FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW OVER AIRFOILS

The Cambered Airfoil

1. From equation (7),

 dz 
c
 ( )d 
V        0;
 dx  0 2  x   
___________________(2.1)
1  ( )d
c
 dz 
2 0  x   
 V    
 dx 
For a cambered airfoil, dz/dx is finite (whereas in symmetric airfoil dz/dx was
zero).Hence transforming this equation in terms of θ with equations (10) and (11), we
have

1  ( ) sin  d dz

2 0  cos   cos  0 
 V (  ) ________________________(2.2)
dx

2. Subject to the Kutta condition, γ(π) = 0, we obtain a solution

 1  cos   
 ( )  2V  A0   An sin n _____________________(2.3)
 sin  n 1 
The total circulation due to the entire vortex sheet from the leading edge to the trailing
edge is
c 
c
    ( )d     ( ) sin  d ___________________________(2.4)
0
20
Substituting the value of γ(θ) from eqn (2.3), we obtain

c  1  cos   
   2V  A0   An sin n sin  d
20  sin  n 1 
__________(2.5)
   

  cV  A0   1  cos   d   An  sin n sin  d 
 0 n 1 0 
(a) From any standard table of integrals,


 (1  cos )d  
0

and


 sin n sin  d   / 2;( for  n  1)  0;( for  n  1)

0

(b) Hence equation (2.5) becomes

  
  cV   A0  A1  ____________________________(2.6)
 2 
(c) Thus the lift per unit span is given by
   
L '   cV 2   A0  A1  _________________________(2.7)
 2 
(d) The lift coefficient is given as
L'
cl     2 A0  A1 
1 _____________________(2.8)
 V c (1)
2

2
(e) Comparing eqn (2.3) with Fourier cosine series,

1 dz
  A0   d0 _____________________________(2.9)
 0 dx
Hence

1 dz
A0     d0 _____________________________(2.10)
 0 dx
and

2 dz
An   cos n 0 d 0 __________________________(2.11)
 0 dx
(f) Substituting (2.9) and (2.10) in (2.8) gives
 
1 dz 
cl  2     (cos  0  1)d 0  ________________(2.12)
  0 dx 
and lift slope is given by dcl/dα = 2π.

3. The moment about the leading edge can be obtained by substituting γ(θ). The
resulting moment coefficient is
 A 
cm ,le    A0  A1  2  ______________________________(2.13)
2 2 
Substituting equation (2.8) in (2.13) gives
 c  
cm ,le    l  ( A1  A2 ) _____________________________(2.14)
 4 4 
Note that for dz/dx = 0, A1 = A2 = 0 and equation (2.14) reduces to that for a symmetric
airfoil.

4. The moment coefficient about centre of chord is given by substituting equation

(2.14) in
cm ,c / 4  cm ,le  cl / 4
Substituting equation (2.14) gives
  
cm ,c / 4    ( A1  A2 )  ______________________________(2.15)
 4 
Thus unlike symmetric airfoil, where c m,c/4 is zero, for a cambered airfoil c m,c/4 is
finite. But it is independent of alpha. So this is still the aerodynamic center i.e.,
aerodynamic center of cambered airfoil is quarter chord.
5. Equation 2.15 shows that c m,c/4 is independent of alpha. Thus the quarter-chord
point is the theoretical location of the aerodynamic center for a cambered airfoil. The
location of the centre of pressure is given by
M' c c
xcp   LE   m ,le ____________________________(2.16)
L' cl
Substituting equation (2.14) into (2.16), we obtain
c  
xcp   1  ( A1  A2 )  __________________________(2.17)
4 cl 
Thus equation (2.17) shows that center of pressure for a cambered airfoil varies with the
lift coefficient. Hence as angle of attack changes, center of pressure also changes. Indeed
as the lift approaches zero, xcp moves towards infinity i.e., it leaves the airfoil. Hence the
CP is not the convenient place to draw the force system on an airfoil. The aerodynamic
center is more convenient.
 SUMMARY

6. Thin airfoil theory thus is based on the replacement of the airfoil by the mean
camber line. A vortex sheet is placed along the chord line, and its strength adjusted such
that, in conjunction with the uniform free stream, the camber line becomes a streamline
of the flow while at the same time satisfying the Kutta condition. The strength of such a
vortex sheet is obtained from the fundamental equation of thin airfoil theory: -

1  ( )d
c
 dz 

2 0  x   
 V    
 dx 

7. The thin airfoil theory gives the following important results: -

(a) For symmetric airfoil, the centre of pressure and the aerodynamic center
are both at the quarter-chord point. Whereas for cambered airfoil, the
aerodynamic center is still at the quarter-chord point and center of pressure
varies with lift coefficient.
(b) The lift slope in both cases is given by 2π.