch from note to note and mentally thinking through the tone in longer notes to facilitate matching intensity and the perception of a seamless melodic line (see Figure 2). Legato and staccato need redefining as they are related to piano playing. For singer and string player, connecting tones produce an entirely different effect from the connection of piano tones. The actual holding of the tone with the breath or the bow is an expression of the emotional reaction involved with the music, because the dynamics are controlled throughout the holding process. This is not so with the piano. . . . Any projection of emotion, through the use of dynamics, must deal with the intensity of tones at the moment of production. It is this relation of the intensity of tones at the moment of their inception that almost entirely conveys the feeling of legato. Thus, tonal relationships are more meaningful at the piano not through key connection but through gradation in the energy used at the moment of tone production.304 The left hand is marked sempre legatissimo in accompanying the long notes of the right, and the phrase markings highlight the importance of approaching the figures with the largest mechanism possible, not just the fingers. A particularly interesting facet is the parallel motion between the hands in executing the sixteenth notes and contrary motion in the subsequent eighth notes. Op. 10, No. 11 requires voicing the arpeggiations in each hand such that the highest voice speaks melodically above the harmonic support of the inner voices (see Figure 3). The staccato articulation marks over the first eighth notes of the measure encourage a release of tension and initiate preparation for the shift of position that follows. While the dots may also suggest a particular color of tone, they do not affect the duration of the notes since the damper pedal is depressed. This supports the view that the dots have specific implications with regard to physical execution. Voicing subsequent

304

Ibid., 183-4.

102 chords is facilitated if one truly heeds the phrase marking over each gesture indicating the balance of the hand be shifted toward the little finger. The middle, ring, and little fingers execute the melodic line in Op. 25, No. 3 (see Figure 4). The suggested fingerings place the middle finger on the first note of each three-note musical germ. The slur markings over each of these groups suggest a continuous pattern of wrist movement beginning with a drop of the wrist initiating the phrase with the middle finger followed by progressive release of the wrist. Voicing the melody in KK II b/3 Nr. 2 is a particular challenge amid the close proximity of the chords (see Figure 5). Furthermore, the phrase markings indicate musical ideas at least four measures in length. Attention to the phrasing involves caring for the continuity of the melodic line which incorporates repeated notes that might be played with the same finger. Etude Op. 10, No. 3 Op. 10, No. 3 requires matching tone from note to note and shaping the melodic line in the uppermost voice while also integrating inner voices of the accompaniment in the right hand (see Figure 1). Employing fingerings suggested by Chopin involves using the same finger on consecutives notes and, at times, crossing the little finger under the ring finger (see Figure 6).305 Although Chopins approach to fingering shocked many of his contemporaries, he felt that certain fingerings made it possible to achieve particular colors of sound. Associating particular qualities with each finger, he encouraged

305

Frdric Chopin, Etden, (Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1983), 22-5.

103 cultivation of these differences.306 There are, then, many different qualities of sound, just as there are several fingers. The point is to utilize the differences; and this, in other words, is the art of fingering.307

Figure 6. Etude Op. 10, No. 3, Measures 5-8. Fingerings suggested by the composer use the same finger on consecutives notes and, at times, crossing the little finger under the ring finger. Note the use of crescendo and decrescendo in m. 5 coinciding with the ring and little fingers. (Quoted from Frdric Chopin, Smtliche Etden, hg. Von Paul Badura-Skoda, Wiener Urtext Edition, Wien 1973/2005 (UT 50205). Printed by permission).

Finger substitutions and crossing fingers make it possible to physically connect the melodic notes, but a sensitive ear and the ability to implement what the mind hears is necessary to achieve the illusion of legato. The dynamic markings indicating subtle swells and shapes encourage the ring and little fingers, those fingers which are the least individuated and typically the weakest functionally, to play with more energy thereby

Marianne Ullyot, Chopin and Liszt: A Legacy of Teaching, Journal of the American Liszt Society 10 (1981): 40.
306

James Huneker, Chopin; The Man and His Music (New York: C. Scribners Sons, 1900), 53.
307

104 utilizing and accounting for some of the inherent physical differences amongst the fingers (see Figure 6.) Phrase markings and accents also provide clues to execution. The accent over the quarter note in the right hand of m. 7, for example, implies a drop of the wrist and some amount of energy initiating the ensuing grace note and sixteenths in the same measure. Finger Independence: Chopin Etudes Op. 10, Nos. 2, 4, 8 and 12 With those by Chopin, pianists encounter tudes devoted to both the development of finger independence and the ability to grade force. A particularly interesting phenomenon is the apparent tradeoff between accuracy in force production and finger independence.308 In other words, finger independence seems to diminish as accuracy in force production increases. Chopin Etudes Op. 10, Nos. 2, 4, 8, and 12 focus explicitly on the overall development of finger independence. Op. 10, No. 2 is noteworthy for aiming to develop independence of the little, middle, and ring fingers, those fingers that have been demonstrated to be the least independent (see Figure 7).309 The fingerings Chopin indicated entail crossing the middle finger over both the ring and little fingers and crossing the ring finger over the little finger in ascending passages while descending passages involved alternating either the ring and little finger or the ring and middle

308

Chiang et al., Practice-Related Modulations, 1033-43. Hger-Ross and Schieber, Quantifying the Independence, 8542-50.

309

105 finger.310 Op. 10, No. 4 features scale-like passagework and intricate four-note finger patterns facilitated by wrist and forearm rotation (see Figure 8).

Figure 7. Etude Op. 10, No. 2, Measures 1-2. Fingerings Chopin indicated entail crossing the middle finger over both the ring and little fingers and crossing the ring finger over the little finger in ascending passages. Descending passages involve alternating either the ring and little finger or the ring and middle finger. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Figure 8. Etude Op. 10, No. 4, Measures 1-2. Scale-like passagework and intricate fournote finger patterns facilitated by wrist and forearm rotation. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Op. 10 No. 12, emphasizing the use of the left hand in melodic passagework, will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent sections of this chapter.

310

Chopin, Etden, 18-21.

106 Etude Op. 10, No. 8 Four-note arpeggio figures incorporating step-wise links dominate Op. 10, No. 8 (see Figure 9). The accents occurring on each beat suggest a drop of the wrist on the middle or ring fingers or the thumb depending on the direction of the melodic line and the particular pattern (see Figure 10). In addition to the phrase marks over each ascending and descending figure, the implied use of the wrist suggests use of larger mechanisms in addition to the fingers, coordination that will facilitate speed and help prevent fatigue. Additionally, the phrase markings direct the ear and upper arm to care for the longer line. In this case, one must coordinate finger independence with upper arm motion in addition to wrist and forearm rotation. Some rotation occurs as consecutive fingers are played. A pattern of rotation is also initiated in places where the figuration is more tightly constructed (see Figure 11, mm. 27-28). In these instances, the rotation occurs more quickly and frequently than in mm. 1-2, for example.

Figure 9. Etude Op. 10, No. 8, Measures 1-2. Four-note arpeggio figures incorporating step-wise links. Note the accents on each beat and the phrase markings over each descending and ascending gesture. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

107 Figure 10. Etude Op. 10, No. 8, Measures 8-13. Accents corresponding to drops of the wrist on the middle finger and thumb. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Figure 11. Etude Op. 10, No. 8, Measures 26-29. Figuration requiring more rapid and frequent wrist and forearm rotation. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

108 Left Hand Facility: Chopin Etude Op. 10, No. 12 The technical challenges of Op. 10, No. 12 are largely constructed by way of elaboration and alteration of three primary figures based on scales and arpeggios. The first pattern, spanning nearly three octaves in two measures, is a decorated arpeggiation of the opening G dominant seventh-chord in the right hand (see Figure 12). The second pattern, arpeggiation of the tonic triad and added ninth (see Figure 13), establishes the tonic key while the final pattern, an intricate chromatic scale (see Figure 14), ushers a return to the tonic key and principal theme.

Figure 12. Etude Op. 10, No. 12, Measures 1-3. Decorated arpeggiation of the opening G dominant seventh-chord in the right hand. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Figure 13. Etude Op. 10, No. 12, Measures 10-12. Arpeggiation of the tonic triad and added ninth establishing the tonic key. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

109 Figure 14. Etude Op. 10, No. 12, Measures 13-18. Intricate chromatic scale ushering a return to the tonic key and principal theme. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Etude Op. 10, No. 12, mm. 1-2 Two-joint and multi-joint muscles are incapable of shortening to the extent required to produce a full range of motion at all joints crossed simultaneously.311 For example, when the wrist is flexed, the fingers are able to generate only a fraction of their maximal force. Altering the position of the wrist also initiates subtle changes in the use and coordination of the physical mechanisms which helps prevent fatigue. The accents over the sixteenth notes which lie on each beat in mm. 1-2 (see Figure 12) are significant because they suggest a drop in the wrist which is important. As Whiteside noted in her discussion of the tudes, the wrist has the ability to facilitate such

311

Susan, J. Hall, Basic Biomechanics, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003),

160-1.

110 elaborated passagework.312 Because the muscles responsible for flexing the fingers cross several joints, finger function is affected by the position of the joints. Here, led perhaps by the upper arm, the wrist can carry the hand and allow the fingers to articulate while not being solely responsible for depressing each key. To that end, as mentioned previously, while a particular part of the physical mechanism is highlighted in each tude, the ingredients remain the same. It is therefore often the balance in integrating the mechanisms that facilitates technical execution. Etude Op. 10, No. 12, m. 9 The accompaniment pattern initiated in m. 9 requires crossing both the ring and middle fingers over the thumb. To facilitate passing the thumb under the other fingers and passing the fingers over, the hand was to be given a corresponding turn inward.313 The figure is then varied to suit the harmonic progression in mm. 14-16 (see Figure 14). Phrase markings here suggest the association of a single fluid physical gesture incorporating rotation from the little finger to the thumb and back with each arpeggio figure. The gesture is then varied as the patterns last either for two or four beats. Thematic material While the challenges of the left hand are formidable, pianists must not allow the technical difficulties to eclipse the thematic substance of the right hand. One of the commonest experiences in the concert hall, during a performance of an tude, is hearing one hand played in a scintillating manner while the other one is insensitive and
312

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 102.

313

Mikuli, Vorwort to Fr. Chopins Pianoforte-Werke, 3.

111 pedestrian. The technical problems have been solvedthe music has been lost.314 To that end, Chopin was exact in his performance and insistence of dynamic shading and nuance in both hands. In performance you should develop an ample, full and rounded tone; shade the scale of nuances with infinite gradations between pianissimo and fortissimo, though in pianissimo avoid any indistinct muttering, just as in fortissimo avoid the sort of pounding that would hurt a sensitive ear.315 Executing the dynamics indicated in mm. 62-64 requires not only careful monitoring of the sound from note to note or chord to chord (see Figure 15), but managing separate scenarios for the hands as well. For example, the left hand patterns are based on continuous cycles of crescendo and decrescendo occurring either once or twice per measure whereas the right hand often observes dynamics opposite those of the left hand. This coordination would likely be developed in the initial phases of learning the tude in which slow performance is heavily reliant upon sensory guidance. Finally, it is worth noting that practice at different dynamic levels, which would require various levels of force, is written into the tude to some extent. For example, the principal theme first appears forte in mm. 10-11 while it is designated piano in mm. 20-21 (see Figures 13 and 16). Presumably, these differences would be reflected in the corresponding accompaniment figures as well. Properties of muscle are dependent upon a balance of characteristics to facilitate such variety.

314

Prostakoff and Rosoff, eds., Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 105. Koczalski, Frdric Chopin. Betrachtungen, Skizzen, Analysen, 12.

315

112 Figure 15. Etude Op. 10, No. 12, Measures 61-66. Dynamics requiring careful monitoring of the sound from note to note or chord to chord and managing separate scenarios for the hands. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Figure 16. Etude Op. 10, No. 12, Measures 19-21. Thematic material marked piano in comparison to m. 10 where it is marked forte. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

The Thumb: Chopin Etude Op. 10, No. 5 Eigeldinger suggests that melodic use of the thumb on the black keys in Op. 10, No. 5 is one of the significant technical innovations of the Chopin tudes. Op. 10, No. 5 requires integrating forearm and wrist rotation with articulation of the thumb and fingers to achieve facile execution and brilliant tone quality. In particular, in mm. 23-26, for

113 example, it is clear from the phrase markings that Chopin suggested use of wrist and forearm rotation to play either adjacent notes or those separated by a seventh, the seventh between the A-flat and high G-flat in this case (see Figure 17). The articulation markings over each G-flat imply a particular quality of sound but also a release of muscle tension in the hand and forearm preparing the playing mechanism for the next gesture. Surely one must balance use of the fingers as articulators as well, but use of the wrist and forearm will facilitate speed and ease. Because this tude is in the key of G-flat major, the pianist must become comfortable executing movements primarily on the black keys with the hands farther from the body and the wrists necessarily higher than on the white keys.

Figure 17. Etude Op. 10, No. 15, Measures 20-26. Note the phrase markings in mm. 2326 suggesting wrist and forearm rotation. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

114 Measures 1-4 present the basic patterns that are fundamental to the tude (see Figure 18). A descending G-flat major arpeggiation spanning approximately two octaves consisting of thirds, fourths, and sixths in mm. 1-2 is followed by an ascending dominant arpeggio consisting of fourths, fifths, and octaves. Wrist and forearm rotation may aid execution of the fragments involving smaller intervals, as in beat two of m. 1, for example. Rotation also facilitates the coverage of keyboard distance and change of direction occurring on the first beat of m. 3 as the D-flat is a common harmonic link between the first two measures and mm. 3-4. In the ascending passage in m. 3, a drop of the wrist coincides with the thumb and initiates an arc of movement that is larger than the mechanisms of rotation and which carries the hand to m. 5 in this instance.

Figure 18. Etude Op. 10, No. 5, Measures 1-7. Note the fundamental pattern of the tude. A descending G-flat major arpeggiation spanning approximately two octaves is followed by an ascending dominant arpeggio consisting of fourths, fifths, and octaves. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

115 The thumb and little finger are particularly important since they contact the piano key and place the hand in its new position in the descending and ascending patterns, respectively. In descending patterns for example, it is the upper arm, forearm, hand, and thumb that bring the fourth and fifth fingers into position to continue the pattern. Furthermore, as Whiteside notes, If these details are accurately timed with the progression of the first lever [upper arm], and this lever keeps its control of distances and level, there will be no consciousness of any break in the legato when the hand is passed to the new position on the keyboard.316 Speed: Chopin Etudes Op. 10, No. 4 and Op. 25, No. 12 Etude Op. 10, No. 4 One of the primary challenges of Op. 10, No. 4 appears to be rapid execution of scalar and arpeggiated figures requiring different amounts of rotation (see Figure 19). This tude requires development of this coordination in each hand which ultimately requires the training of non-homologous muscles since the direction of the figuration is the same regardless of which hand has the pattern. In his fingerings and articulation markings, Chopin seems to have offered clues as to how to approach the tude physically.

316

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 103.

116 Figure 19. Etude Op. 10, No. 4, Measures 1-8. Scalar and arpeggiated figures requiring varying degrees of rotation. (Quoted from Frdric Chopin, Smtliche Etden, hg. Von Paul Badura-Skoda, Wiener Urtext Edition, Wien 1973/2005 (UT 50205). Printed by permission).

The accent mark on the first beat of m. 1 encourages a bounce of the wrist facilitating a release of tension functioning as a preparatory gesture to the phrase beginning on the second sixteenth note of the same measure. In many ways, Chopin incorporated the conductors preparatory gesture with this accent. The fingerings Chopin indicated in the first measure, with the thumb of the right hand playing the third sixteenth note of every beat, initiate a pattern of rotation occurring every four sixteenth notes through the first half of beat one in the second measure. The

117 first G-sharp in m. 2 functions both as the second half of the scalar four-note pattern which began two sixteenths earlier and as the beginning of a new pattern of rotation toward the little finger and back to either the index finger or thumb on beats two, three, and four. Accents and phrase markings in m. 3 facilitate a drop of the wrist on each beat. They imply cyclical rotation from the thumb toward the little finger and the highest note of the gesture and returning to the thumb and the beginning of another cycle on the next beat. Phrase markings corresponding to the melody in m. 4 suggest rotation from the thumb to the little finger and further indicate and allow a non-legato approach between the top note of one octave and the first note of the pattern that follows. The processes occurring in the right hand in mm. 1-4 are similar in the left hand but sometimes employ subtle differences in expected fingerings. For example, whereas the thumb initiates the right-hand pattern in m. 1, and one might therefore expect the little finger of the left hand to function similarly, it is instead the fourth finger of the left hand that balances the hand in rotation in m. 6 (see Figure 19). Likewise, whereas the right hand rotates to the little finger in m. 2, in order to maintain the tonal relationships in m. 6, the left hand rotates toward the thumb. The thematic material of the entire tude is generated from the first four measures. As discussed above, the theme appears in both hands, and it appears in various keys. This in turn changes the spatial relationship between the hands and the body. For example, in m. 25, the theme appears a diminished fourth higher than in m. 1 (see Figure

118 20), and the suggested fingerings place the index finger on the lowest note of each of the four-note patterns. The challenge in this case and in similar places is maintaining the ease of executing a basic pattern of rotation despite changes in the patterns of black and white keys which ultimately affect the balance of the hand.

Figure 20. Etude Op. 10, No. 4, Measures 24-29. Theme appears a diminished fourth higher than in m. 1. (Quoted from Frdric Chopin, Smtliche Etden, hg. Von Paul Badura-Skoda, Wiener Urtext Edition, Wien 1973/2005 (UT 50205). Printed by permission).

Etude Op. 25, No. 12 Propelling the hands laterally up and down the keyboard is one of the chief skills to be mastered in Op. 25, No. 12 (see Figure 21). For the most part, accent marks appear on the first and third beats of the measure and coincide with changes in direction of the figuration. As such, the accents not only suggest harmonic significance but corresponding drops of the wrists as well. In general, the phrase markings incorporate a

119 sweep up and back down the keyboard and lead the ear to the harmonic progressions highlighted by the accented notes.

Figure 21. Etude Op. 25, No. 12, Measures 1-2. Gestures requiring smooth lateral movements. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Within these gestures, one must change hand positions on the repeated notes in order to travel the lateral distance. The lack of accent marks and the longer phrase markings indicate that the changes of position must occur smoothly to maintain the musical line. Some amount of forearm rotation is surely necessarily to execute each set of three notes if the fingers are not to be entirely responsible for depressing the keys and facilitating the changes of position without particular articulation of the occurrence. Passing is always easy if the power travels smoothly and maintains the control of placement and level, and if the hand is propelled into position by the two large levers. . . . The hand [and not the fingers] should do whatever it can to take lateral distance.317 The fingerings Chopin indicated in Op. 10, No. 10 suggest a regular pattern of arm and wrist

317

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 103.

120 rotation with the thumb playing all of the single notes in the right hand and the highest notes being played presumably by either the ring or little fingers depending on hand size. Flexibility and Suppleness via Imagery: Etude Op. 25, No. 1 A study in cantabile playing, the Harp Etude presents several challenges involving flexibility, speed, and conceptualizing tone in highlighting the melody over continuous sextuplet figures in the accompaniment (see Figure 22). Managing the melody and accompaniment requires flexibility and suppleness of the wrists and arms to facilitate playing each sextuplet figure as a single gesture comprising the phrase as opposed to articulating each note individually with the fingers. To alert the upper arm to take the place of fingers in responding to the aural image is the task which comes first in achieving the desired coordination in the playing mechanism for virtuosity in playing the Etudes.318 Abby Whitesides work on the control of playing by the upper arm helped her to discover that the physical continuity which the upper arm exerts through its pull is not only the basis of speed without strain, it is also the essential physical counterpart of musical continuitythe continuity within the phrase, and in the phrase-to-phrase progression.319

318

Ibid., 31.

319

Prostakoff and Rosoff, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 4.

121 Figure 22. Etude Op. 25, No. 1, Measures 1-2. Importance of flexibility and suppleness in balancing the melody amongst continuous sextuplet figures. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

Continuity in the melody over the course of phrases requires care in matching the tone of successive melody notes within a framework of listening for the direction and completion of the phrase. The fact is, the student who is accustomed to notewise listening will not always hear the subtleties of dynamics and timing which are involved, and when, on rare occasions, he does hear them he will not always prefer the superior, more continuous performance. The notes seem to go by too fast, in too bland a fashion. He wants to stop and listen to each note in turn. . . . Training the ear to listen phrasewise or, as Abby Whiteside would say, with a rhythm, calls for establishing an involvement with the upper armspecifically with the pull exerted by the upper armbecause the circular joint by which it is connected with the torso enables the arm to control horizontal progressionthe progression between the notes of the phrase.320 The ear and the upper arm are therefore significant components in successfully playing this tude, but how does one shift importance from the fingers to the upper arm in practice? Whitesides image of the lariat is particularly appropriate in discussing this coordination. The upper arm is the fulcrum for the forearm. The fulcrum-force in the upper arm is the pull which controls the level at which tone is produced, as well as the slight turning
320

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 22-3.

122 of the humerus which controls distance. The illustration of this fulcrum-force in the upper arm, which seems most pertinent to me, is the control of a lariat: All of the patterns which the rope is made to go through are controlled by the hand as an extension of the primary action of the upper arm, as it makes miniature turnings, plus a consistent and continuous slight pull at the shoulder joint. Tiny actions produce fantastic shapes and patterns with the loop of the rope. Tiny actions in the upper arm produce great beauty in performance. Let the arm stop this slight turning and pulling, and the rope falls to the ground.321 It is worth noting that the rotary movements of the upper arm Whiteside describes are miniature. That is, while its importance cannot be overstated, the movement itself must not be exaggerated. The movement must be natural or one will have created another difficulty. What provides the impetus for the upper arm in playing this tude? According to both Whiteside and Chopin, it is a sharp aural image that lays the foundation. It is said that Chopin explained to one of his pupils the manner in which this study should be executed. Imagine, he said, a little shepherd who takes refuge in a peaceful grotto from an approaching storm. In the distance rushes the wind and the rain, while the shepherd gently plays a melody in his flute.322 Whiteside goes even further and links the aural image with the physical response to the basic rhythm of the piece. A sensitive, phrase-wise performance will not take placeno matter how much scholarship, emotional involvement, and natural musical endowment is present unless the performer uses this basic rhythm continuously whether he is aware of it or not. It is only when the emotional response to the aural image of the music creates in the performers body a physical response, a basic rhythm, as a counterpart to the

321

Ibid., 38.

Jean Ckeczynski [Jan Kleczynski], Chopins Greater Works, trans. with additions by Natalie [sic] Janotha (London, William Reeves, 188?), 19; quoted in JeanJacques Eigeldinger, Chopin: Pianist and Teacher as Seen by His Pupils, trans. by Naomi Shohet with Hrysia Osostowica and Roy Howatt, ed. by Roy Howatt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 69.
322

123 rhythmic flow in a composition, that he is enabled to realize to the fullest extent the beauty inherent in the music.323 Polyrhythms: Drei Etden: KK II b/3, No. 1 It has been demonstrated indirectly by Peters and Schwartz and directly by Klapp et al. that the hands are not independent in performance of polyrhythms even at intermediate speeds.324 Additionally, a recent study of pianists and guitarists revealed decreased inhibition between the hemispheres of the brain which might actually facilitate bimanual coordination by increasing signal transfer between the hemispheres.325 There is a continuum of cognitive and perceptual monitoring from slow speeds up to about six notes per second that is detailed and fine-grained. However as speed increases beyond approximately six notes per second, control becomes global and more coarse. The incorporation of polyrhythms into technical study is therefore noteworthy and significant as pianists further develop, not independence, but bi-manual coordination. It is obvious regarding his philosophy of advocating scale practice in patterns of four notes against three that Chopin viewed polyrhythms as a unique technical challenge. Furthermore, polyrhythms are an integral component of his tudes. Coordinating the

323

Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 4-5.

See M. Peters and S. Schwartz, Coordination of the Two Hands and Effects of Attentional Manipulation in the Production of a Bimanual 2:3 Polyrhythm, Australian Journal of Psychology 41(2) (1989): 215-24 and S. T. Klapp, J. M. Nelson, and R. J. Jagacinski, Can People Tap Concurrent Bimanual Rhythms Independently? Journal of Motor Behavior 30(4) (1998): 301-22.
324

M. C. Ridding, B. Brouwer, and M. A. Nordstrom, Reduced Interhemispheric Inhibition in Musicians, Experimental Brain Research 133(2) (July 2000): 249-53.
325

124 hands in continuous 4:3 polyrhythms is one of the obvious challenges of the first of three tudes composed for the method of Moscheles and Ftis (see Figure 23), and yet the individual parts require subtle skill.

Figure 23. Etude KK II b/3, No. 1, Measures 1-11. Though primarily focused on the 4:3 polyrhythm, note the close proximity of the hands and the crossing of fingers over the thumb in the left hand in m. 5. (Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich. Printed by permission.)

The quarter note triplet figures of the right hand and the duple figures of the left hand are established separately in the first eight measures. These figures present several challenges. First, the melodic figure in m. 1 begins after the first beat of the measure, and it is fingered with the thumb. As the phrase mark indicates, the pianist must listen carefully to execute the beginning of the melody as a preparatory gesture, to refrain from accenting the thumb, and to maintain the integrity of the intended line. Continuity is achieved in shaping the melody over the barline of each measure, a pattern that continues in the tude with long phrases throughout. The eighth notes in the left hand require

125 crossing fingers over the thumb in harmonic arpeggiations. The lowest note of these arpeggiations is played with the little finger, and movement of the forearm and hand facilitates rotation to and over the thumb. A drop of the wrist coinciding with the little finger may be used at the beginning of each cycle of rotation, however; it must be unobtrusive and within the scope of the line. Changes of the damper pedal occur each measure with the changes of harmony, but care is needed to monitor clarity of the right hand due to the chromaticism of the melody and the sound of the modern piano. Furthermore, the proximity of the hands also necessitates care in balance and voicing the melody (see Figure 23, m. 9).

126 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS Strategies for Learning and Teaching Practice and Performance Since it has been demonstrated that performance gains are positively correlated to practice, what parameters of practice might be altered to facilitate and enhance performance? The following discussion considers types of practice that might be beneficial, piano literature and exercises that might be helpful, and instructional strategies that might be particularly effective. Parameters of mental practice pertaining to effectiveness It has been suggested that benefits in physical performance are particularly significant when training involves a combination of physical and mental practice.326 Wohldmann, Healy, and Bourne Jr. have recently suggested that these benefits might derive from the fact that the same memory representations are used in both types of practice, and that mental practice may work by activating and strengthening representations formed previously by physical practice.327

C. B. Corbin, Mental Practice, in Ergogenic Aids and Muscular Performance, ed. W. P. Morgan (New York: Academic Press, 1972), 93-118.
326

E. L. Wohldmann, A. F. Healy, and L. E. Bourne Jr., Pushing the Limits of Imagination: Mental Practice for Learning Sequences, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 33(1) (2007): 254.
327

127 Although there is evidence suggesting that mental practice can be an effective ergogenic aid,328 there are apparently parameters related to the effectiveness of its use in practice. In combining the results of numerous studies concerning mental practice, a meta-analysis of the literature pertaining to mental practice, Driskell, Copper, and Moran determined that the effectiveness of mental practice is moderated by the type of task, the interval between practice and performance, and the duration of mental practice.329 With regard to the type of task, Driskell, Copper, and Moran concluded that, while mental practice was effective in both cognitive and physical tasks, it appeared to be particularly effective the more a particular task required cognitive activities. For musicians, this may highlight the importance of basic musicianship skills in addition to intellectual and interpretive analysis of a particular piece of music. See R. S. Sackett, The Influence of Symbolic Rehearsal Upon the Retention of a Maze Habit, Journal of General Psychology 10 (1934): 376-95; Ibid., The Relationship Between Amount of Symbolic Rehearsal and Retention of a Maze Habit, Journal of General Psychology 13, (1935): 113-28; H. M. Perry, The Relative Efficiency of Actual and Imaginary Practice in 5 Selected Tasks, Archives of Psychology 4 (1939): 5-75; R. A. Vandell, R. A. Davis, and N. A. Clugston, Function of Mental Practice in the Acquisition of Motor Skills, Journal of General Psychology 29 (1943): 243-50; E. D. Ryan and J. Simons, Efficacy of Mental Imagery in Enhancing Mental Rehearsal Motor Skills, Journal of Sport Psychology 4 (1982): 41-51; S. L. Ross, The Effectiveness of Mental Practice in Improving the Performance of College Trombonists, Journal of Research in Music Education 33 (1985): 221-30; C. Lee, Psyching up for a Muscular Endurance Task: Effects of Image Content on Performance and Mood State, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 12 (1990): 66-73; and E. L. Wohldmann, A. F. Healy, and L. E. Bourne Jr., Pushing the Limits of Imagination: Mental Practice for Learning Sequences, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 33(1) (2007): 254-61.
328

J. Driskell, C. Copper, and A. Moran, Does Mental Practice Enhance Performance? Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4) (1994): 481-92.
329

128 Prior to much of the scientific research in this area, Whiteside seemed to have been a proponent of this notion in insisting on the importance of understanding the structure of a piece and responding physically and emotionally to ones impression of a piece. A primary tool for achieving a basic rhythm [the continuous activity in the arms and torso which control the total physical apparatus as the performer plays a composition.]330 is outlining a composition. This means playing the highlights and omitting details (some of the notes of the music). In leaving out details remember that the sole purpose is to emphasize the structural outline of the music. If this outlining is done in a cut-and-dried fashion, without the emotional response to the music, it is of no value. It is only when the outlining intensifies the grace of going forward with a lilting step, as it were, that it illuminates, quickens, and frees the emotional rhythm in the torso.331 Quite interestingly, Driskell, Copper, and Moran concluded that experienced subjects benefit equally from mental practice in both cognitive and physical activities and suggested that differences between experienced subjects and novices may indicate that novices have not formed an approximation of the skill. Therefore, symbolic rehearsal may not be sufficient to guide novice performance. The extent to which novices benefit from mental training remains unclear, however. Several studies have demonstrated that novices may enhance physical performance through use of mental imagery alone. Kohl and Roenker demonstrated transfer of learning from use of imagery to physical execution even when mental practice and performance involved different hands.332 Likewise, a 2007 study by Wohldmann,

330

Prostakoff and Rosoff, glossary, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 198. Whiteside, Mastering the Chopin Etudes, 53

331

129 Healy, and Bourne Jr. demonstrated that mental practice was sufficient to produce or maintain a level of performance comparable to that obtained by physical practice.333 A recent study by Shanks and Cameron, however, resulted in no effect of mental practice in learning a motor sequence task.334 Differences in the results of these studies are thought to arise from different emphases on the perceptual, mental, and motor components of the tasks.335 Driskell, Copper, and Moran also concluded that the effects of mental rehearsal are most robust when performance immediately follows mental practice. They concluded that the initial effects of mental practice were reduced to approximately one-half of their initial magnitude if the period between mental practice and performance was extended to 14 days. Regarding the duration of the intervention, while it was determined that the cumulative effect of mental practice was positive, the beneficial effect diminished with duration. In other words, the longer an individual practices mentally, the less beneficial it becomes. Based on these results, Driskell, Copper, and Moran suggested a period of

R. M. Kohl and D. L. Roenker, Mechanism Involvement During Skill Imagery, Journal of Motor Behavior 15 (1983): 179-90.
332 333

Wohldmann, Healy, and Bourne Jr., Pushing the Limits of Imagination, 254-

61. D. R. Shanks and A. Cameron, The Effect of Mental Practice on Performance in a Sequential Reaction Time Task, Journal of Motor Behavior 32 (2000): 305-13.
334 335

Wohldmann, Healy, and Bourne Jr., Pushing the Limits of Imagination, 254-

61.

130 mental practice of approximately twenty minutes and a regiment of refreshing mental practice every week or two. Several other studies have demonstrated that performance gains related to mental practice occur only when subjects have previous experience with the task.336 Mulder et al. demonstrated that subjects were unable to learn a novel toe movement with mental practice alone.337 Only subjects with some experience in the task benefited from mental practice. The scientists therefore concluded that humans are able to mentally train only those movements performed before. Finally, Mulder et al. have recently observed a correlation between age and imagery capacity noting that elderly subjects displayed slightly worse motor imagery capacity than younger subjects particularly with regard to first-person imagery.338 Their results indicated not a general decline in motor imagery capacity, but instead a significant shift from first-person motor imagery to third-person motor imagery. Mulder et al. hypothesized that their results might be indicative of a relationship between ones level of physical activity and motor imagery capacity. Support for a correlation between physical

See C. B. Corbin, The Effects of Covert Rehearsal on the Development of a Complex Motor Skill, Journal of General Psychology 76 (1967): 143-50; R. A. Finke, Principles of Mental Imagery, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989); and N. Ram et al., A Comparison of Modelling and Imagery in the Acquisition and Retention of Motor Skills, Journal of Sports Sciences 25(5) (2007): 587-97.
336

T. Mulder et al., The Role of Motor Imagery in Learning a Totally Novel Movement, Experimental Brain Research 154 (2004): 211-17.
337

T. Mulder, et al., Motor Imagery: The Relation Between Age and Imagery Capacity, Human Movement Science 26 (2007): 203-11.
338

131 activity and motor image capacity does have support in the literature although the results should be viewed with caution since some data is based on subjects self-reports. Nevertheless, Colvin and Myers questioned 3,000 children regarding their imagery abilities and reported that motor imagery was vivid only in children who were constantly involved in movement experiences.339 Isaac and Marks found that females over 50 years of age reported significantly less vivid movement imagery than other adults between the ages of 20 and 50.340 Isaac and Marks suggested that the difference might stem from that fact that the particular female population is typically not as active as either males of the same age or younger age groups. Aural feedback and aural representations Several studies have highlighted the importance of aural feedback and aural representations associated with music performance, facets of motor skill acquisition and motor performance likely unique to musicians. As discussed previously, research by Schn and Besson substantiates the likelihood that musicians have an auditory-like representation of written music before they actually play it.341 Furthermore, their research suggests that, while visuomotor coding may be sufficient to play written notes, an

S. S. Colvin and E. J. Myers, The Development of Imagination in School Children and the Relation Between Ideational Types and the Retentivity of Material Appealing to Various Sense Departments, Review Monographs 11 (1909): 85-125.
339

A. R. Isaac and D. F. Marks, Individual Differences in Imagery Experience: Developmental Changes and Specialization, British Journal of Psychology 85 (1994): 479-500.
340 341

Schn and Besson, Visually Induced Auditory Expectancy, 694-705.

132 anticipated auditory representation of written music is important for an expressive performance that assigns different significance to each note based upon its structural function. Schn and Bessons research suggests that written music may induce both musical auditory expectancy and motor expectancy. This in turn may point to the likely subconscious use of auditory imagery and potential for its conscious use as well. Observational learning Recent research concerning the discovery of a mirror neuron system in humans suggests the possible efficacy of observational learning. It is obvious with regard to piano performance that only the external components of the playing mechanism are observable. However, it seems clear from research concerning mirror neurons that the human body automatically responds to the activities of a model and that the human mind is capable of perceiving and inferring subtle relationships that are not readily observable. The power of observational learning underscores some of the significant principles in prominent learning theories suggesting the effectiveness of experiential learning prior to cognitive conceptualization. For pianists, this suggests benefits associated with concert attendance and modeling both in the classroom and the private studio. Scales, piano literature, and the brain As mentioned earlier, a 2005 study by Parsons et al. compared activated brain networks of pianists performing both scales and the third movement of J.S. Bachs Italian Concerto in F Major (BWV 971).342 Performance of the Bach occurred while

342

Parsons et al., The Brain Basis of Piano Performance, 199-215.

133 blindfolded. While there was significant correlation between brain areas activated in performing scales and the Bach, there were also numerous activations unique to each. In comparison to performance of scales, performance of the Bach was associated with activation of subcortical areas including bilateral, predominantly right thalamus and bilateral basal ganglia. Activation in somatomotor regions included bilateral dorsolateral premotor cortex (BA6), bilateral primary motor cortex (BA 4), right insula, right SMA, bilateral lingual gyrus (BA 19 and 18), bilateral posterior cingulate (BA 31 and 23), and anterior and posterior cerebellum. On the other hand, performance of scales resulted in strong activations in bilateral anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 31 and 32), bilateral middle temporal cortex (BA 21), and right superior temporal cortex (BA 41). In addition, activation was observed in right frontal regions (BA 9 and 10), right tempoparietal regions (BA 39 and 40), right fusiform gyrus (BA 37), left inferior frontal gyrus (BA 47), right precuneus (BA 7), and right primary motor cortex (BA 4). Furthermore, increases in activation were observed in particular areas of the anterior and posterior cerebellum. Overall, Parsons et al. observed unexpected intensity and extent of deactivation during the performance of Bach. In a conjoint measure of deactivation intensity and extent (relative to rest), there was 43% greater deactivation throughout the brain during the Bach performance than scales.343 The deactivated areas included frontal areas (BA 8, 9, and 44), posterior cingulate areas (BA 31), bilateral middle temporal,

343

Ibid.

134 parahippocampus, precuneus, and posterior cerebellum.344 Although some of the aforementioned areas were deactivated during the performance of scales, they were deactivated to a lesser extent. The observed differences in brain activity suggest functions associated with the cortical and subcortical structures that may underlie playing the piano and auditory perception.345 The preceding comparisons of activated networks are delimited by the interplay of various differences in playing scales and the concerto. First, the performance of the Bach piece requires recalling more complicated information than does scales. Effects of this variable are probably apparent in the greater activation in auditory association areas (BA 22 and 21), posterior cingulate, and cuneus and lingual areas. Second, the concerto performance requires more intricate, controlled fingering and tone production. This factor is likely reflected in increases in thalamus, basal ganglia, SMA, insula, dorsolateral premotor cortex, and anterior cerebellum. Third, the concerto performance requires vividly conveying a comprehension of the musical structure (e.g., tonality, rhythm, dynamics, interpretative features, etc.). Effects of this factor may be observed in auditory areas (BA 38, 22, and 21), posterior cerebellum, posterior cingulate, cuneus, and lingual areas. Fourth, musical performance is associated with emotional responses, which are likely much more limited when playing scales. However, areas known to activate during emotional responses to music were not appreciably active here. Nonetheless, it is possible that activations related to emotional responses were in posterior cingulate, insula, and basal ganglia. Fifth, the concerto performance demands more attention than scales. This factor may be reflected in different ways here. There were no increases for the concerto in core attentional areas, but the effects may be more diffuse because there was more detected activation overall than for scales: nearly twice as many distinct foci and 72% greater overall extent of activation. Moreover, there was nearly 50% greater deactivation overall for the concerto performance than scales, an effect that may be related to a deepened focus of attention, as discussed earlier. It is conceivable then that both the greater activations and greater deactivations are related to differences in attention in the two performances.346

344

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., 212.

345

346

135 Discussion There is significant indirect evidence to suggest that studying and performing different types of exercises and piano literature results in distinct physiological adaptations and brain activity. The implications could affect the ways in which pianists practice and build technique. To that end, the aforementioned research by Parsons et al. demonstrate significant differences in brain activity during performance of Bachs Italian Concerto as opposed to scales.347 Results of research by Filimon et al. demonstrate an overlap between executed, observed, and imagined reaching activations in the human cortex.348 Furthermore, a growing number of studies have shown that many neuropsychological and physiological similarities exist between physically executed and imagined movements.349 These studies suggest that imagined and executed movements are interrelated and dependent upon the characteristics of the musical task.

347

Ibid., 199-215. Filimon et al., Human Cortical Representations for Reaching, 1315-28.

348

See J. Decety et al., Vegetative Response During Imagined Movement is Proportional to Imagined Effort, Behavioural Brain Research 42 (1991): 1-5; Ibid., Central Activation of Autonomic Effectors During Mental Simulation of Motor Actions in Man, Journal of Physiology (London) 461 (1993): 549-63; Jeannerod, The Representing Brain, 187-245; M. Jeannerod and J. Decety, Mental Motor Imagery: A Window Into the Representational Stages of Action, Current Opinion in Neurobiology 5 (1995): 727-32; C. Hall, L. Bernoties, and D. Schmidt, Interference Effects of Mental Imagery on a Motor Task, British Journal of Psychology 86 (1995): 181-90; A. PascualLeone et al., Modulation of Muscle Responses, 1037-45; J. Decety, The Neurophysiological Basis of Motor Imagery, Behavioral Brain Research 77 (1996): 4552; J. Decety and J. Grzes, Neural Mechanisms Subserving the Perception of Human Actions, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3 (1999): 172-8; M. Lotze et al., Activation of Cortical and Cerebellar Motor Areas, 491-501; P. L. Jackson et al., Potential Role of
349

136 Pascual-Leone demonstrated that, in comparison to subjects who practiced a particular five-finger exercise over the course of 5 days, subjects who practiced for the same amount of time but were not taught the 5-finger sequence displayed changes in cortical motor output that were similar to but less significant than those who had learned the sequence.350 This suggests effects associated with specificity of practice. Collectively, this research may suggest a correlation between imagined movements, executed movements, physiological adaptation, and cortical structure. Applied to piano performance and practice, this may highlight the specificity of piano literature and exercises and suggest the use of methods for developing aspects of technique particular to them. Further direct research is needed, however. Areas of interest might compare brain activity during the preparation, practice, and performance of a broad variety of tudes and piano repertoire by pianists of different ages and levels of experience.

Mental Practice Using Motor Imagery in Neurologic Rehabilitation, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 82 (2001): 1133-41; and T. Hanakawa et al., Functional Properties of Brain Areas Associated with Motor Execution and Imagery, Journal of Neurophysiology 89 (2003): 989-1002.
350

Pascual-Leone et al., Modulation of Muscle Responses, 1037-45.

137 APPENDIX A: HENLE URTEXT EDITION PERMISSION With kind permission, Figures 2-5, 7-18, and 21-23 are printed from the Henle Urtext edition of Chopins Etudes, Copyright 1983 G. Henle Verlag, Munich .

138 APPENDIX B: WIENER URTEXT EDITION PERMISSION With kind permission, Figures 1, 6, 19, and 20 are quoted from Frdric Chopin, Smtliche Etden, hg. Von Paul Badura-Skoda, Wiener Urtext Edition, Wien 1973/2005 (UT 50205).

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