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CHAPTER 13 .............................................................................................................

13-1
13-1 Introduction. .................................................................................................................................................. 13-1
13-2 Viscosity Concepts. ........................................................................................................................................ 13-1
13-3 Rotational Viscometers. .............................................................................................................................. 13-13
13-4 Capillary Viscometers. ................................................................................................................................ 13-18
13-5 Other Viscometers. ...................................................................................................................................... 13-26
Falling Ball Viscometer .....................................................................................................................................13-26
Rising Bubble Viscometer .................................................................................................................................13-27
Comparison Rising Bubble Viscometer .............................................................................................................13-28
Float Viscometer ................................................................................................................................................13-28
13-6 Specific Gravity Concepts. .......................................................................................................................... 13-29
13-7 Specific Gravity Instruments ...................................................................................................................... 13-37
Picnometer and Balance .....................................................................................................................................13-37
Hydrometer ........................................................................................................................................................13-38
Specific Gravity Balance ...................................................................................................................................13-41
Pressure Devices ................................................................................................................................................13-42
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CHAPTER 13

VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
13-1 Introduction.
This chapter will discuss two properties of fluids whose magnitude must be known in
order to perform meaningful measurements in the area of flow. Although these
properties find use and application in other areas, they are, nevertheless, of prime
importance in the area of flow.
The first property, viscosity, is a relative measure of "fluid friction". It describes
how readily a fluid will flow. Fluids with a relatively low viscosity (water, for example)
tend to flow readily; while a fluid like molasses which has a relatively high viscosity does
not tend to flow easily. Viscosity is also used as a quantitative measure of how well an
oil performs as a lubricant under various conditions.
The second property which is of interest is specific gravity. This is a relative
measure of the density of a fluid, and it is important when we wish to determine the
volume of a known weight of fluid.
This chapter is not intended to be a complete treatise on viscosity and specific
gravity. Such a treatment is not possible, due to the complexity of fluid behavior. The
purpose, rather, is to introduce the basic concepts and measurement techniques
associated with theses two properties as they apply to flow measurement and other
related areas.
13-2 Viscosity Concepts.
In earlier chapters we discussed various properties of solids and fluids. In the case of
solids, terms such as stress, strain, and modules of elasticity were discussed. Young's
Modules (Y) was presented to express the ratio of stress to strain in one direction by
the equation:

Y
F A
L L
=
A


There is, however, another modulus of
elasticity associated with solids which was
not discussed -- the shear modulus. As the
name implies, the shear modulus is used to
determine what happens to a solid when it
experiences a shearing force. A shearing
force is the force which causes parallel
sections within an object to slide relative to
one another. Such a force may be

Figure 13.1-Shear in a Solid
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13-2
represented as two equal and opposite forces, as illustrated in Figure 13.1. When the
deformation of the object exceeds the yield point, the object will be divided into two
parts.
Consider the action of the shearing force on the block in Figure 13.1. The solid
lines indicate the configuration of the block under the action of the shear. The dotted
lines indicate the configuration of the block with no shear applied. The shear force (F)
is considered to act over the area (A) of one face of the block. Thus, we can define the
shear stress as:

o
s
F
A
= (1)

where: F = the shear force

A = the area

and: o
s
= the shear stress in units
1
of lb/ft
2
, lb/in
2
, newton/m
2
, etc.

The degree of deformation caused by a shear stress is measured as the ratio of the
amount of "sliding" (Ax) to the "thickness" (L) of the block. This is shear strain and, by
referencing Figure 13.1, can be expressed in the form:

c
s
x
L
=
A
(2)

where: Ax = the distance the material has moved

L = the thickness of the material

and: c
s
(epsilon) = shear strain

The units in this expression cancel, leaving a unitless or pure number.
The shear strain is numerically equal to the tangent of the angle (u). If an angle
is small (<5.7%), there is a relationship such that the tangent of an angle is numerically
equal to that angle expressed in radians. When Ax is much smaller than L, which is
normally the case, one may express the ratio of equation (2) as an angle expressed in
radians. Thus:

u = Ax/L (3)


1
The units of stress and shear stress are the same as the units of pressure.

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where: u = the angle in radians

The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called the shear modulus (G), which
may be expressed in the form:

G
F A
x L
=
A
(4)

or, using equation (3):

G
F A
=
u


Notice the similarity between equation (4) and Young's Modulus, as previously
presented. The basic difference is that the shear modulus is the ratio of the shear
stress to the deformation of the solid (shear strain).
The shear modulus does not apply to fluids. This is because a fluid cannot be
deformed. When a fluid is subjected to a stress which tries to cause a deformation, the
fluid reacts by flowing, not deforming. Thus, there can never be a deformation term in
the denominator of equation (4) as it applies to fluids.
A fluid, however, can be subjected to a shear stress. Thus, we can have a
numerator for equation (4) as it applies to fluids, although we cannot have a
denominator in terms of deformation. We must, therefore, generate a new measure to
replace the deformation term. The measure
should be related to the shear stress, if we
are going to use it in a ratio form. This new
ratio, as will be shown later, will define
viscosity.
Since the reaction of the fluid to a
shear stress is flow, then the measure we
are looking for should be in terms of flow.
Specifically, we will be concerned with the
velocity of the flow.
The development of a term concerned
with the velocity of flow cannot be attempted
until a few basic concepts of flow are
explained. Viscosity and flow are
inseparable. Viscosity has no meaning
unless the motion or tendency for motion in
a fluid is considered. Generally it is
considered that there are two types of flow --

Figure 13.2-Laminar Flow
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laminar and turbulent. Laminar flow is a condition of flow where the fluid may be
considered to be made up of many layers, each moving relative to the others. The
layers of the laminar flow stream do not interact; thus, there is no mixing. Laminar flow
streams are shown in Figure 13.2. Such stream presentations may be produced by
using smoke traces.
Turbulent flow is a condition where the various layers of the stream mix and twist
together. The layers in a lower section of the profile bend and intertwine with those in a
higher profile, and vice versa. The concept that there might be a unique velocity
associated with each layer is impossible with turbulent flow.
The definition and precise measurement of viscosity depend upon the conditions
of laminar flow. Unless otherwise
stated, any reference to flow in this
chapter will be considered as laminar.
In order to finalize the
development of a term for the
denominator of equation (4), let us
consider a volume of fluid contained
between two large plates. The bottom
plate is stationary, and the upper plate is
pulled across the fluid at some constant
velocity (v) by a force (F). The fluid in
contact with the plates does not move
relative to the plate. That is, the fluid in
contact with the upper plate moves with
that plate, while the fluid in contact with the lower plate is stationary. Figure 13.3 is a
diagram illustrating this condition, with only a portion of the plates shown and the thin
layer of fluid indicated by small circles.
If these plates were placed very close together so that there were only three
hypothetical layers of fluid, the top layer would try to drag the middle layer along with it.
However, at the same time, the bottom
layer would try to hold the middle layer
stationary. Since the ability of the top
layer to influence the middle layer is the
same as that of the bottom layer, the
middle layer is not stationary, but moves
at a velocity which is less than that of the
top layer. If we consider the separation
(L) between the plates to be larger and to
contain more layers, we see that as we
get farther from the top each layer of fluid
is moving slower than the one above it,
but faster than the one below it.
Figure 13.4 shows the relative

Figure 13.3-Fluid Velocities

Figure 13.4-Velocity Gradient
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velocity of several layers of a fluid between the moving and stationary plates. Notice
the similarity between this diagram and the shear diagram of Figure 13.1. The only
difference is that in Figure 13.1 there was an increase in the amount of deformation as
we traveled from the lower surface to the upper surface, whereas in Figure 13.4 there is
an increase in the velocity of each layer as we go from the lower plate to the upper
plate.
The ratio of the change in velocity to the change in the separation distance
between the corresponding layers is illustrated in Figure 13.4. That is:


A
A
v
L
k = (6)

The left hand side of equation (6) is called the velocity gradient. Since the ratio of
equation (6) is constant across the fluid, we can use the total separation and change in
velocity to determine the velocity gradient which tells us the rate at which the velocity is
changing across the separation.

Example 1: Two plates are separated by eight inches. The top plate moves at 30
ft/sec, while the bottom plate is stationary. Assuming the velocity gradient
between the plates in constant, find its magnitude.

Using a value of 360 in/sec (30 ft/sec) for Av and a value of eight inches for AL and
substituting their values into equation (6), we find:


A
A
v
L
in
=
360
8 in
sec



A
A
v
L
in
in
= 45
sec


This answer says that there is a change of velocity of 45 in/sec for each inch of
difference between the plates. Canceling the units of the solution from Example 1, the
final answer reduces to:


A
A
v
L
= 45 sec

or: = 45 sec
-1


The form commonly used to express the velocity gradient is that of a number per
unit time (generally reciprocal seconds). The numerical value of the gradient tells how
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fast the velocity is changing across the gap (separation of the plates) when the velocity
and the gap measurements are in the same units. The velocity gradient found in
Example 1 is also equal to:

45
ft
ft
sec


or: 45
miles
miles
sec


or: 45
cm
cm
sec


or: 45
km
km
sec


Now that the basic concepts have been explained, we can define VISCOSITY as
the ratio of the shear stress to the velocity gradient. Since, as we will see later, there
are other measures of viscosity, this basic definition is called absolute or dynamic
viscosity and is assigned the Greek letter q (eta)
2
. The definition of absolute viscosity in
mathematical form is:

q =
F A
v L A A
(7)

Example 2: A plate with an area of 50 square cm requires a force of 100 dynes to
maintain it in motion at a constant velocity of 10 cm/sec over a 5 cm
height of fluid. Assuming that the only reactive force is that due to the
viscosity, calculate its value.

Entering each known into equation (7) yields:

q =
100
50
10
5
2
dyne
cm

cm
cm sec




2
-Many authors use the Greek letter (mu) to represent absolute viscosity.
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=
2
2
2
dynes cm
sec


or: q =

1
2
dyne
cm
sec


The units of absolute viscosity are force "times" time over length squared.
In the cgs system the unit of absolute viscosity is given the name POISE (in
honor of the French physicist, Jean L. M. Poiseuille). Thus:

1 1
2
poise
dyne
cm
=
sec


The absolute viscosity of the fluid in Example 2 is thus seen to be one poise. The units
of absolute viscosity in the MKS and FPS systems are, respectively:

MKS: | | q =

(
newton
meter
sec
2


FPS: | | q =

(
lb
ft
sec
2


There is no name assigned to the units of absolute viscosity in these systems.
The cgs unit (poise) is, for practical measurement, quite large; thus, the absolute
viscosity of a fluid is often given in terms of the smaller unit centipoise:

1 centipoise = 0.01 poise

or: 1 centipoise = 10
-2
poise


Table 13.1 lists a few approximate values for the absolute viscosity of several
commonly encountered fluids. Notice that as the absolute viscosity increases, the fluid
appears to have more resistance to flow, as judged by its pouring characteristics. The
eye is, however, an extremely poor instrument for judging viscosity, except in the range
from 10
+2
to 10
+4
centipoise where it is considered as fair.
Fluids (if one considers them as such) which have absolute viscosities on the
order of 10
7
centipoise or greater may appear solid if not examined closely. The
viscosity values for gases, on the other hand, are at the other end of the fluid spectrum,
having values on the order of 10
-2
centipoise or less. Between these two extremes (gas
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Fluid (room temperature) Viscosity (centipoise)
Hydrogen (1 atm) 0.009
Air (1 atm) 0.018
Gasoline 0.5
Water 1.0
Crude Oil 10
SAE 30 (motor oil) 400
Molasses 200,000
Glass >10
20


TABLE 13.1

APPROXIMATE VISCOSITIES OF SOME FLUIDS

and solids) is the range of fluids we refer to as liquids.
Problems involving flow or the movement of objects through a stationary fluid
often contain a term which represents the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density of
the fluid. This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is assigned the Greek letter u
(nu). In mathematical form the kinematic viscosity is:

u
q

= (8)

where: q = absolute viscosity

= density

and: u = kinematic viscosity

Example 3: What is the kinematic viscosity of a fluid whose density is 0.8 g/cm
3
and
whose absolute viscosity is 4 poise?

Entering the known values of example 3 into equation (8) yields:

u =
4
08
3
poise
g cm .


u = 5
3
poise
g cm


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Replacing the poise term with its equivalent cgs units of force, time, and length, we
have:

u =

(
(
(
5
2
3
dyne
cm
g
cm
sec


or, replacing the unit of force with mass, length, and time, we get:

u =
/

(
(
(
/
/
5
2 2
3
g cm
cm
g
cm
sec
sec


u =
|
\

|
.
| 5
2
cm
sec


The units of kinematic viscosity are in terms of length squared per time. In the cgs
system, this unit of measure is given the name STOKE.

Thus: 1 1
2
stoke =
cm
sec

sec
The kinematic viscosity of the fluid in Example 3 is, therefore, five (5) stokes. Again, as
in the case of absolute viscosity, the stoke unit is found to be quite large, and the more
practical unit of centistoke is frequently used.

1 centistoke = 0.01 stokes

or: 1 centistoke = 10
-2
stokes

The units of kinematic viscosity in the MKS and FPS systems are:

MKS | | u =

(
meter
2
sec


FPS: | | u =

(
ft
2
sec

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Again, as with absolute viscosity, no name has been assigned to the FPS and MKS
units for kinematic viscosity.
Thus far in this discussion we have developed or used previously developed
concepts of shear stress, velocity gradient, absolute viscosity, density, and kinematic
viscosity. The remarks made thus far were general and, therefore, to keep the reader
from being misled, we must impose a few restrictions on our discussion.
First, let us consider the effect of the shear stress on the velocity gradient. If the
shear stress doubles, and the resultant velocity gradient doubles, we can say that the
ratio of equation (7) is constant. That is, the absolute viscosity of the fluid is the same
for all values of shear stress. A fluid which behaves in this manner is said to be
Newtonian. A great number of commonly encountered fluids are Newtonian (water, oil,
etc.); however, there are exceptions. In the case of some fluids, the ratio of equation
(7) decreases with increased stress and vice versa. The problem of working with non-
Newtonian fluids is extremely complex. In order to measure or specify the absolute
viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid, one must also specify the shear stress value for
which it is quoted.
This chapter will be concerned only with Newtonian fluids for two reasons. The
first is that a non-Newtonian discussion is too involved. The second is that most fluids
encountered in Physical Measurements are Newtonian. When the viscosity of a fluid is
measured or defined, the identification as to whether it is Newtonian or not is
mandatory.
The absolute viscosity of a fluid is also a function of temperature. A measure of
the "effective drag" (viscosity) of adjacent fluid layers on each other changes with
temperature. The absolute viscosity of gases change almost directly proportional to
their temperature change, whereas liquids increase in viscosity for a decrease in
temperature.
The reaction of a liquids viscosity as a function of temperature can be viewed as
thinning of the liquid with increased temperature. This results in a liquid which is more
easily poured. The reaction of a gas viscosity with temperature variations is not quite
so straightforward. The movement of the molecules in a gas are much more vigorous
than those in a liquid. Also, this molecular activity increases very rapidly with increased
temperatures. The viscosity of a gas may be attributed to molecules of one layer
jumping to another layer. A molecule from a fast layer which jumps into a slow layer
tends to speed up that layer, while the opposite happens when a molecule from a slow
layer jumps into a fast layer. As the rate at which the molecules jump increases with
increased temperature, the viscosity of the gas increases.
The kinematic viscosity is affected two-fold by temperature variations. This is
because temperature causes both a change of absolute viscosity and density. Even
though we limit ourselves to Newtonian fluids, it is important to specify the temperature
at which a viscosity is measured. Generally, a complete viscosity measurement or
specification requires a graph of the viscosity as a function of temperature. A few
typical viscosity versus temperature graphs are shown in Figs. 13.5 and 13.6.
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Unfortunately, the basic viscosity units discussed thus far are not the only ones
in use. Let us, therefore, conclude this section on viscosity with a discussion of some
of the many viscosity units in use today, so that when they are mentioned in later
sections the full significance of their value may be obtained.
There are viscosity units which have been adopted by and are particular to
almost every industry. This is especially true for the petroleum industry. The singular
fact that there are many viscosity units in existence is not in itself bad; however, the fact
that there are no exact relationships between these units and the basic defined units is
what causes dissatisfaction. The reason that this condition exists today may have been
that an urgent need for viscosity measurements did not allow time for the designers of
various viscometers to wait for the publication and acceptance of a detailed viscosity
theory. Even today, many viscosity relationships are not fully understood because of
the complexity of the theory. It appears that originally each expert set out to design a
viscometer to suit his needs.
In Chapter 5 (Temperature) a passing remark was made regarding how anyone
could set up a "Jones" temperature scale. Table 13.2 shows a list of viscosity units
which are based upon certain types of viscometers. Although these units are accepted

(a) Absolute Viscosity (b) Kinematic Viscosity
Figure 13.5-Typical Viscosity vs.
Temperature Charts for Liquids
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and used in various industries, there is no direct traceable relationship between them
and absolute or kinematic viscosity.

(1) Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)

(2) Saybolt Furol Seconds (SFS)

(3) Redwood Seconds

(4) Engler Degrees

(5) Ford No. 4 Seconds

(6) Zahn No. 3 Seconds

(7) Zahn No. 5 Seconds

(8) Demmier No. 10 Seconds

TABLE 13.2

VISCOSITY UNITS

(a) Absolute Viscosity (b) Kinematic Velocity
Figure 13.6-Typical Viscosity vs.
Temperature Chart for Gases
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The eight units listed are associated with viscometers which operate on the
principle of the amount of time required for a known volume of fluid to pass through an
orifice. All units are somewhat related to kinematic viscosity, as all efflux times are a
function of both the absolute viscosity and the density of the fluid.
The first four units are used in the oil industry for measuring the viscosity of
lubricating and fuel oils. Saybolt units are used in the United States; Redwood (No. 1
and No. 2) units are used in the United Kingdom, while Germany uses Engler degrees.
The Ford, Zahn, and Demmier units are used almost exclusively by the paint industry.
The problem of relating these units to the stoke or poise is not due to the
instrumentation or control in use, but rather because the flow during measurement is
turbulent. The relationships which do exist between the units in Table 13.2 and
absolute or kinematic viscosity have been empirically determined. The values listed in
Table 13.3 should provide the reader with an idea of the relative size of the various
units, as compared to the stoke. It must be noted that the values in this table are only
approximate and vary with temperature. One other unit, the Gardner Second, is not
listed, but its value is approximately the same as the stoke. It is also traceable, being
based on the time required for a bubble to rise through a fluid.


STOKE 1 5 10 15
SUS 400 2200 4500 6700
SFS 50 240 460 680
Redwood 400 2100 4200 6200
Engler 17 65 130 200
Ford #4 30 135 270 405
Zahn #3 18 58 -- -
Zahn #5 -- 27 50 72
Demmier #10 -- 15 31 -

TABLE 13.3

RELATIVE VALUES OF COMMON VISCOSITY UNITS
13-3 Rotational Viscometers.
The basic instrument for measuring absolute viscosity is the Rotational Viscometer.
This instrument derives its name from the manner in which the shear stress is
generated; namely, through the rotation of a cylinder. There are two major advantages
of the rotational viscometer over all the other types. The first is that the relationships
involved are those employed in the basic definition -- shear stress and velocity gradient.
The second advantage is that most rotational viscometers can be operated continually
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for extended periods of time. This allows time for the measurement conditions to
stabilize and also provides for time studies of viscosity.
The basic rotational viscometer consists of two cylinders, one stationary and one
which rotates. The cylinders are mounted coaxially (common rotational axis), with one
cylinder having a radius which is slightly larger than the other.
Referencing Figure 13.7, let us consider that the outer cylinder is rotating. The
fluid to be measured is trapped between the walls of the two cylinders. The viscosity of
the fluid transfers the motion of the outer cylinder to the inner one and tries to set it into
rotation. This action is countered by the action of a spring and lever arm. The
deflection of the pointer is a measure of the shearing force imposed on the stationary
cylinder. Since the system is in equilibrium, and the two drums have a common axis,
the torques about the axis must be equal and opposite, or:

F
s
R
1
= FR
3
(9)

where: F
s
= the shearing force acting on the inner drum

R
1
= the radius of the inner drum

R
3
= the displacement from the axis to the spring

and: F = the restoring force of the spring

Equation (9) can be solved for the shearing force as:


Figure 13.7-Rotational Viscometer
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F F
R
R
s
=
3
1
(10)

If the scale in Figure 13.7 reads directly in pounds, and if R
1
is the same as R
3
,
then the shear force F
s
is read directly from the scale.
Since we know the shear force, if we compute the surface area (A) of the inside
cylinder we can find the shear stress (o
s
) using the equation:

o
s
s
F
A
=

But, the surface area of the inside cylinder is:

A = 2tR
1
h

where: h = the height of the fluid (width of the cylinder)

Thus, the expression for shear stress becomes:

o
t
s
s
F
R h
=
2
1
(11)

The other expression needed to calculate the absolute viscosity is derived from
the difference in radii of the cylinders (fluid width) and the rotational rate. In Figure 13.7
the velocity of the fluid at R
1
is zero. The velocity at R
2
is eR
2
. The velocity gradient is
thus found to be:


Av
L
R
R R
=

e
2
2 1
(12)

where: e = the rotational velocity in RPS, degrees/sec. etc.

Combining equations (11) and (12) to find the absolute viscosity we get:

' q
t
e
=
F
2 R h
R
R - R
s
1
2
2 1
(13)

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Example 4: A rotational viscometer similar to the one in Figure 13.7 has the following
values associated with it:

R
1
= 5.00 cm e = 30 rpm

R
2
= 5.01 cm F = 10
4
dynes

h = 3 cm R
3
= 5.00 cm

Assuming the outer cylinder (R
2
) rotates, what is the absolute viscosity of
the fluid?

Since the radius of the indicator (R
3
) and the inside drum (R
1
) are equal, then the force
given may be considered as the shear force (F
s
). Let us start our solution by converting
RPM to RPS.

Thus:
30 1
60
05 rev

rev
min
min
sec
.
sec
=

Substituting the information given in Example 4 into equation (13) we get:

'

q
t
=
10 dynes
2 5 3(cm )
.5 5.01(cm/ )
(5. - 5)cm
4
2
sec
01


Simplifying and inverting we get:


( )
( ) ( )
q
t
=

10 001
15 501
4
2
.
.
sec dyne
cm


=
100
2361 .
poise

thus: q = .42 poise

or: q = 420 centipoise

An actual rotational viscometer is not as simple as presumed by equation (11),
nor is it as easy to use as presented in Example 4. There are some problems which
change the use versus the theoretical equation of the rotational viscometer.
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The first problem is that the shear stress is not the same across the gap. Since
the shear stress is not constant across the gap, the velocity gradient is not constant.
The finite height of the fluid causes effects at the edges. There is also the self-heating
of the rotating fluid. The effect of all these deviations on equation (13) can be
computed mathematically and an exact equation generated, but it would be very
involved. We can avoid the use of a complicated corrected expression by computing
an instrument constant. This will reduce equation (13) in its simplified corrected form
to:

q
e
=
|
\

|
.
| k
F
s
(14)

where: k = instrument constant (determined by the manufacturer)

F
s
= measure of the shear force

and: e = angular velocity

The units of F
s
and e in equation (14) depend upon the choice of k. Usually F
s
is
dimensionless; that is, it is the numerical value indicated by the pointer and scale of the
instrument. The most popular choice for e is in units of RPM.
A practical viscometer may use a
constant speed motor, making e constant
for all measurements. In such cases the
viscosity of the fluid under test is read
directly from the indication of the pointer
and scale, which is a function of the
restoring torque required for equilibrium.
Another type of rotating drum
viscometer holds the force constant, and
the rotational rate is used as a direct
indication of the viscosity of the fluid.
Such a device is shown in Figure 13.8.
The torque provided by weight (W) is
constant during the test. After the initial
acceleration, the angular velocity
becomes constant and is measured by
the tachometer. The biggest
disadvantage to this system is that it can
only operate for a fixed period of time
(while the weight is falling), and it is
possible that constant velocity may not be
Figure 13.8-Constant Force Viscometer
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13-18
reached. The time is controlled by the length of the string and the viscosity of the fluid.
The easiest and most straightforward way of finding the instrument constant
mentioned is to measure it. This can be done by the use of "standard" Newtonian
fluids. Standard fluids which have known viscosities are available from the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other testing laboratories. The
standard fluid is placed in the viscometer in the same manner as a test fluid and the
viscometer operated normally. The values for q, F
s
, and e are entered into equation
(14), from which the instrument constant is calculated. This constant includes all small
corrections which apply to equation (13).

The instrument constant is for Newtonian fluids only. The
constant should be calculated at all normal test
temperatures which will be used, since a change of
dimensions with temperature will affect the instrument
constant.

There are many variations to the basic rotational viscometer of Figure 13.7.
Some use dynamic (strain gage) torque sensors on the shaft of the rotating member.
Either cylinder may be rotated. The cylinder of some rotational viscometers is replaced
by a disk which is completely submerged in the test fluid.
Although there are many models and variations of the basic design, the better
rotational viscometers have uncertainties of +0.5% to +1.0% of FS. Rotational
viscometers theoretically can be used over a range from 0.1 centipoise to 10
7

centipoise, but most units have a range of 0.1 to 10
5
centipoise.
13-4 Capillary Viscometers.
The most commonly encountered viscometers in the field belong to a group called
Capillary Viscometers. Most capillary viscometers are designed to measure kinematic
viscosity on the basis of the time required for a known volume of fluid to flow through a
capillary. Capillary viscometers are usually divided into three classes which are:

(1) piston-cylinder

(2) glass capillary

(3) orifice

The principle of operation of the piston cylinder class is that a fluid is forced through a
capillary by the action of a piston. The actual theory of operation is of little
consequence, since this class of viscometer does not find wide use. Suffice to say that
this type of viscometer measures in terms of absolute viscosity.
Both of the other classes of capillary viscometers use the hydrostatic pressure
generated by the fluid itself to drive it through a capillary. Because the hydrostatic
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13-19
pressure is a function of the density of
the fluid, glass capillary and orifice
viscometers measure viscosity in terms
of kinematic viscosity. Glass capillary
viscometers generally measure directly in
terms of centistokes; whereas orifice
viscometers measure kinematic viscosity
in one of the various other viscosity units,
as previously discussed. The range of
this type of viscometer is somewhat
restricted, since the driving force is
provided solely by head pressure. Their
range is normally from 0.4 to 20,000
centistokes.
The basic theory of a capillary viscometer is related to the characteristics of fluid
flow in a tube. Consider the circular section of tubing shown in Figure 13.9. As was
mentioned earlier and is true for all cases, the finite fluid layer in contact with a surface
does not move. If the surface is moving, the fluid layer will move at the same velocity.
If the surface is stationary, the fluid layer will be stationary. A fluid flowing through a
stationary tube is considered to be made up of concentric segments which "telescope"
with respect to one another. If the viscosity of the fluid increases, the effect is to make
the telescoping action more difficult. There is a basic similarity between this type of
fluid flow and that described by Figure 13.3; however, the shear stress and velocity
gradient in the tube flow are not as easy to describe as they were in the case of parallel
plates. The discussions of the glass capillary and orifice viscometers, therefore, will not
attempt or include any mathematical development, analysis, or examples.
These instruments are all basically the same as the original instrument developed
by Wilhelm Ostwald. The design consists of two (or more) reservoir bulbs connected by
means of a U-tube, as shown in Figure 13.10. The dark section of the viscometer
indicates the capillary, while the dotted lines show where the volume measurement are
made. All three viscometers illustrated in Figure 13.10 were named after their
developers.
The Ostwald viscometer has fallen into disuse, while the Ubbelohde viscometer
is used primarily by persons interested in investigating kinematic viscosity with respect
to temperature. The Cannon-Fenske viscometer is representative of the most
commonly used glass capillary viscometer.
There are two versions of the Cannon-Fenske (and Ubbelohde) viscometer.
One is considered as routine, while the other is a master. The basic difference
between the routine and master viscometer lies in the length of the capillary. The
master viscometer has a longer capillary than does the routine viscometer. This longer
capillary holds the head pressure more constant during a measurement. For this and
other reasons, the master viscometer is more precise than the routine viscometer.

Figure 13.9-Fluid Elements
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13-20
The operation of
any glass capillary
viscometer is based
upon the efflux time of a
known volume of fluid
through a known size
capillary, under
conditions of laminar
flow. The laminar flow
is assured by a
sufficiently long capillary
and smooth, gradual
transition sections
between where the
capillary joins the bulbs.
If these transition
sections are not
designed properly, not
only is there an
unpredictable departure
from theory, but the
repeatability of
successive
measurements is lost.
The critical factor which determines accuracy is the dimensions of the
viscometer, with the volume and capillary being the most important. The design
dimensions have tolerances which can cause slightly different viscometer response;
therefore, each viscometer must be calibrated. An instrument constant is then
assigned to the viscometer for each temperature of use so that the kinematic viscosity
of the test fluid may by computed by use of the equation:

u
u
= k
u
t (15)

where: u
u
= viscosity at temperature u

K
u
= instrument constant at temperature u

and: t = efflux time

The units in equation (15) are usually in terms of centistokes for u, centistokes
per second for k, and seconds for t. However, MKS or FPS units could also be
employed.
Temperature plays a two-fold role in glass capillary viscometry. The kinematic

Figure 13.10-Various Styles of Glass Capillary
Viscometers
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13-21
viscosity of the fluid changes with temperature, and the instrument constant also
changes with temperature
3
. The net result is that excellent temperature control must be
maintained at all times during a measurement. For this reason, all glass capillary
viscometers are operated in a temperature bath.
The constant in equation (15) may be found by one of two calibration methods.
The fundamental calibration is performed by using distilled water as the viscosity
standard (u for water = 1.0036 centistokes at 60F). This method is used to calibrate
master viscometers with relatively small diameter capillaries. In order to calibrate the
master viscometers with larger diameter capillaries, a "step-up" procedure is used.
The viscosity of a fluid slightly more viscous than water is measured with a small
diameter master viscometer, and then this fluid is used to determine the calibration
constant for a larger diameter master viscometer. The reason the "step-up" technique

Absolute Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity
OIL CODE 100F 210F 100F 210F
D 1.4 0.6 1.9 0.8
I 6.6 1.7 1.8 2.2
L 37 4.9 43 6.0
M 100 9.9 110 12
N 400 25 460 30

TABLE 13.4

NIST STANDARD OILS (PARTIAL LIST)

is needed is that the efflux time for water in the larger capillary viscometers would be
very short thus creating problems in timing, flow stability, and other related areas.
The second calibration method for capillary viscometers is by means of standard
oils. This technique is used to calibrate routine viscometers. As was mentioned
previously, such standard oils are available from the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), the American Petroleum Institute (API), and the American Society
for Testing Materials (ASTM). Table 13.4 lists the code letters and viscosities for some
of the standard oils available from NIST.
Since the viscosity of a standard oil may change with age, a master viscometer is
required to test it periodically. The major use of master viscometers is to determine the


3
-The instrument constant does not change with temperature in Ubbelohde
viscometers.
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13-22
viscosity of oils which will then be used to calibrate routine viscometers.
Temperature has already been pointed out as one possible source of error in
glass capillary viscometry. Other sources of error include efflux time determination,
vertical alignment of the viscometer, initial head pressure, and the degree of
cleanliness. Other less important variables which may cause small errors are
accounted for by the instrument constant.
The error in the measurement of the efflux time is kept small, if the total efflux
time is large. A 0.1 second timing error in a total efflux time of 30 seconds represents
about 0.3 percent. In 200 seconds, the same timing error reduces to about 0.05
percent. Normally, the minimum efflux time is about 200 seconds. This can be done by
choosing the proper standard oil for the temperature of interest.
The vertical alignment affects the fluid head pressure. This source of error is
reduced by checking the alignment against some known vertical reference. The
percent error caused by a misalignment may be computed by the equation:

e% = 100 (1 - cos o) (16)

where: o = the angle between the true vertical and the axis of the
viscometer

If the fluid head (pressure) in the viscometer is not the same at the start of two
similar measurements, there will not be compatibility in the efflux time measurements
for a single fluid. To overcome this, the viscometer must always be charged (filled)
initially with a given volume of fluid. The charge volume is normally between 7 to 10
milliliters. The error caused by a variation in charging is difficult to evaluate. The
method of minimizing such error is to fill the viscometer exactly as directed by the
manufacturer.
Glass capillary viscometers must be kept extremely clean, if accurate results are
to be obtained. The cleaning needs to be performed only when different oils are
employed. That is, a viscometer used for multiple runs with the same oil over a short
time period would not require cleaning between runs. When cleaning is required, it is
done with a solvent chosen to provide the necessary amount of cleaning.
Routine cleaning (between runs) may be done with approved cleaning solvents,
and drying may be accomplished with filtered dry air. More thorough cleaning is
performed with approved cleaning solvents in overnight baths. Although the cleaning
process is time consuming and costly, it is a must with the glass capillary viscometer
because of the small bore size. Any slight amount of dirt can cause large errors in a
viscosity determination.
The capillary viscometer is used as a comparison standard, not an absolute
standard; therefore, its quality is defined by its precision. The master viscometer is
calibrated in terms of water. The instrument constant is as good as the precision of
repeated measurements, since the viscosity of water is accurately known. The same is
true of the standard oils and routine viscometers. The uncertainty of master
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viscometers is about 0.1%, while the uncertainty for routine viscometers is about
0.3% of the value calculated, using equation (15).
One final word about glass capillary viscometers. Since they are normally
calibrated by a standard oil, the instrument constant assigned is good only for the
location of the calibration. If the viscometer is moved to a new location where the
gravitational constant is different from that of the gravitational constant at the calibration
location, the instrument constant must be revised. This may be done by using the
equation:

k k
g
g
2 1
2
1
= (17)

where: k
2
= new instrument constant

k
1
= calibrated constant

g
2
= gravitational constant at new location

g
1
= gravitational constant at calibration location

The orifice viscometer differs from other types of capillary viscometers in the
design of its capillary. The orifice is a short capillary, that is, the ratio of capillary length
to diameter is less than 10:1. Also, the entrance and exit sections of the orifice are not
designed to assure laminar flow during the entire efflux time. Finally, because of the
short capillary section, the variation in fluid head pressure is large during the efflux time.
These factors contribute to an instrument which is not a predictable or accurate
as the glass capillary viscometer. As was stated before, the relationship of efflux time
to the basic kinematic viscosity units cannot be mathematically derived for an orifice
viscometer. Whereas the glass capillary type viscometer was used and calibrated in
units of centistokes, the orifice device is almost always used and calibrated in the other
kinematic viscosity units, such as Saybolt, Redwood or Ford seconds, etc., as listed in
Table 13.2. However, within reasonable limitations, the orifice viscometer provides
adequate results. Because of their simplicity and ease of operation, orifice viscometers
have found their way into considerable general usage.
The orifice viscometer provides a measure of kinematic viscosity in terms of the
following equation:

u
u
= t (18)

where: u
u
= an arbitrary kinematic measure at temperature u

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13-24
and: t = efflux time in seconds

The unit of kinematic viscosity in equation (18) is given a name which reflects
which model or style of orifice viscometer is used for a particular measurement; that is,
u
u
is in units of Saybolt seconds for the Saybolt viscometer, Redwood seconds for the
Redwood viscometer, etc.
There are two restrictions which must be imposed upon an orifice viscometer for
reliable results. The first is that the dimensions of the viscometer must be well specified
and controlled. The second is that the test fluids must not be too different from the
"standard fluids" which were used to calibrate the viscometer.
The first restriction says, in effect, that each orifice viscometer of a given class
must be a copy of all others in that class. The second restriction states that, since the
action of these viscometers cannot be predicted, test fluids must be close to a pre-
calibrated operating point to have any significant meaning.
The saybolt viscometer is the most widely used type of orifice viscometer in the
United States. It is used chiefly to classify motor oils. There are two styles of Saybolt
viscometers-- the Saybolt Universal Viscometer and the Saybolt Furol
4
Viscometer.
The Universal viscometer is used for the lighter oils, while the Furol viscometer is used
for heavier oils. The basic difference in these viscometers is the size of the capillary
(orifice). If the efflux time for a given oil is greater
than 200 seconds in the Universal viscometer,
then the Furol instrument is employed.
Figure 13.11 is an illustration of a Saybolt
Universal viscometer. The dimensions of this
instrument are specified in an ASTM publication.
In addition, the publication also specifies the type
of bath used, receiver, test fluid and bath
temperature, measuring instruments, bath fluid
level, type of timer, and the test method. The
detail of the measurement specification is
provided to assure that all viscosity determinations
are made as similar as possible to achieve
compatible results. The viscosity of motor oils in
the United States is classified by an SAE
5
weight
number. An SAE weight number is assigned to an
oil if it falls within a certain viscosity range in terms
of Saybolt Universal Seconds. The oils are first
tested at two temperatures, usually 100F and
210F. They are then assigned a weight number, depending upon the viscosity range
within which they fall.


4
-Furol is a contraction of the words fuel and road oils.

5
-SAE is the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Figure 13.11-Saybolt Viscometer
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Table 13.5 indicates that the viscosity of lighter oils must be known at 0F before
they can be classified. Usually one does not perform viscosity measurements at 0F.
In order to determine a viscosity at 0F, an extrapolation process is used. The oil is
measured at two points at least 60F apart, and these points are plotted on semi-log
graph paper
6
with temperature plotted along the linear axis. Then a straight line is
drawn through these points and extended to 0F. This temperature vs viscosity graph
for a given oil thus dictates the assigned SAE weight number. Even under excellent
test conditions, this method cannot be considered as being precise. The extrapolated
viscosities may have errors as high as 20%, even when the measured points
themselves are not in error by more than 1%.

SAE
Viscosity No.
Saybolt Universal Seconds
0
o
F 210
o
F
5 W 4 x 10
3
(max)
10 W 6 - 12 (x 10
3
) 40
20 W 12 - 48 (x 10
3
) 45
20 45 TO 58
30 58 TO 70
40 70 TO 85
50 85 TO 110

TABLE 13.5
SAE VISCOSITY WEIGHT NUMBER CLASSIFICATION

In addition to the viscosity classification, motor oils are also classified by the
Society of Automotive Engineers according to the type of maximum service under which
an oil should be expected to perform properly. In 1947 there were three grades -
Regular, Premium, and Heavy Duty (detergent). It was found, however, that a motor oil
graded in this manner did not perform equally well in gasoline and diesel engines, and
the names, as applied, did not fully reflect the type of service under which each grade
could be used. Therefore, in 1960 the existing three grades were replaced by six new
grades, three for gasoline and three for diesel engines. The names were dropped and
a letter code assigned. The code and description of the current motor oil grades are
given Table 13.6.


6
-Semi-log graph paper has linear scale in one direction and a logarithmic scale in the
other direction.
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13-26

SAE Grade
Gasoline Diesel Recommended Usage
MS DS Most severe operating conditions
Continuous Start and Stop operation
MM DM Moderate to severe operating conditions
ML DG Light and favorable operating conditions

TABLE 13.6
SAE MOTOR OIL GRADE CLASSIFICATION

Another type of orifice viscometer which has received some acceptance in the
paint industry is the cup type. Basically, this viscometer is a cup with a known volume
with a hole of precise dimension in the bottom. The viscosity is measured according to
equation (18), with the units being in terms of which style cup is used.
The operation of the cup type viscometer is simple. The fluid to be tested and
the cup are heated (or cooled) to the desired measurement temperature. The cup is
then dipped into the fluid, filled, and lifted above the fluid surface. As the cup is lifted
above the fluid, a stop watch is started, and the time required for the cup to empty
determines the viscosity.
One disadvantage of this type of viscometer is that it must be suspended by a
sling system in such a manner that it will be vertical during runoff, to insure that the
head pressure and volume for each measurement are constant. The uncertainty
obtained with this type of device is from +2 to +5%.
13-5 Other Viscometers.
As we stated previously, there is almost an endless variety of viscometers. Any device
connected with the flow of fluids, by proper design, can be made to function as a
viscometer. Let us, however, restrict this section to a discussion of three or the more
commonly encountered viscometers. They are the falling or rolling ball viscometer, the
rising bubble viscometer, and the float viscometer.
Falling Ball Viscometer
The falling ball viscometer is designed on the basis of Stoke's Law which says
that the terminal velocity of a sphere (or any other object) falling freely through a fluid is
controlled by the density of the sphere and the absolute viscosity of the fluid. The
equation normally associated with a falling ball viscometer is:

q = k (
f
- ) t (19)

where: q = absolute viscosity
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13-27

k = instrument constant


f
= density of the fluid

= density of the sphere

and: t = the time required for the ball to fall through a given
distance

It is mandatory that the ball reach its terminal velocity prior to entering the
measured distance over which it will be timed. This is usually assured by providing a
long section of tubing (filled with the test fluid) above the measurement zone. It is also
important that the ball release device should not "throw" the ball downward, as the
terminal velocity must be determined solely by the fluid and not be influenced by other
factors. The falling ball viscometer tube must be vertical and aligned, so the ball falls
down the center without contacting the walls of the tube.
This last requirement of noninterference is very difficult to achieve; therefore, the
tube on some viscometers is purposely tipped at a known angle, so the ball is forced to
roll down the tube. This modification complicates the mathematics needed to describe
the device, but it provides precise results. The equation for the rolling ball viscometer is
basically the same as presented in equation (19).
Regardless of its basic configuration, the viscometer is calibrated with standard
fluids at known temperature points to determine its constant. The constant may be
derived in such a manner, that when it is applied, the viscosity will be in terms of
absolute units. The constant may also be computed so that when it is applied, the
viscometer yields a special viscosity unit directly, such as a Saybolt second. As the
viscosity of a fluid increases, the fall time of the ball increases. To provide an
instrument which covers a wide range of viscosities, several balls of various densities
are usually furnished with each tube.
Rising Bubble Viscometer
The rising bubble viscometer is much like the falling ball viscometer, with the
exception that the density of the "ball" (bubble) is less than that of the fluid. The net
force acting on the bubble is generated by the buoyant force of the liquid. The time
required for a bubble of known size to rise a measured distance reflects the viscosity of
the fluid. One measurement unit which is applied to this type of device is the Gardner
second.
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13-28
The rising bubble viscometer is a sort of
test tube graduated at given linear intervals.
Two lines scribed on the tube are used to
assist in forming a bubble of known size, as
illustrated in Figure 13.12. The other lines are
used for timing the rise of the bubble. The
instrument is operated by placing a test fluid in
the tube to a "fill" line, inserting a stopper to the
uppermost line, and then inverting the tube.
The time required for the bubble to rise and
pass between a pair of lines is measured and
reflects the viscosity of the fluid.
Comparison Rising Bubble Viscometer
A modification of the rising bubble
viscometer is a "comparison rising bubble viscometer". This device has one tube for a
test fluid and a number of pre-filled tubes which contain standard fluids. All the tubes
are mounted in a single rack, so that they can act as a single unit and can be inverted
at the same time. It is not necessary to time the rise of the test liquid bubble, as it is
assigned a viscosity value which is the same as the standard fluid whose bubble has
approximately the same rise time. This device eliminates many errors, such as the
need for the tubes to be vertical; however, at best, it only provides a general grouping
for the viscosity value of the test fluid.
Float Viscometer
The float viscometer, illustrated in
Figure 13.13, is very similar to a falling ball
viscometer. In this case, however, the float
is stationary, and the fluid is in motion. This
type of device is also used to measure flow.
When it is used as a viscometer, however,
the flow rate must be know. Assuming that
the velocity is always adjusted to some
constant value for all fluids, the height to
which the float rises is a relative measure of
the viscosity of the fluid.
Most viscometers are relatively
imprecise devices with uncertainties of +1%
or greater. Precision viscosity
measurements are made with glass
capillary viscometers or rotational viscometers. All other types of viscometers must be
considered as secondary instruments. This does not imply they should not be used,
since most are more than adequate for their purpose. However if the precise

Figure 13.12-Rising Bubble Viscometer

Figure 13.13-Float Viscometer
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13-29
measurement of viscosity and traceability to defined standards is the object, the proper
instrument must be used.
13-6 Specific Gravity Concepts.
The density of a substance has previously been described in two forms -- the mass
density () and the weight density (D). There is another method of expressing the
density of a substance. This expression is dimensionless and is the ratio of the density
of a given substance to the density of water. This ratio has been assigned the name
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (spgr), although it actually represents the relative density of a
substance to the density water. The use of the word "gravity" is also very bad, because
the effect of gravity is of no consequence on the specific gravity of a substance. This
is, however, the name of the measure, and its use is so widespread that a change isn't
very probable. Specific gravity is mathematically defined as:

spgr
x
w
=

(20)

or: spgr
D
D
x
w
= (21)

where: the subscripts x and w represent the unknown substance
and water, respectively

The density of water, as with all substances, varies as a function of temperature.
Since water attains its maximum density (1 gm/cm
3
) at +4C, this will be considered as
its reference temperature for all values of specific gravity, unless otherwise specified.

Example 5: What is the specific gravity of a substance which has a mass density of 8.4
g/cm
3
?

Using equation (20) and substituting our known values we get:

spgr
g cm
g cm
=
/
/
/
/
84
1
3
3
.



spgr = 8.4

Notice that the value of the specific gravity for any substance is equal to the numerical
value of its mass density in the cgs system.
Since the volume of a substance changes with temperature, but the mass
remains fixed, it follows that the density of a substance also changes with temperature.
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13-30
A given value of specific gravity for a particular substance, therefore, applies at only
one temperature. One further point -- if a substance is readily compressible (such as a
gas), the density will change radically as a function of pressure. The term specific
gravity, therefore, must include both temperature and pressure specifications when
applied to a gas.
Equations (20) and (21) are only applicable for determining specific gravity if one
knows the density of an unknown substance at the temperature of interest. Such
information may be obtained in one of two ways. If the makeup of the substance is
known, its density at some temperature can be found in a reference table, similar to
Table 13.7. If the exact makeup of the substance is not known, or if there is no density-
temperature table available, the density may be measured.
The empirical determination of density requires the measurement of both mass
and volume. The measured value of the mass must be precise enough for the
accuracy requirement of the specific gravity. The mass measurement would, most
probably, be performed using a balance and one of the weighing techniques discussed
in Chapter 10.
Volume measurements for liquids are readily and accurately made by use of
exact volume standards such as graduated cylinders, standard size beakers, etc. The
volume of a solid can be determined by noting the change in volume indication of a
beaker of liquid (water) before and after the solid is submerged. This method is seldom

Substance (g/cm
3
) D(lbs/ft
3
) Conditions
Alchohol,ethyl .791 49.4 20
o
C
Asbestos slate 1.8 112.0 -
Ebonite 1.15 72.0 0
o
C
Ether .736 45.9 15
o
C
Ice .917 57.2 15
o
C
Oil, linseed .942 58.5 -
Oil, olive .918 57.3 -
Turpentine .87 54.3 -
Wood:
Balsa .12 8.0 -
Elm .57 35.5 -

TABLE 13.7

DENSITIES OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
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satisfactory, however, because of the lack of resolution of the scale on the beaker.
Another method of volume determination for solids utilizes the concepts of
buoyancy. The difference in apparent mass of an object in air and in water is a function
of the buoyant force, which is dependent upon the volume of water displaced. Since
the volume of water displaced is the same as the volume of the object which displaces
it, we may use this relationship to find the volume of an unknown. The development of
this relationship might be as follows, using the basic expression:

W
a
= mg (22)

where: W
a
= the weight of the object in air

m = the apparent mass

and: g = gravitational acceleration

The weight of the same object in water may be expressed as:

W
w
= W
a
- F
b
(23)

where: F
b
= the buoyant force of the water

and: W
w
= the weight of the object in water

The buoyant force of the water can be expressed as:

F
b
= m
w
g (24)

where: m
w
= the mass of the water displaced

and: g = the gravitational acceleration

The mass of the water displaced can be expressed as:

m
w
=
w
V (25)

where:
w
= the density of the water

and: V = the volume of the object

Combining equations (23 through 25) we get:
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W
w
= W
a
- V
w
g (26)

Solving for the volume we get:

V
W W
g
a w
W
=

(27)

But: D
w
=
w
g

where: D
w
= the weight density of water

So, equation (27) can be rewritten as:

V
W W
D
a w
w
=

(28)

And, since the only difference between mass and weight is the action of gravity, we can
also write equation (28) as:

V
m m
a w
w
=

(29)

where: m
a
= apparent mass in air

m
w
= apparent mass in water

and:
w
= density of water

Example 6: An object is weighed in air and then in water. The values found are 855
grams and 645 grams, respectively. What is the specific gravity of the
object?

Using equation (29), we first find the volume of the object. Thus:


( )
V
g
g cm
=

/
/
855 645
1
3


V = 210 cm
3


Using the apparent mass in air of the object as its mass value, and its volume as
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-33
determined, we get:


x
=
855
210
3
g
cm



x
= 4.07 g/cm
3


Since the units of density are in the cgs system, the numerical value is also the specific
gravity; that is:

spgr
g cm
g cm
=
/
/
/
/
4 07
1
3
3
.



or: sp.gr. = 4.07

Example 7: An object weighs 11 pounds in air and 8.5 pounds in water. What is its
specific gravity?

At first this problem may seem difficult to handle in terms of units. Let us, therefore,
consider equation (21) which said:

spgr
D
D
x
w
=

Substituting for D
w
from equation (28) we get:

spgr
D
W W
V
x
a w
=



or, taking D
x
in terms of its units we get:

spgr
W
V
W W
V
a
a w
=
/

/


Since the volume is the same, it cancels, leaving:

VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-34
spgr
W
W W
a
a w
=

(30)

Or, equation (30) might be rewritten in the form of apparent mass as:

spgr
m
m m
a
a w
=

(31)

Applying equation (30) to Example 7 yields:

spgr =

11
11 85
lbs
lbs lbs .


=
11
2 5 ..


spgr = 4.4

To indicate the validity of equation (31) by means of an example, let us rework Example
7 as follows:

spgr =

855
855 645
g
g g


=
855
210


spgr = 4.07

Let us now consider the case of how the specific gravity of an unknown liquid
may be determined. An object of convenient size is first weighed in the unknown liquid.
This yields:

W
x
= W
a
- D
x
V (32)

where: W
x
= weight in the fluid

W
a
= weight in air

D
x
= weight density of the liquid

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13-35
and: V = volume of the object

The object is then weighed in water which gives us:

W
w
= W
a
- D
w
V (33)

Solving equations (32) and (33) in terms of the difference in weight (in and out of the
two relative liquids) yields:

W
a
- W
x
= D
x
V (34)

W
a
- W
w
= D
w
V (35)

Solving these two equations for D
x
and D
w
respectively, canceling the volume term, and
placing the equations in the ratio of specific gravity, we get:

D
W W
V
x
a x
=



and: D
W W
V
w
a w
=



Since: spgr
D
D
x
w
=

then: spgr
W W
W W
a x
a w
=

(36)

Again, using apparent mass, we may also say:

spgr
m m
m m
a x
a w
=

(37)

Example 8: An object weighed in a liquid of unknown density has a value of 76 grams.
When weighed in water it has a value of 74 grams. If the weight of the
object is 84 grams in air, what is the specific gravity (or cgs density) of the
liquid?

Entering the values of the example into equation (37) we obtain:

VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-36

( )
( )
spgr
g
g
=

84 76
84 74


=
8
10


or: spgr = 0.8

Although we have presented most equations in the form of both weight and
mass, the reader should note that the terms are interchangeable, if all units are the
same, since specific gravity is a ratio; thus, the gravitational term always cancels.
There are more than a dozen different common measures for specific gravity.
Some of them, as in the case of viscosity, refer to the type of instrument used for the
measurement, while other are variations in the basic definition. All specific gravity
measurements, however, are firmly related to one another.
The terminology used by the scientific world and industry to describe specific
gravity differs. This is a possible source of error when referencing various documents.
The basic accepted definitions of specific gravity are as follows:

A. Scientific Usage

1. Specific gravity - the ratio of the true mass density of a substance
at a given temperature to the true mass density of water at +4C.

2. Apparent specific gravity - the ratio of the apparent mass density of
a substance at a given temperature to the apparent mass density
of water at +4C.

B. Industrial Usage

1. Specific gravity - the ratio of the weight in air of a given substance
at a known temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of
water at the same or some other temperature. This measure is
designated as:

spgr t
x
/t
w

7


2. Absolute specific gravity - the ratio of the weight in a vacuum of a
given volume of the substance at a known temperature to the
weight in a vacuum of an equal volume of water at the same or
some other temperature. This measure is designated as:


7
-The reference temperatures of the unknown (t
x
) and of water (t
w
) are always given.
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
NAVAIR 17-35QUAL-2




13-37

abs. spgr t
x
/t
w


There are other terms which are also used in industry; however, they are mostly
concerned with the difference between porous and nonporous solids.
As stated before, unless otherwise specified, the specific gravity values apply to
the apparent mass of the substance at the measurement temperature to the apparent
mass of water at +4C. One commonly encountered term of reference used in industry
is "specific gravity 60/60". This is the ratio of the apparent mass of a substance at 60F
to the apparent mass of water at 60F. This measure is widely used in the petroleum
industry.
Another commonly used measure of specific gravity in the petroleum industry is
"Degrees API". This measure is taken from a hydrometer
8
with a scale designed to
meet the following relationship:

Degrees API

=
1415
60 60
1315
.
.
spgr


The range of the Degrees API used to indicate
specific gravity is from 0 to 100. If we solved equation
(38) for specific gravity and substituted for various
Degrees API, we would find that the equivalent specific
gravity 60/60 ranges from 1.076 to .6112. Note that as
the Degree API increases, the specific gravity
decreases.
13-7 Specific Gravity Instruments
The specific gravity of a solid is generally determined
by use of an equal arm balance. Such measurements
are, in reality, density measurements. These methods
were outlined in section 13.6. There are, however,
various other types of instruments available for determining the specific gravity of
liquids.
Picnometer and Balance
This basic instrument consists of a standard vessel (cup, beaker, etc.) and a balance.
The weight of the empty picnometer cup, the picnometer cup completely filled with
water, and the picnometer cup completely filled with the liquid under test are measured
and entered into equation (39) to determine the specific gravity. That is:


8
-A hydrometer is an instrument which directly measures specific gravity.

Figure 13.14-Hydrometer
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
NAVAIR 17-35QUAL-2



13-38

spgr
W W
W W
a p
b p
=

(39)

where: W
p
- weight of the empty picnometer

W
a
- weight of the picnometer vessel and test liquid

and: W
b
- weight of the picnometer vessel and water

Since the volume of both fluids is the same, the ratio of the weight of the
unknown fluid to water must be the specific gravity of the unknown. The notation
assigned to the specific gravity thus measured depends on whether or not the weight
taken is in air or in vacuum and on the temperatures at the time of measurement.
Usually, all measurements are referenced to 60F, and weight of the liquids in air is
used. This gives the measure in terms of specific gravity 60/60.
Hydrometer
The most widely used instrument for determining the specific gravity of a liquid is the
hydrometer. This instrument operates on the buoyancy principle. This principle,
paraphrased, states that when the weight of the volume of fluid displace is the same as
the weight of the object which displace it, the object will neither sink nor rise, but will
float in equilibrium. The depth to which the hydrometer sinks in a given liquid is a
function of the specific gravity of that liquid. Figure 13.14 illustrates the basic
hydrometer design.
The volume of the stem, buoyancy chamber, and weight chamber is known (or at
least fixed). Sufficient weight in the form of shot, etc. is added to the hydrometer to
cause it to float with a fixed portion of the stem above water. The scale is marked
1,000 at the point of immersion. Other points on the scale may be found and marked
by calculation or by actual calibration of the hydrometer in liquids of known specific
gravity.
If calculations are to be used for marking the scale, they are made as follows:
Assume the total weight of the hydrometer is W and that its volume is V
b
+ V
s
, where V
b

is the volume of everything except the stem, and V
s
is the volume of the stem. Assume
also that the stem is a cylinder of diameter d. For equilibrium, the weight of the water
displaced must equal the weight of the hydrometer.

thus: W = D
w
V

where: D
w
= the weight density of water

V = the volume of the hydrometer submerged
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-39

and: W = the weight of the hydrometer

This expression can be rewritten in terms of the volume of the hydrometer bulb and
stem as:

W D V
d
h
w b
= +
|
\

|
.
|

(
t
2
4
(40)

where: h = the height of the stem submerged in the water

and:
td
h
2
4

|
\

|
.
| = the stem volume submerged in water

Note that the air buoyant force on the stem portion above the water is not accounted for
by this equation; thus, there is a small error introduced. Equation (40) is used to mark
the 1.000 point on the scale by solving it for h (h is measured from the top of the
buoyancy chamber up the stem).

thus:
( )
h
W D V
D d
w b
w
=
4
2
t
(41)

Once the location of h is found, the other points are found by noting how the change in
height of the hydrometer is related to specific gravity. At equilibrium in a test fluid we
have:

W = D
x
(V
w
+ AV) (42)

where: V
w
= total volume of the hydrometer which is submerged
when it is floating in water

and: AV = the change in volume of the hydrometer which is
submerged when it is floating in a test liquid

Also, when the hydrometer was in water it was found that:

W = D
w
V
w
(43)

But the weight of the hydrometer is constant in either case, so, by combining equations
(42) and (43) we get:
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
NAVAIR 17-35QUAL-2



13-40

D
x
(V
w
+ AV) = D
w
V
w
(44)

Solving for D
x
/D
w
we get:


D
D
V
V V
x
w
w
w
=
+ A


or: spgr
v
V
w
=
+
1
1
A
(45)

Equation (45) states that to measure a liquid whose specific gravity is 0.5, the change in
submerged volume of the hydrometer must equal the volume of the hydrometer which
was submerged in water. Inspection of fig. 13.14 illustrates the impracticality of
achieving a value of this magnitude with respect to a reference specific gravity of water.
Hydrometers, therefore, are designed to measure only a small range about a given
value. If a hydrometer is well designed, the ratio of AV/V
w
in equation (45) is kept small.
Since this is the case, equation (45) may be rewritten, as a good approximation, in the
form:

spgr
V
V
w
= 1
A


or: spgr
d
V
h
w
=
|
\

|
.
|

(
1
4
2
t
A

Notice that the diameter and volume terms in the parenthesis are constant for all
measurements. The equation may, therefore, be rewritten utilizing an instrument
constant (k) in the form:

spgr = 1 - kh (46)

As the hydrometer sinks deeper in a test fluid, h is positive; thus resulting in an
indication on the hydrometer of a lower specific gravity. If the hydrometer floats higher
in the test fluid than it does in water, h is negative; thus, the specific gravity indicated is
higher than unity.
A general form of equation (46) is:

spgr = R - k
r
h (47)

VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-41
where: R = Specific gravity of reference
9
for the hydrometer

k
r
= instrument constant with respect to the reference

and: h = change in height from the reference mark in units which
are compatible with the units of k
r


Specific Gravity Balance
A specific gravity balance is a device which
simplifies the specific gravity determination of
a liquid. The balance has a known plummet
suspended from one end of its beam and a
counter weight on the other end. Thus, the
balance is, initially, in equilibrium.
When the plummet is submerged in a
liquid, the balance reads the weight of the
liquid displaced. If the plummet is designed
properly, it is already known to displace a
certain weight of water; thus, with one
weighing the specific gravity of a test liquid
can be determined, using the equation:

spgr
W
W
x
w
=

where: W
x
= the weight of the displace test liquid

and: W
w
= known weight of water displaced by the plummet

A modified type of specific gravity balance is shown in Figure 13.15. This device
provides a direct comparison to water and is often used to monitor specific gravity of
liquids in production areas. The flow through the test fluid chamber is adjusted to
eliminate viscous drag which might cause errors. The weights are matched in that they
are made of the same materials and have the same volume.
The instrument indicates directly the difference in the buoyant forces acting on
the weights between the test fluid and water. The buoyant forces (F) acting on each
weight are:


9
-Hydrometer references are selected to be compatible with the desired range of
operation.

Figure 13.15-Comparison Balance
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13-42

F
1
= D
w
V

F
2
= D
x
V

where: V = the volume of either weight

Since the volume of both weights is the same, we can set up a proportion such that:


D
D
F
F
x
w
=
2
1
(48)

We can express F
2
as (F
1
+ AF). Since the ratio of D
x
to D
w
is the specific gravity, we
can also say:

spgr
F F
F
=
+
1
1
A


or: spgr
F
F
= + 1
1
A
(49)

Since the difference in buoyant force (AF)
is a function of the difference in specific
gravity of the two fluids, the scale of the
balance indicates AF, but is marked
directly in units of specific gravity.
Pressure Devices
Another method of measuring the specific
gravity of a test fluid directly is by use of an
instrument similar to the one shown in
Figure 13.16. This is referred to as an
inverted Y-tube. One leg of the Y is in
water and the other leg in a test liquid.
The center of the tube is connected to a vacuum system with a controllable pressure.
The Y is evacuated until the test liquid reaches some predetermined height, say 10
inches. At that time the head pressures (P) of the two liquids are given as:

P
w
= D
w
h
w


and: P
x
= D
x
h
x



Figure 13.16-Head Pressure Instrument
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-43
But, since atmospheric pressure is the reference for both liquids, their head pressures
are equal, and thus:

D
w
h
w
= D
x
h
x


or:
D
D
h
h
x
w
w
x
= (50)

If the height of the unknown liquid (h
x
) is always set to 10 inches, then the height
of the water column divided by ten is the specific gravity of the test liquid, and the
instrument can be marked directly in units of specific gravity, as shown. This instrument
has basically the same configuration as two cistern manometers and as thus, is
subjected to the same errors. Primarily changes in temperature and the ability to
accurately measure heights of the liquid columns.
The inverted Y-tube does not work well when the vapor pressure of the test liquid
is high, since as the tube is evacuated, the test liquid tends to boil. To overcome this
problem the basic configuration may be modified, as shown in Figure 13.17. The
device illustrated uses positive pressure, rather than a vacuum. The pressure acting at
the bottom of the tube in the test fluid is D
x
h
x
. The pressure acting at the bottom of the
tube in the water is D
w
h
w.
If the pneumatic pressure applied on the right side of the
manometer and water is adjusted until bubbles just appear, then this pressure is
equivalent to:
P
w
= D
w
h
w


If the pneumatic pressure on the test fluid and left side of the manometer is adjusted
until bubbles just appear, then the pressure is:

P
x
= D
x
h
x


If the depths of the two tubes are made the same, then:


P
P
D
D
x
w
x
w
= (51)

We can write P
x
in the form:

P
x
= P
w
+ AP

Substituting for P
x
in equation (51) we get:

VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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13-44

D
D
P P
P
x
w
w
w
=
+ A
(52)

or: spgr
P
P
w
= + 1
A


Since P
w
can be fixed, the change of AP is a direct measurement of the specific gravity.
To facilitate a permanent scale on the U-tube, a plunger arrangement is incorporated in
the base of the tube, so that the mercury can always be set to a reference mark on the
water side. The value of the specific gravity is then read from the top of the mercury on
the test fluid side.

Figure 13.17-U-Tube Instrument
VISCOSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
NAVAIR 17-35QUAL-2

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