IBHL&APCHEMISTRY InternalAssessment STUDENTGUIDE

INTERNALASSESSMENT(IA) Introduction TheInternalAssessment(IA)consistsofaninterdisciplinaryproject,amixtureofshortandlongterminvestigations(suchaspracticalsandsubjectspecific projects).StudentworkisinternallyassessedbytheteacherandexternallymoderatedbytheIBO.TheperformanceinIAisjudgedagainstassessmentcriteria eachconsistingofachievementlevels03. IATimeAllocation Higherlevelstudentsarerequiredtospend60hours,onpracticalactivities(excludingtimespentwritingupwork).Thesetimesinclude10to15hoursforthe group4project.Only23hoursofinvestigativeworkcanbecarriedoutafterthedeadlineforsubmissionofworktothemoderatorandstillbecountedinthe totalhoursforthepracticalschemeofwork. CriteriaandAspects TherearefiveassessmentcriteriathatareusedtoassesstheworkofbothSLandHLstudents. DesignD DatacollectionandprocessingDCP ConclusionandevaluationCE ManipulativeskillsMS PersonalskillsPS Thefirstthreecriteriadesign(D),datacollectionandprocessing(DCP)andconclusionandevaluation(CE)areeachassessedtwice.Manipulativeskills(MS) areassessedsummativelyoverthewholecourseandtheassessmentshouldbebasedonawiderangeofmanipulativeskills.Personalskills(PS)areassessed onceonlyandthisshouldbeduringthegroup4project.Eachoftheassessmentcriteriacanbeseparatedintothreeaspectsasshowninthefollowingsections. Descriptionsareprovidedtoindicatewhatisexpectedinordertomeettherequirementsofagivenaspectcompletely(c)andpartially(p).Adescriptionisalso givenforcircumstancesinwhichtherequirementsarenotsatisfied,notatall(n).Acompleteisawarded2marks,apartial1markandanotatall0 marks.Themaximummarkforeachcriterionis6(representingthreecompletes).
D2=12 DCP2=12 CE2=12 MS1=6 PS1=6 Thismakesatotalmarkoutof48. Themarksforeachofthecriteriaareaddedtogethertodeterminethefinalmarkoutof48fortheIAcomponent.ThisisthenscaledatIBCAtogiveatotaloutof24%.
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 LaboratoryExperimentGradingRubric Name__________________________________________________Block_______________Date:__________________Hours:_______________ TitleofExperiment:_________________________________________________________Topic____________________________________________ AssessmentCriteriatobeGraded MS DCP CE D X ManipulativeSkills Complete/2 Partial/1 Notatall/0 Earned Rarelyfollowsinstructionsorrequires Followsinstructionsbutrequires Followsinstructionsaccurately, Following constantsupervision. assistance. adaptingtonewcircumstances instructions (seekingassistancewhenrequired). Carryingout techniques Workingsafely Suggested Improvements Competentandmethodicalinthe useofarangeoftechniquesand equipment. Paysattentiontosafetyissues. Usuallycompetentandmethodicalin theuseofarangeoftechniquesand equipment. Usuallypaysattention tosafetyissues. Rarelycompetentandmethodicalin theuseofarangeoftechniquesand equipment. Rarelypaysattentiontosafetyissues.

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 Recordingraw data Processingraw data Presenting processed data Suggested Improvements

Complete/2 Recordsappropriatequantitative andassociatedqualitativerawdata, includingunitsanduncertainties whererelevant. Processesthequantitativerawdata correctly. Presentsprocesseddata appropriatelyand,whererelevant, includeserrorsanduncertainties.

DataCollectionandProcessing Partial/1 Recordsappropriatequantitativeand associatedqualitativerawdata,but withsomemistakesoromissions. Processesquantitativerawdata,but withsomemistakesand/oromissions. Presentsprocesseddataappropriately, butwithsomemistakesand/or omissions.

Notatall/0 Doesnotrecordanyappropriate quantitativerawdataorrawdatais incomprehensible. Noprocessingofquantitativerawdata iscarriedoutormajormistakesare madeinprocessing. Presentsprocesseddata inappropriatelyorincomprehensibly.

Earned

Concluding

Evaluating procedure(s) Improvingthe investigation Suggested Improvements

Complete/2 Statesaconclusion,withjustification, basedonareasonableinterpretation ofthedata. Evaluatesweaknessesand limitations. Suggestsrealisticimprovementsin respectofidentifiedweaknessesand limitations.

ConclusionandEvaluation Partial/1 Statesaconclusionbasedona reasonableinterpretationofthe data. Identifiessomeweaknessesand limitations,buttheevaluationisweak ormissing. Suggestsonlysuperficial improvements.

Notatall/0 Statesnoconclusionortheconclusion isbasedonanunreasonable interpretationofthedata. Identifiesirrelevantweaknessesand limitations. Suggestsunrealisticimprovements.

Earned

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 Definingthe problem andselecting variables Controlling variables Developinga method forcollectionof data Suggested Improvements

Complete/2 Formulatesafocused problem/researchquestionand identifiestherelevantvariables. Designsamethodfortheeffective controlofthevariables. Developsamethodthatallowsfor thecollectionofsufficientrelevant data.

Design Partial/1 Formulatesaproblem/research questionthatisincompleteor identifiesonlysomerelevant variables. Designsamethodthatmakessome attempttocontrolthevariables. Developsamethodthatallowsforthe collectionofinsufficientrelevant data.

Notatall/0 Earned Doesnotidentifyaproblem/research questionanddoesnotidentifyany relevantvariables. Designsamethodthatdoesnotcontrol thevariables. Developsamethodthatdoesnotallow foranyrelevantdatatobecollected.

earned points 20 = points =____________assessmentcriteriapoints total possible points

NeatandCorrectFormat=5points LaboratoryNotes=5points DataCollection&Processing=10points ConclusionandEvaluation=10points AssessmentCriteria=20points TOTAL

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TypedLaboratoryReportFormat
TypedReportessentials (Topleft) Name Topic

(Topright) Date(month/day/year) NumberofHours

Jane Smith Stoichiometry

Title Centeronlineafterheading Descriptiveandoriginal I.Introduction ResearchQuestion/Problemstatement Hypothesis Variables II.Procedures&Materials Materials/Apparatus Procedure Diagramofsetup III.DataCollectionandPresentation Observations DataTable IV.DataProcessingandPresentation Calculations Graphs Diagrams V.ConclusionandEvaluation Conclusion Compareresultstotheliterature Evaluationofprocedure Weaknessesandrealisticsuggestiontoimproveexperiment
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February 2, 2008 2 hours HYDRATES

I. Introduction II. Procedure and Materials III. Data Collection IV. Data Processing: V. Conclusion and Evaluation:

TitlethesectionsIthroughVinyourreport.

DATACOLLECTION
Aspects Recordsappropriaterawdata (qualitativeand/orquantitative), includingunitsanduncertaintieswhere necessary. Presentsrawdataclearly,allowingfor easyinterpretation Comments RecordALLrelevantdataandobservations Includequantitativedata(e.g.,measurementsoftemperature,mass,volume,absorbance,pressureall withtheappropriateunits) Includequalitativeobservations(e.g.thefinalcolorattheendpointwasafaintpink,duringthereaction, thebrominewaterchangedfrombeingabrightyellowtosolutionofnocolor). Reportanychangesinprocedureorunusualconditions. Alldatarecordedshouldbetothegreatestpossiblenumberofsignificantfiguresthattheaccuracyofthe equipmentallows. Consideruncertaintiesanderrorsinyourmeasurementsanddealwithitproperly(SeeAppendixA) Makesurethatsomeoneelsecouldunderstandexactlywhatyourdatameans. Do not include deductions/ interpretations/inferences, although you may find it easier to present deductionsandinterpretationsalongsidetheobservations. Yourpresentationshouldbemethodicalandlogical. Alltablesandgraphsshouldbeclearlyidentifiedandlabeled.

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DATAPROCESSINGANDPRESENTATION
Aspects Processesthedatacorrectly Presentsprocesseddataappropriately, helpinginterpretationand,where relevant,takesintoaccounterrorsand uncertainties Comments Alwaysprocessandshowyourresultsmathematicallyinsomeway(e.g.useaveragesorcalculationswith appropriateformulatoprocessyourresults) Includeanalysisofanyerrors(SeeNotesonAppendixA)whichhavebeenstatedinyourdatacollection. Converttabulateddataintoagraphicalform. Convertdrawingsintodiagrams Qualityoflayoutshouldbeorderlyandeasytofollow Useofproperscientificconventionsintables,graphs,etc Labelappropriatebarcharts,histograms,piechartsorlinegraphs(usinglinesofbestfitwheneverrelevant).

TIPSANDSUGGESTIONSFORWRITINGUPDATACOLLECTIONANDPROCESSING
Theintegrityofrawdataisimportantfromascientificstandpointandfromanethicalstandpoint!Youmustfollowtheseprocedureswhenrecording data: o Rawdataandobservationswillalwaysberecordedinaboundlaboratorynotebook. o Datawillberecordedinblueorblackink,notpencil.Errorscanbelinedout. o Yourinstructormayrequireyoutoobtainhisinitialsonyourdatasheetspriortoleavingthelab. Yourlabreportmustbeaccompaniedbytheoriginalhandwrittendatasheetsthatyourecordedinyourlaboratorynotebookwhenitisturnedintobe graded. DATACOLLECTION TherearetwoaspectstoDataCollection.Youmustcollectandrecordrawdataaccurately.Butequallyimportantyoumustpresenttherawdatasothe readercaneasilyinterpretit.Thismeansitmustbeorganizedandlegible. ThebestwaytocollectandpresentdataisbyusingDataTables.IfDataCollectionisbeingassessedinalabactivity,yourteacherwillnormallyrequireyou tomakeadatatablebeforeyoubeginthelab.YoumightuseoneTable,ormorethanone. GiveanidentifyingtitletoeachDataTable. Qualitativeobservationsarejustasimportantasquantitativemeasurements!Makesureyoutakenoteofandrecordthephysicalcharacteristicsof substancesorsolutionsinvolvedinthereactions,theircolorchanges,theevolutionofagas,whethersomethinggothotorcold,etc.Organizethese qualitativeobservationsinaseparateDataTable Ameasurementwithoutunitsismeaningless!Makesureyouincludethem:g,cm,mL,kPa,etc.IfyoushowtheunitsinacolumnheadingofaDataTable, youdonothavetowritethemagainaftereachnumberinthetable. AllmeasurementshaveuncertaintiesandyoumustindicatetheminyourDataTables.Thisisbestdonebypayingattentiontosignificantdigits,andby usingtheplusorminus(+/)notation.Examples: o Massofapennyonacentigrambalance:3.12g(+/0.01g)
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o Temperatureusingatypicallabthermometer:25.5oC(+/0.2oC) Justasforunits,inacolumnofdatayoucanshowtheuncertaintyinthecolumnheadingandthenyoudonthavetokeeprewritingitforevery measurementinthetable. Theprecision(+or)ofcommonlaboratoryequipmentisshowninatablenearthebackofthishandbook. DATAPROCESSING: Thisisthepartofthereportinwhichyoutakeyourrawdataandtransformitintoresultsthatanswer(hopefully!)yourresearchquestion.Hereyouwillshow thecalculationsthatgiveyouanumericalresult.Oritmayinvolvemakingagraphofsometypetoshowatrendorarelationship.Itmightinvolvebothof these.ButjustasinDataCollection,therearetwoimportantaspects:processingthedatacorrectly,andalsopresentingtheprocesseddataeffectivelyand legiblysothereadercanclearlyseetheresults. CalculationsofResults Youwilloftenhavetoshowcalculations.Useplentyofroom;makesuretheyareclearandlegible. Tomakeyourcalculationseasytofollow,precedeeachcalculationwithaphrasethatstateswhatyouaredoing.(Forexample:Calculatethemolarityof thesolution:,thenshowtheactualcalculation).Showtheunitsandtheformulasofsubstancesinallcalculations. Payattentiontosignificantdigits!Dontloseaccuracybycarelesslyroundingoff. Identical,repetitivecalculationsdonothavetoberepeated.Showonesamplecalculation(labelingitassuch)andthenyoudonthavetorepeatitforall thetrialsbutonlyshowtheresultsobtained. Whencalculatinganaveragevaluefromrepeatedtrials,dontaveragetherawdata.Instead,calculatearesultfromeachtrial.Thenaveragetheendresults fromeachtrialtogetyourfinalexperimentalaverage. ExperimentalErrorsandUncertainties Whentheobjectiveofthelabistoobtainanumericalresult,youmustalsocompareyourexperimentalresultwiththeliteraturevalueanddeterminethe percenterror.Youthenmustanalyzewhethertheerrorisduetorandomerroralone,orwhethersystematicerrorinyourexperimentwasalsopresent. Thisprocessiscallederroranalysis. PRESENTATIONOFRESULTSCRITERIA: Easytofollowandunderstand Comprehensive Appropriatetothenatureoftheresults. Considersummarizingresultsinatable. Graphmaybeuseful,especiallyforseveralvaluesofcontinuousvariables. Showtitleandaxes,usingstandardnotation Useanappropriatesize(largerratherthansmaller) Useanappropriatescale(theoriginmaynotneedtobeincluded) Indicatepointsclearly Showrelationshipbyfittingpointstolineorsmoothcurve Linegraphsmayshowthedegreeofuncertaintyinplottedpointsbyusingerrorbars.
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PresentationofResults Therearemanywaystopresentanddisplayresults.Tablesandlinegraphsareusedveryofteninscience.Butinsomesituations,othertechniquesmight alsobegood.Considertheuseofbarcharts,piegraphs,orhistograms. Graphsmustbedoneongraphpapereitherhanddrawnordonewithcomputerassistance.Inallcases,theaxesofgraphsmustbeclearlylabeledwith thevariableandtheunitsused.Additionally,eachgraphmusthaveatitlethatstateswhatthegraphdepicts.(Examples:Rateofreactionvs.Concentration ofReactant;Pressurevs.VolumeofCarbonDioxide). Yourteacherwillgiveyoufurtherinstructionsongraphingtechniques.

CONCLUSIONandEVALUATION
Aspects Givesavalidconclusionbasedonthe correctinterpretationoftheresults,with anexplanationwhereappropriate, comparesresultswithliteraturevalues Comments Thisiswhereyoudrawconclusionsabouttheexperimentasitrelatestoyouraimandhypothesis Use detailed scientific knowledge to explain a valid conclusion given the evidence available from your results. Compareyourresultswithinformationfrombooksorothersourcesandindicatethereference Trytoidentifytrendsorpatternsintheresultstobackupyourconclusion. Explainhowyourresultssupportordontsupportyouroriginalhypothesisifappropriate. Calculatepercentageerror(SeeAppendixA) Explain how the equipment might you used and/or the school environments have limited the accuracy of yourresults. Statehowtheweaknessesinyourmethodmighthavecontributedtoincorrectresults. Clearly state if the systematic errors are larger or smaller than the random errors and if the experimental resultiswithintherandomerrorsrange.(SeeAppendixA) Identify all the main systematic errors and if possible give some evidence for them. (Do not give trivial errorsasthisindicatesthatyouarenotevaluatingtheprocedure). Includeimprovementscouldyoumaketoyourplantoovercometheweaknessesyouhaveidentified Statewhatfurtherinvestigationswouldyousuggesttotestyourconclusionsorevenextendtheinquiry

Evaluatesprocedure(s)andresults includinglimitationsanderrors

Identifiesweaknessesandstatesrealistic suggestionstoimprovetheinvestigation

TIPSANDSUGGESTIONSFORWRITINGTHECONCLUSIONS/EVALUATION
Conclusions Youwilldrawaconclusionfromyourresults,andsatewhetherornotyourconclusionssupportyourhypothesis.Yourconclusion(s)shouldbeclearlyrelatedto theresearchquestionandthepurposeoftheexperiment.Interpretyourresults.Youmustalsoprovideabriefexplanationastohowyoucametothis conclusionfromyourresults.(Inotherwords,sumuptheevidence)Describeandexplainthetheorybehindcalculationsthatwereperformedonthedata.
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Ifanumericalvalueorresultistheobjectofthelab,youmustcompareitwiththeliteraturevalueandifpossible,calculateapercenterror. Drawconclusionsfromyourresults;dontjustrestateresults. Useactualdata(e.g.chemicalformula,nameofunknown,etc.)fromyourexperimenttodefendyouconclusion. Conclusionsshouldbeclearlyrelatedtotheresearchquestionandpurposeoflab. Explainhowyourconclusionsfollowfromtheresults. Comparewithliteratureoracceptedvalueorreasonablevaluewherepossible. Calculatepercenterrorwherecomparisonispossible LimitationstoConclusions Consideringhowlargeistheerrorsoruncertaintiesinyourresults,howconfidentareyouintheresults?Aretheyfairlyconclusive,orareother interpretations/resultspossible? EffectofError Wasyourvaluetoolow?Whaterrorscontributedtomakingitlow? Wasyourvaluetoohigh?Whaterrorscontributedtomakingittoohigh? Whicherror,ofthoselisted,wasthemostsignificant? Areyourresultsreliable,giventheerrorslisted?Justifythis. Estimatethemagnitudeoferrorsifpossible LimitationsoftheExperimentalProcedure Identifyanddiscusssignificanterrorsandlimitationsthatcouldhaveaffectedtheoutcomeofyourexperiment.Werethereimportantvariablesthatwere notcontrolled?Werethereflawsintheprocedureyouchosewhichcouldaffecttheresults?Aremeasurementsandobservationsreliable?Isprecision unknownbecauseoflackofrepeatedtrials? Youremphasisinthissectionshouldbeonsystematicerrors,nottherandomerrorsthatalwaysoccurinreadinginstrumentsandtakingmeasurements. Youmustidentifythesourceoferrorandifpossible,statehowitprobablyaffectedyourresults. AcceptableExample:Becausethesimplecalorimeterweusedwasmadefromatincan,someheatwaslosttothesurroundingsmetalsconductheatwell. Therefore,thevalueweobtainedfortheheatgainedbythewaterinthecalorimeterwaslowerthanitshouldhavebeen. UnacceptableExamples:ThetesttubeswerentcleanHumanError Limitationsofprocedures Arethereflawsintheprocedureswhichcouldaffecttheresults? Areimportantvariablesnotcontrolled? Aremeasurementsandobservationsreliable? Isprecisionunknownbecauseoflackofreplication? Analyzepossiblesourcesoferror Distinguishsystematicandrandomerror Mainemphasisshouldbeonpossiblesystematicerrors Indicatethedirectionandmagnitudeoftheeffectsonthefinalresult
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 Comparedirectionandmagnitudeofpossibleerrorswiththeobservederror. Sourcesoferrorsuchasspillsshouldhavebeennotedinobservations. Limitationsofconclusions Aretestsconclusive?Areotherinterpretationspossible? Takeaccountofmagnitudesoferrorsanduncertaintiesinconsideringthereliabilitiesandlimitationsofconclusions. SuggestionsforImprovement Suggestimprovementsorfixesfortheweaknessesyouidentifiedintheprevioussection.Thesesuggestionsshouldberealistic,keepinginmindthetypeof equipmentnormallyfoundinhighschoolorcollegegeneralchemistrylabs.Suggestionsshouldfocusonspecificpiecesofequipmentortechniquesyouused. (VaguecommentssuchasWeshouldhaveworkedmorecarefullyorIshouldhavebeengivenabettercalorimeterwon'tcutit!Foridentifiedweaknesses, suggestimprovements Suggestionsshouldberealistic,notinvolvingunavailableequipment Suggestionsshouldbespecific(notmorecarefulwork) Proposedchangesmaydoanyorallofthefollowing Eliminateorreduceerrors Improvecontrolofvariables Reduceapproximations Provideotherproceduresforbettermeasurements. Stateifmodificationsareunnecessaryorimpossible(standardproceduresused)

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DESIGN:
Aspects Formulatesafocused problem/research questionandidentifies therelevantvariables. Comments Expectanopenendedproblemfrom theteacher Usethetitle"researchquestion Donotjustrepeattheteacherstitle Indicatewhatspecificaspectofthe generalproblemyouwillbe investigating Hypothesisisatestablestatementthat predictstherelationshipofthe independentanddependentvariables. Itshouldbespecificanddetailedusing scientificknowledge. Thisshouldbequantitativeifyou're hypothesiscallsforit.(Forhigherlevel, youmaybeexpectedtogointo quantitativedetails) Usuallyintheformifyisdone,thenz willoccur Itshouldbeaslongasisneeded. Independentvariableisthevariable thatyouchange Dependentvariableisthevariable thatrespondstowhatyouhave alreadychanged Controlledvariablesarethevariables thatremainthesame,thethingsthat youfixinordertomaintainafairtest.

Designsamethodforthe effectivecontrolofthe variables.

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DESIGN
Aspects ControllingvariablesDevelopsamethodthat allowsforthecollectionofsufficientrelevant data. Comments Includeacomprehensivelistofeverythingthatyouuseapparatus,chemicals,reagentsetc. Yourlistmustincludeunits,uncertainty,sizesandaccurateconcentrations Drawadetaileddiagramofanysetup

Writethedetailsofaprocedureinchronologicalordernumberlistorparagraphform. Statepreciselyhowyouwillvarytheindependentvariable Statehowyouaregoingtomeasureorobservethedependentvariable Indicatehowmanyreplicateswillbemade. Itisalsoimportanttooutlinewhyoneapproachistakenversusanother,ifappropriate Stateclearlyandexactlywhatyouwilldosothatanyotherstudentcouldfollowyourplan Statewhatnumberandrangeofmeasurementsyouwilluse Includehowmanydifferentandsuitablereadingsyouneed Takeintoaccountthefactthatyouaretryingtocollectpreciseandreliabledata

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TreatmentofErrorandUncertaintyinChemistryMeasurements/HowtodoErrorAnalysisaselfteachingguide 1.Inscience,wearealwaysseekingtobetterunderstandtheworldaroundus.Wedothisbydesigningandcarryingoutexperimentsaccordingtothescientific method.Andintheseexperiments,weareoftenconcernedwithmeasuringsomethingcomingupwithanumericalvalueforsomepropertyorbehaviorwe observe.Eventually,ifwecaninterpretandmakesenseofallthesemeasurements,wemightproposeascientificlawthatallowsustopredictthevaluesin futurecaseswithoutactuallyhavingtoconducttheexperimenteachtime. 2.Butittakesworkandeffort,oftentrialanderror,todesigngoodexperiments.Andeveninawelldesignedexperiment,itisimpossibletomakeabsolutely perfectmeasurements.Therearetwotypesoferrororuncertaintythatwillalwayslimittheprecisionandtheaccuracyofourresults.Thetwotypesarecalled randomerrorandsystematicerror. 1. Randomerrors relatedintakingmeasurementsonimperfecttools(balances,cylinders,etc) canbeestimatedandthedegreeoferrorcanbecalculated. arerelatedtoinsufficientlycontrolledvariationsinexperimental conditions Affectprecision,butnotaccuracy Cannotbeeliminated 2. Systematicerror Usuallyarerelatedtoimproperexperimentaldesignoradjustmentofexperimentalapparatus. Sometimerelatedtoaparticularmethod. Theseerrorssystematicallydistorttheobservations. donotaffectprecision,andcan,intheory,beeliminated. Examples: Stickingorleakinggassyringes. CalibrationerrorsinpHmeters. Stopclockrunninglow. Changesinexternalinfluencessuchastemperatureandatmosphericpressureaffectthemeasurementofgasvolumes,etc. Personalerrorssuchasreadingscalesincorrectly. Unaccountedheatloss. Liquidsevaporating.

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USINGSIGNIFICANTFIGURES Thenumberofsignificantfiguresinanumericalresultisanindicationoftheacceptederrorinanumber.Incountingthenumberofsignificantfiguresthe problemisthedigitzero(0).Therearefiverulesusedincountingthenumberofsignificantfiguresinanumber: 1.Allnonzerodigitsaresignificant, e.g.,12.3hasthreesignificantfiguresand549hasthreesignificantfigures. 2.Zerosbetweennonzerodigitsaresignificant, e.g.,1.03hasthreesignificantfiguresand4023hasfoursignificantfigures. 3.Zerosattheendofanumberaresignificant, Fornumberswithdecimalpoints,zerostotherightofanonzerodigitaresignificant.E.g.,2.00hasthreesignificantfigures,but0.050hastwo(the5& 0inthesecondandthirddecimalplaces). 4.Zerostotheleftofthefirstnonzerodigitarenotsignificant,e.g.,0.84hastwosignificantfigures:eightandfour.Thezeroistermedaplaceholder, meaningthezeroisnotpartofthemeasurement,i.e.,itisnotsignificant. 5.Zerosattheendofanumberwithoutadecimalpointareambiguous, e.g.,80mayhavetwosignificantfiguresoritmayhaveonetheeightwiththezerobeingaplaceholder.Onlythepersonwhocarriedoutthe measurementwouldknow.Theambiguitycanberemovedbyreportingsuchnumbersinscientificorstandardnotation.Writing80as8101meansthat onlyonesignificantfigureispresent,whilewritingitas8.0101meansthattwosignificantfiguresarepresent. 6.Manyphysicalconstants,haveaverylargenumberofdigits,e.g.,thespeedoflightinavacuum,c(299792458ms1).(assumeinfinite) 7.Mathematicalconstants,e.g.,anumbersuchaspi()hasaninfinitenumberofdigits 8.Logarithmscanonlyretainintheirmantissathesamenumberofsignificantfiguresasthereareinthenumberwhoselogarithmyouaretaking. ROUNDINGOFF Sometimesitisnecessarytoroundoff,togivethecorrectnumberofsignificantfigures. 1.Adigitof5orlargerroundsup. 2.Adigitsmallerthan5roundsdown. Forexample,rounding13.654tothreesignificantfiguresgives13.7(the4isignored,the5roundsup). Forexample,rounding13.246tothreesignificantfiguresgives13.2(the6isignored,the4roundsdown).

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 WORKEDEXAMPLE Inanexperimenttomeasuretheenthalpychangeofreactionthefollowingmeasurementsweremade: massofwater=58.0000.0005g temperaturechangeofwater=12.50.05C Heatreleased =massofwaterspecificheatcapacityofwaterchangeintemperature =58.000g4.184Jg1C112.5C=3033.4J Thetemperaturechangewastheleastprecisemeasurement(threesignificantfigures)sotheresultcannotbeexpressedashavingmorethanthreesignificant figures.Thereforetheansweris3030Jor,betterstill,3.03103Jandnot3033.4J. Itisunacceptabletoreportvalueswithmoresignificantfiguresthanindicatedbytheassociateduncertainty.Forexample,in8.370.2cmthesevenhasno meaningandthelengthshouldbereportedas8.30.2cm. TREATMENTOFUNCERTAINTIESINCALCULATIONS Duringanexperimenttherewillbeanumberofuncertaintieswhichwillhavetobeconsideredtogivetheoveralluncertainty.Thisisknownasthepropagation ofuncertainties. 1.ADDINGORSUBTRACTINGMEASUREDQUANTITIESWITHASSOCIATEDUNCERTAINTIES Themaximumabsoluteuncertaintyisthesumoftheindividualuncertainties Dealingwithuncertaintieswhenonevalueisbeingsubtractedfromanother WORKEDEXAMPLE Ifthevaluesoftwotemperaturesare36.30.1Cand56.30.1C,findthedifference. Wefirstsubtractthenominalvalues(56.336.3)=20.0C. Then,theabsoluteuncertaintiesare0.1and0.1,soweaddthese,(0.1+0.1)=0.2. Thefinalansweris20.00.2C. Dealingwithuncertaintieswhenonevalueisbeingaddedtoanother WORKEDEXAMPLE Ifthevaluesoftwotemperaturesare36.30.1Cand56.30.3C,findthesum. Wefirstaddthenominalvalues(56.3+36.3)=92.6C. Theabsoluteuncertaintiesare0.3and0.1,soweaddthese,0.3+0.1=0.4. Thefinalansweris92.60.4C. Theruleforbothexamplesaboveistoaddabsoluteuncertainties.
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2.MULTIPLYINGORDIVIDINGMEASUREDQUANTITIESWITHASSOCIATEDUNCERTAINTIES Ifuncertaintiesaretobemultipliedordividedthenpercentageuncertaintieshavetobeused(totakeintoaccountthatthephysicalquantitieswillhave differentunits).Themaximumpercentageuncertaintyisthesumofthepercentageuncertaintiesforeachoftheindividualquantities. WORKEDEXAMPLE Ifwewanttocalculatethepowerdevelopedduringanenergychangeof44.010.05J,andthetimeoverwhichitoccurred,namely2.100.05s,we: 1.takeeachoftheuncertainties, 2.divideitbythegivenvalue,andthen, 3.multiplyby100toobtainapercentage. Inthiscase,for44.010.05Jwehave: For2.100.05swehave:

0.05 100 = 0.11% 44.01

0.05 100 = 2.38% 2.10

Thetwopercentageuncertaintiesarethenadded:(0.11%+2.38%)=2.49% So,

(44.01 0.05) J 44.01 = 2.49% = 20.96 Js-1 2.49 (2.10 0.05) s 2.10 2.49 Now,wedetermine2.49%of20.96: 20.96 = 0.52 100

So,ourfinalansweris,20.960.52Js1or(20.960.52)Js1. Notethattherelativeuncertaintymustbeconvertedbackintoanabsoluteuncertainty: i.e.,21Js12.5%=0.52,buttoonesignificantdigiti.e.0.5sinceuncertaintiesarethemselvesapproximateandarenotgiventomorethanonesignificant figure. Therefore.

(44.01 0.05) J = 21.0 0.5Js 1 (2.10 0.05) s

Theruleistoconverttheabsoluteuncertaintiestopercentageuncertainties,thenconvertthem backtoanabsoluteuncertaintyafterthecalculation.
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WORKEDEXAMPLE(THERMOCHEMISTRY) Theheatcapacityofacoppercanis501JK1andinanexperimentatemperatureriseof4.00.2Cisobtained. Theuncertaintyintheheatcapacityis1JK1,inpercentageterms=. Thepercentageuncertaintyinthetemperaturereadingis

1 100 = 2 % 50

0.2 100 = 5 % 4.0

So,themaximumpercentageuncertaintyis(2%+5%)=7% Now,heatenergyreleased =heatcapacityofcoppercantemperaturerise =(504.0)J7%=2007%=(20014)J (Note,7%of200is14.) Theanswerisbestexpressedinscientificnotation:(2.00.14)102J=(2.00.1)102J BASICRULESFORPROPAGATIONOFUNCERTAINTIES Rule Example 1 Whenaddingorsubtractinguncertainvalues,addtheabsolute Initialtemp.=34.50C(0.05)FinalTemp.=45.21C(0.05) uncertainties T=45.2134.5=10.71C (0.05+0.05=0.1C) Tshouldbereportedas 10.70.1C 2 Whenmultiplyingordividingaddthepercentageuncertainties Mass=9.24g(0.005g) Volume=14.1cm3(0.05cm3) a b c d Makecalculations Density=9.24/14.1=0.655g/cm3

Convertabsoluteuncertaintiestopercentage/fractional/ Mass:0.005/9.24x100=0.054% relativeuncertainties Vol:0.05/14.1x100=0.35% Addpercentageuncertainties Converttotaluncertaintybacktoabsoluteuncertainty 0.054+0.35=0.40% Density=0.655g/cm3(0.40%) 0.655*0.4/100=0.00262 Density=0.6550.003g/cm3 4.950.05x10=49.50.5

3 Multiplyingordividingbyapure(whole)number: multiplyordividetheuncertaintybythatnumber.

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4 Powers: (4.3.5cm)3=4.33(.5/4.3)*3 th Whenraisingtothen power,multiplythe%uncertaintyby =79.5cm3(0.349%) n. =79.50.3cm3 th Whenextractingthen root,dividethe%uncertaintybyn. 5 Graphing Graphingisanexcellentwaytoaveragearangeofvalues.Whenarangeofvaluesisplottedeachpointshouldhaveerrorbarsdrawnonit.Thesize ofthebariscalculatedfromtheuncertaintyduetorandomerrors.Anylinethatisdrawnshouldbewithintheerrorbarsofeachpoint. Ifitisnotpossibletodrawalineofbestfitwithintheerrorbarsthenthesystematicerrorsaregreaterthantherandomerrors.
Rate of Reaction
16 14 concentration (Molarity) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 time (seconds) 4 5 6

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PrecisionandUncertaintiesforCommonLabEquipment Whenyourecordascientificmeasurement,thelastdigitthatyourecordisunderstoodtohavesomeuncertainty,andtobeyourbestestimate.Whenreading nonelectronicdevicessuchasrulers,thermometers,andglassware,thegeneralruleofthumbisto"readbetweenthelines"!Thismeansthatyoucanestimate onemoredigitordecimalplacethanthedeviceismarked.ButthisruledoesNOTAPPLYtoelectronicequipment(suchasabalanceorelectronicthermometer) whichgivesyouadirectdigitalreadout.Forthesedigitaldevices,yourteacherwillprovideyoutheprecisionoftheinstrument. Thefollowinguncertaintiesapplytocarefulmeasurementsmadebyatrainedobserver: Length(commonmetricrulers):+/0.01cm(or0.1mm) Mass(electronicbalances):always+/oneunitinthelastdigit.Thismeansthatacommoncentigrambalanceis+/0.01grams;amilligrambalance+/0.001 grams. VolumetricGlassware 10mLgraduatedcylinder: +/0.02mL(alwaysrecordto2decimalplaces) 25mLgraduatedcylinder: +/0.1mL(alwaysrecordto1decimalplaces) 100mLgraduatedcylinder: +/0.5mL(alwaysrecordto1decimalplace) 500mLgraduatedcylinder: +/5mL 50mLburet: +/0.02mL(alwaysrecordto2decimalplaces) 10mLgraduatedpipet: +/0.01mL(alwaysrecordto2decimalplaces) Fixedvolumepipets(glass): +/0.2%ofthecapacity(Ex:25mL=+/0.05mL) BeakersandFlasks:Approximately5%ofthecapacity.(Butofcourse,youwouldneveruseoneofthesetomeasureapreciseamountofliquid,wouldyou?) Thermometer (alcoholormercury): +/0.2oC TICBLtemperatureprobe: +/0.1oC pHMeasurements pHpaper: +/1pHunit(pHpapergivesa"quickanddirty"estimate) TICBLpHprobe: +/0.1pHunits(eventhoughitreadsoutto0.01). pressure TICBLpressureprobe:+/2kPa(eventhoughitmayreadouttodecimalplaces)

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GROUP4PROJECT TheGroupIVProjectistoemphasizeinterdisciplinarycooperationandtheprocessesinvolvedinscientificinvestigationratherthantheproductsof
such investigation. A scientific investigation requires that a problem should be identified. An answer (hypothesis) is proposed and research takes place to test thevalidityofthehypothesis.Scientificresearchshouldbemethodicalandlogical.
INTERDISCIPLINARY Allthesciencesareinvolved(i.e.alltheIBstudents) Allwillbeworkingonthesametheme. Allwillbeinvestigatingthesameproblemfromdifferentperspectives. TEAMWORK Youwillbeworkingaspartofateamof3to4students.Thismeansthatyourpersonalskillswillbetested. PersonalSkillsGroup4Project Complete/2 Partial/1 Notatall/0 Completestheprojectbutsometimes Lacksperseveranceandmotivation. Selfmotivation Approachestheprojectwithself lacksselfmotivation. motivationandfollowsitthrough and tocompletion. perseverance Workingwithina Collaboratesandcommunicatesina team groupsituationandintegratesthe viewsofothers. Selfreflection Showsathoroughawarenessof theirownstrengthsandweaknesses andgivesthoughtfulconsideration totheirlearningexperience. Exchangessomeviewsbutrequires guidancetocollaboratewithothers. Showslimitedawarenessoftheir ownstrengthsandweaknessesand givessomeconsiderationtotheir learningexperience. Makeslittleornoattemptto collaborateinagroupsituation. Showsnoawarenessoftheirown strengthsandweaknessesandgivesno considerationtotheirlearning experience.

Earned

WHATKINDOFPROBLEM? Thechoiceofproblemtoinvestigateshouldhavemoral,ethical,social,economicorenvironmentalimplications.Itshouldbeaproblemwhichprovidesenough scopeforallthedifferentsciencegroups. WHATKINDOFPROJECT? Theprojectwillbeselectedbythestudents.Itisyouridea. Needlesstosaytheteacherswillbeonhandtogiveadviceconcerningfeasibilityintermsoftimeandmaterials,safetyandethics. Theprojectmayhaveahandsonpracticalactionphaseoroneinvolvingpurelytheoreticalaspects.Itcouldbeundertakeninawiderangeofways.

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 Designingandcarryingoutalaboratoryinvestigationorfieldwork. Carryingoutacomparativestudy(experimentalorotherwise)incollaborationwithanotherschool. Collating,manipulatingandanalyzingdatafromothersources,suchasscientificjournals, environmentalorganizations,scienceandtechnologyindustriesandgovernmentreports. Designingandusingamodelorsimulation. Contributingtoalongtermprojectorganizedbytheschool. TheplanningstagewillbecompletedthefirstyearofIB,thetopicwillbedecidedupon,andprovisionaldiscussioninindividualsubjectswilltakeplaceatthe endofthefirstyear.Studentswilltackletheprojectandwouldbereadytostartworkearlyinthesecondyear. PROJECTSTAGES The10hoursallocatedtothegroup4project,whicharepartoftheteachingtimesetasideforIA. Planning: Youwillberequiredtoturnaproposalatthecompletionofthisstage.ThisstagewillbecompletedattheendofyourfirstyearinIBscience. ThisstageiscrucialtothewholeexerciseandyouwillbegiventimeaftertheAPandIBtestinMaytoworkinyourgroupstoformulatearesearchquestionand hypothesisandtoresearchyourtopic.Inresearchingyourtopicyouneedtodeterminewhatisknownaboutyourtopicandyourresearchquestion.Yourgroup willneedtodeveloparesearchplanandsubmitaformalproposal. Afterselectingatopicorissue,theactivitiestobecarriedoutmustbeclearlydefinedbeforemovingfromtheplanningstagetotheactionandevaluation stages.

ThegWHATISAPROPOSAL?
Aproposalforaprojectalwaysprecedestheactualprojectactionphase.Inaproposaloneoutlinesthreethings: Thenatureoftheproject Whatispresentlyknownaboutthistopic Aresearchplan Usetheinternetorlibraryresourcestoidentifywhohasdoneresearchintothisorrelatedareasandwhattheirfindingswere.Thisdoesnothavetobeverylong but should demonstrate that you have taken the time to inform yourself about the area of science you plan to operate in. Make sure that you record the referencesandattachthemtoyourresearch. 4ject Action: EarlyduringyoursecondyearofIBscience,adaywillbesetasidefortheactionstageofyourproject.Thereshouldbecollaborationduringtheactionstage; findingsofinvestigationsshouldbesharedwithotherstudentswithinyourgroup.Duringthisstage,inanypracticallybased activity,itisimportanttopayattentiontosafety,ethicalandenvironmentalconsiderations. Evaluation: Theemphasisduringthisstageisonstudentssharingtheirfindings,bothsuccessesandfailures,withotherstudents.

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Sources: http://occ.ibo.orgChemistryGuide,InternalAssessment http://occ.ibo.orgChemistryResourcebyRuthSanderson http://occ.ibo.orgChemistryResourcebyJulieSykes http://home.comcast.net/~christylthomas/aplaberrors.pdf#search='types%20of%20errors%20chemistry' http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/SigFigs/SigFigRules.html http://www.colby.edu/chemistry/PChem/scripts/error.html http://www.mwiseman.com/courses/chem_ib/units/unit01.jsp;APChemistryLabManualPalmHarbor UniversityHS,Florida;Chem%20Lab%20Manual%20Sample%20Pages;t teacherweb.capousd.org/custom/WMRedding/Internal%20Assessment%20Guide.doc

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