Sci Dim 4 CB

Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and
associated companies around the world

>>>
essential learning
Greg Rickard
Geoff Phillips
Janette Ellis
Faye Jeffery
Peter Roberson
Pearson Education Australia
A division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd
Level 9, 5 Queens Road
Melbourne 3004 Australia
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools

Offices in Sydney, Brisbane and Perth, and associated companies throughout the world.
Copyright Pearson Education Australia 2006
First published 2006
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes
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Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Science dimensions 4: coursebook.
Includes index.
For secondary students.
ISBN 0 7339 7551 8 (coursebook).
ISBN 978 0 7339 7551 6 (coursebook).
1. Science - Textbooks. 2. Science - Problems, exercises, etc.
I. Rickard, Greg.
500
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, should any infringement have
occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite copyright holders to contact them.
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5 Health and disease 172
5.1 Health 173
Science at work: Analysing Aboriginal health 178
5.2 Diseases and disorders 180
5.3 Infectious diseases 183
5.4 Transmission and control of infectious
diseases 193
Science at work: Understanding HIVAIDS 201
5.5 Non-infectious medical conditions 204
Chapter review 215
6 Movement 216
6.1 Describing movement 217
6.2 Acceleration 229
6.3 No force, no change: inertia 234
6.4 A force made me do it! 240
6.5 Action and reaction 245
6.6 Falling down 249
6.7 Movement needs energy 256
Chapter review 262
7 Using space 264
7.1 Rockets 265
Science at work: History of rockets:
Looking back 270
7.2 Satellites 273
7.3 Life in space 279
7.4 Future space travel 285
Chapter review 291
8 Electromagnetism
and electronics 292
8.1 Electromagnetism 293
8.2 Waves 304
Science at work: Microwaves cook from
the inside 313
8.3 Communication networks 314
8.4 Electronics 323
Chapter review 333
9 Global issues 335
9.1 Global warming 336
9.2 Ozone layer 346
9.3 Nuclear radiation 350
9.4 Nuclear power 358
Chapter review 366
Index 367
CD licence information 372
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Series features iv
How to use this book vi
Curriculum grids viii
Acknowledgements 1
1 Materials 2
1.1 Pure metals and alloys 3
1.2 Mining for metals 9
1.3 Corrosion of metals 20
1.4 Plastics and fibres 25
Science at work: Understanding nanotechnology 37
1.5 Coming clean 41
Chapter review 46
2 Chemical reactions 47
2.1 Chemistry: the story so far 85
Science at work: Maths in chemistry 59
2.2 More and faster: rate and yield 62
2.3 Strictly organic 72
2.4 Green chemistry 79
Chapter review 84
3 Evolution 85
3.1 The evolution of a theory 86
Science at work: Alternative to evolution:
Interpreting ideas 94
3.2 Evolution explained 96
3.3 Evidence for evolution 104
3.4 Human evolution 115
Science at work: Putting flesh on old bones:
Archaeology in Australia today 123
Chapter review 128
4 Genetics 130
4.1 Inheritance 131
4.2 Human inheritance 141
4.3 Chemical code for life 150
4.4 Controlling inheritance 157
Science at work: Biotechnology and DNA
fingerprinting: Understanding
technology 165
Chapter review 170
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Science Dimensions 4
The complete Standards-based science package!
Science Dimensions 4 has been designed for the
Victorian Essential Learning Standards at level 6.
The coursebook consists of chapters with the following features:
the most up-to-date science content, based on the Standards and presented in
units that are easy to read and follow
Science at work sections that offer a variety of exploration and assignment
activities for all students
practical activities
Science at work special features focusing on various areas of science
to allow further exploration of key ideas.
Each coursebook includes an interactive Student CD containing:
electronic version of the coursebook
Companion Website on CD
link to live Companion Website.
Science Dimensions 4 Coursebook
Includes Student CD
The Companion Website is available live and is also
included on the Student CD. It contains a wealth of support
material for students and teachers that has been written to
enhance teaching and learning:
Review Questions: autocorrecting multiple choice, labelling,
matching, and ll-in-the-blanks questions
Web Destinations: a list of reviewed websites that support
Science at Work activities, and which can be used for general
research and exploration
Interactive Animations to engage students in exploring ideas
Drag and Drop Interactives to revise key terms and diagrams
QuickTime Videos to explore chemical concepts in a visually
stimulating way
Interactive Crosswords to revise basic concepts and key
terms for each chapter
Teacher Resource Centre: a password-protected part of the
site containing the teacher resources found on the Teachers
Edition CD.
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary
Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website
iv
The Homework Book provides a structured homework
program to complement the coursebook. These activities:
cover various skills required in science
offer consolidation and interesting extension activities
provide revision activities, including the construction
of a glossary
cater for multiple intelligences through varied
activity types.
Science Dimensions 4 Homework Book
For more information on the Science Dimensions series,
visit
Science Dimensions 4 Teachers Edition
The innovative Teachers Edition allows any teacher to condently approach the
teaching and learning of science using the Science Dimensions 4 package.
The Teachers Edition:
includes pages from the student book with wrap-around teacher notes
outlines the Standards covered by activities and sections of the student book
contains a wealth of VELS-based practical ideas, strategies and activities directly
related to content in the student book and designed to enhance learning in the
classroom
contains hints for performing practicals, and answers to prac questions
outlines how to integrate Science Dimensions 4 resources into your
teaching, with tips on how these resources may be used to enhance learning
includes a copy of the Student CD and the Teachers Edition CD.
The Teachers Edition CD provides a wealth of teacher support
material. These documents are editable and include:
coursebook answers
Homework Book answers
a chapter test and answers for each chapter, in MS Word
to allow editing by the teacher
teaching programs that map VELS outcomes to the
coursebook
curriculum grids that map VELS outcomes to the
coursebook
risk assessments for practical activities
safety notes for practical activities
laboratory technicians checklist and recipes.
Includes Teachers Edition CD and Student CD
v
Science Dimensions 4 has been designed for
the Victorian Essential Learning Standards at level 6.
It includes material that addresses the Standards in
the Discipline-based Strand of Science, and various
Standards in the Physical, Personal and Social
Learning Strand, and the Interdisciplinary Learning
Strand. The content is presented through varied
contexts to engage students in seeing the relationship
between science and their everyday lives.
The coursebook consists of chapters with the
following features:
illustrations and Science Snippet boxes in a format
that is easy to read and follow. Other features appear
when relevant, such as case studies.
Unit review sections

that are divided into
straightforward Revision
questions that build
confidence and give all
students success, leading
to Thinking questions
requiring application
and higher level
problem-solving, and
Analysis questions
to develop analytical
skills.
Science at work
sections after the unit
that offer a variety of
exploration and assignment
activities. Each section
contains structured tasks,
including research, creative
writing, analysis, Internet
activities, modelling
and design your own
investigations suitable
for all students. Science
at work activities cater
Science is a fascinating, informative and enjoyable
subject for many reasons.
It helps us understand why things happen in our
daily lives, on planet Earth, and beyond. Why do you
feel as if you are being flung when a car turns a corner?
What actually is this thing we call electricity? How
do energy and nutrients from food get to various parts
of our bodies? How can scientists search for alien life
without travelling for hundreds of thousands of years
to distant planets?
Science provides answers to questions like these
and much more. Not only that, but science teaches
us how to answer many questions ourselves, without
necessarily referring to books or other sources.
Chapter-opening pages
that include:
VELS Learning Focus
statement
The Standards relevant
to the chapter content
Getting started questions
to stimulate interest and
test prior knowledge.
Units that open with an introduction to encourage

students to make meaning of science in terms of
their everyday experiences. The units also reinforce
contextual learning by presenting theory, photos,
vi
for a range of learning styles using the multiple
intelligences approach, and may be used for extending
more able students.
These activities cover many Standards of the
VELS, particularly drawing on Standards in the
Physical, Personal and Social Learning Strand, and
Interdisciplinary Learning Strand.
Practical activities that are placed at the end of

the unit to allow teachers to choose when and how to
best incorporate the practical work. Icons
for practical activities are included in the
unit theory to signal suggested points for
practical work.
Do not forget the other Science Dimensions 4
components that will help engage and excite students
in science:
Science Dimensions 4 Homework Book
Science Dimensions 4 Teachers Edition, including

Teachers Edition CD.
Prac 3
p. 69
The use of data loggers

is suggested by a special
icon, although practical
activities are not dependent
on such equipment. The
practical activities have
been tried and tested to
ensure they will work, and
are safe to perform in the
classroom.
at work features allow students to explore science in
further detail through a range of engaging activities
using a multiple intelligences approach. They also
cover various Standards of the VELS, particularly
drawing on Standards in the Physical, Personal and
Social Learning Strand, and Interdisciplinary Learning
Strand.
Chapter review
questions that follow
the last unit in
each chapter. These
cover all chapter
outcomes in a variety
of question styles to
provide opportunities
for all students to
consolidate new
knowledge and skills.
The Science Dimensions 4 coursebook also includes
new Science at work features throughout the
book. These are special features ranging from two
to four pages that focus on various areas of science,
including: the history of science, the impact of science
on society and the environment, current research and
development, and Indigenous science. These Science
Other icons used in Science Dimensions 4 coursebook:
The Homework book icon indicates an activity

that is available in the Science Dimensions 4
Homework Book.
The CW icon indicates when an

activity is available for students on the
Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website.
The text written around the icon indicates the type of
activity that is available. In the electronic version of
the coursebook on CD these icons are directly linked
to the actual activity for your convenience.
The Science Dimensions 4 package
vii
Homework book 3.7 Sci-words
Level 6 Standards for Science Dimensions 3 & 4
Learning focus Science Dimensions 3 Science Dimensions 4
As students work towards the achievement of Level 6 standards in Science they
extend their concept of science as a way of knowing to include an understanding
of how scientific theories and models drawn from traditional and emerging
sciences are based on evidence that may initially be tentative and limited
UNITS
1.2
2.2
3.3
4.1, 4.2, 4.3
5.1
6.1, 6.3
7.1
8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.3, 9.4
10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4
UNITS
1.4
2.4
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
4.1, 4.3, 4.4
5.3, 5.4
6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
7.3, 7.4
8.1, 8.2, 8.3
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
for example: atomic structure, natural selection and evolution, development of
medicines, genetic inheritance, the genesis of the Universe
1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.1
3.3
4.1, 4.2
9.1
10.1
1.1, 1.2, 1.3
2.1, 2.3
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
7.3
9.3, 9.4
explore the ways in which scientific theories are both powerful
(in guiding thinking and investigation) and tentative (in being open
to change) at the same time
1.2
3.3
4.2, 4.3
5.1
6.1, 6.3
8.2, 8.4
9.4
10.1, 10.3, 10.4
1.4
2.2, 2.4
3.1, 3.3
4.4
5.3, 5.4
7.3, 7.4
8.3
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
understand that the features of science as a way of knowing lead to it being:
empirical and non-empirical, creative and methodical, and speculative and logical
All chapters, all units All chapters, all units
develop a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the relationships between
force, mass and movement
4.2 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
7.1, 7.2, 7.3
consider how coordination and regulation of functions occurs in plants and
animals
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 6.1, 6.2
investigate the adaptive behaviours which enable plants and animals to survive in
their environments
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
consider possible adaptive behaviours which may be needed for future survival 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1
3.1, 3.2, 3.4
4.4
5.3
7.3, 7.4
9.2
explore the role of DNA and genes in determining patterns of inheritance 9.1
10.1
4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
5.5
Discipline-based Learning Strand: Science
Science Dimensions 3 and 4 are written for
the Victorian Essential Learning Standards
at level 6. The following grid shows
the Learning Focus and Standards from
the Discipline-based Learning Strand of
Science. Science Dimensions also integrates
Standards from the following domains:
Strand: Physical, Personal
and Social Learning
Health and Physical
Education
Interpersonal Learning
Personal Learning
Civics and Citizenship
Strand: Interdisciplinary Learning
Communication
Design, Creativity and
Technology
ICT
Thinking
viii
For a more detailed correlation grid, see the Science Dimensions 4
Teachers Edition CD.
investigate how energy may be responsible for the changes observed in
biological, chemical and physical processes and applications
UNITS
2.1, 2.2
3.1, 3.3
4.2
5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
6.1, 6.3
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
8.2, 8.3
UNITS
1.2, 1.3
2.1, 2.2
6.7
7.1, 7.4
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.3, 9.4
for example: electromagnetism, polarisation of light, the operation of electronic
systems, endothermic and exothermic reactions, rate of reaction, production
of new materials, photosynthesis and respiration, cell division (mitosis and
meiosis), action of micro-organisms, energy flow through ecosystems, optics;
photonics, transmission of nerve impulses, energy flow through ecosystems,
and the cycling of matter (including water, carbon and minerals) in ecosystems.
1.5
2.2, 2.3
3.1, 3.2
5.1, 5.2, 5.4
6.1, 6.2, 6.3
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
8.2, 8.3
9.1, 9.4
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
4.1, 4.3, 4.4
5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
7.1, 7.2
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3
investigate sources of waste generated within the community and consider waste
treatment and management options
6.1, 6.2 1.2, 1.4
2.2, 2.3, 2.4
5.5
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
learn how wastes are generated in the processing of natural materials and how
the management of these wastes contributes to environmental sustainability
6.1, 6.2, 6.3 1.2
2.2, 2.3, 2.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
investigate, create and produce a range of strategies and products that explore,
encourage and communicate the responsible use and management of natural
and processed resources
6.2, 6.3 1.2, 1.3
2.2, 2.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
make links across related areas of science, for example: biotechnology,
communication satellites, neuroscience, resource management, green chemistry
and habitat renewal
2.4
3.3
4.1, 4.2, 4.3
6.1, 6.2, 6.3
7.1, 7.3
8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4
1.1, 1.2, 1.4
2.1, 2.2, 2.4
3.3, 3.4
4.3, 4.4
5.5
6.1
7.1, 7.2, 7.3
8.1, 8.2, 8.3
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
explore the opportunities for employment in science-related occupations and
industries in their community, and consider the dynamic and collaborative
nature of these roles
3.3
9.3
10.1, 10.2, 10.4
learn that scientific theories are both powerful and never final 1.2
3.1
4.1, 4.2, 4.3
5.1
10.1
1.4
2.4
3.3, 3.4
4.4
5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
7.4
8.3
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
learn that clarity is always assumed to be a significant attribute of science
theories, and that the use of a theory to successfully predict the consequences
of changes to situations is important in the validation of the theory
1.3
2.1, 2.2, 2.3
3.1, 3.2, 3.3
4.2
5.1, 5.2
6.1, 6.2
7.1, 7.3
8.2, 8.3
9.1
1.2, 1.3
2.1, 2.2
3.2, 3.3
4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
5.2, 5.3
6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7
8.1, 8.2
9.1
design and conduct scientific investigations of their choice in ways that lead to
the collection, interpretation and presentation of valid data
3.1, 3.2, 3.3
6.1, 6.3
7.2, 7.3
8.1, 8.4
9.1
1.5
6.2, 6.3, 6.7
8.2
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learn to use correct units of measurement when recording quantities UNITS
2.1, 2.4
8.1
UNITS
5.1
6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7
8.2, 8.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3
use Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) when appropriate 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
prepare investigation reports using a variety of formats, learning to use
symbols and diagrams extensively to illustrate procedures and data analysis,
and support the conclusions drawn and presented
develop an understanding of the constancy of the big ideas of science
(matter, energy, time and space) and science methodologies across different
areas and contexts
1.2, 1.3
2.2
4.1, 4.2
5.1
6.1, 6.2
7.1, 7.3
9.1
2.1
3.2
4.1, 4.3
6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7
8.1, 8.2
9.1, 9.3, 9.4
debate, from the basis of scientific knowledge, the merits and problems of
science-related issues that are reported in the popular media, particularly those
that embrace a clear ethical dimension
1.1
6.3
7.1
9.3, 9.4
10.1, 10.2, 10.3
1.2
2.4
3.4
4.4
5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
6.3, 6.6
7.3, 7.4
8.3
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
explore the ways in which science concepts, language and perspectives can
be misunderstood and misrepresented
1.1
3.1, 3.3
9.4
10.1, 10.2
3.4
4.1, 4.2, 4.4
5.3, 5.4, 5.5
6.3, 6.6
9.1, 9.2
apply their conceptual understandings to the consideration of issues significant
to themselves as individuals and to the broader society in which they live;
for example: stem cell research, personal safety, a clean and healthy
environment, energy use, ecological footprints and robotics
2.3, 2.4
3.3
4.3
5.3
6.1, 6.2, 6.3
7.1, 7.2, 7.3
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
10.1, 10.2
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
3.4
4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
6.1, 6.2, 6.3
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
for example: tourism in space 7.3
for example: electronic gadgets 1.4
8.4
for example: the history and philosophy of science 1.1, 1.2, 1.5
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
3.3
4.1, 4.2
5.1, 5.3
6.3
7.1, 7.3
8.2
9.4
10.1, 10.2
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4
2.2, 2.4
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
4.1, 4.3, 4.4
5.3, 5.4
6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
for example: ethics and science research 7.1
9.4
10.1, 10.3
1.2, 1.4
2.4
3.4
4.4
5.3, 5.4
7.3, 7.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
x
Standards: Science knowledge and understanding Science Dimensions 3 Science Dimensions 4
At level 6, students
explain the behaviour and properties of materials in terms of their constituent
particles and the forces holding them together
UNITS
1.1, 1.3, 1.4
2.1
4.2
UNITS
1.1, 1.3, 1.5
2.1
9.2, 9.3, 9.4
explain how similarities in the chemical behaviour of elements and their
compounds and their atomic structures are represented in the way the
periodic table has been constructed
1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 1.1. 1.4
2.1, 2.3
use the periodic table to write electronic configurations for a range of
elements representative of the major groups and periods in the periodic table
1.3, 1.5
2.1
2.1
use atomic symbols and balanced chemical equations to summarise chemical
reactions, including neutralisation, precipitation and combustion
1.1, 1.2, 1.5
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
6.1
7.1, 7.3
1.2, 1.3
2.1, 2.2, 2.3
identify and classify the sources of wastes generated, and describe their
management, within the community and in industry
6.1, 6.2, 6.3 1.2, 1.4
2.3, 2.4
9.3, 9.4
use a specific example to explain the sustainable management of a resource 6.2, 6.3 2.2, 2.4
9.1, 9.4
explain change in terms of energy in a range of biological, chemical and
physical contexts
2.2, 2.3
3.3
4.1, 4.2
5.1, 5.2, 5.3
6.1, 6.3
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
8.2, 8.3
10.3, 10.4
1.2, 1.3. 1.5
2.1, 2.2
6.7
7.1
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.4
demonstrate the link between natural selection and evolution 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
explain the role of DNA and genes in cell division and genetic inheritance 9.1
10.1
4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
5.5
9.3, 9.4
explain how the coordination and regulatory functions within plants and
animals assist them to survive in their environments
8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 3.1, 3.3
explain how the action of micro-organisms can be both beneficial and
detrimental to society
6.1, 6.2
7.1
9.4
10.1, 10.3
2.4
5.2, 5.3, 5.4
apply concepts of geological time to elaborate their explanations of both
natural selection and evolution, and the origin and evolution of the Universe
3.1, 3.2 3.3, 3.4
give both qualitative and quantitative explanations of the relationships
between force, mass and movement
3.3 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
xi
Standards: Science at work Science Dimensions 3 Science Dimensions 4
At level 6, students
describe the science base of science-related occupations in their local
community
UNITS
3.3
9.3
10.1, 10.2, 10.3
use the relevant science concepts and relationships as one dimension of
debating contentious and/or ethically based science-related issues of broad
community concern
4.3
6.2, 6.3
7.1, 7.2
9.3, 9.4
10.1, 10.3
1.1, 1.4
2.2, 2.3, 2.4
3.1, 3.3, 3.4
4.4
5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4
7.3, 7.4
8.3
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
demonstrate an awareness of the ways in which scientific vocabulary is used
incorrectly in the mass media, distinguishing between the intended meaning
of such terms and their meaning in non-scientific contexts
1.1
6.3
9.4
10.1, 10.2
3.4
6.7
7.3, 7.4
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
provide two examples of the work of scientists that demonstrate different
approaches to developing scientific knowledge or solving a scientific problem
1.2
4.2
7.3
3.1
4.1
5.1
6.6
9.1
formulate their own hypotheses and plan and conduct investigations in order
to prove or disprove them
3.1, 3.2, 3.3
6.1, 6.3
7.2, 7.3
8.1, 8.3, 8.4
9.1
1.5
6.2, 6.3, 6.7
8.1, 8.2
9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
use chemicals (including biomaterials), equipment, electronic components
and instruments responsibly and safely
select appropriate equipment and measurement procedures that will ensure
a high degree of reliability in data collected and enable valid conclusions to
be drawn
construct working models and visual aids that demonstrate
scientific ideas
1.1
3.2, 3.3
6.3
8.2
9.2
10.1, 10.3
1.4
2.1, 2.3
3.3
4.3
6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.5
7.1
8.1, 8.4
present experimental results using appropriate data presentation formats, and
comment on the nature of experimental errors
use Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and risk assessment to evaluate the
safety of their investigations
1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
evaluate the appropriateness of the experimental design and methodology
used to investigate their predictions
xii
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The Age: p. 7.
ANT Photo Library: Brian Chudleigh/ANTPhoto.com, p. 86t;
Norbert Wu/ANTPhoto.com, p. 107t.
Auscape: pp. 96l, 100tl.
Australian Associated Press: AP Photo, pp. 62l, 361; AP
Photo/Tyler Morning Telegraph/Dr Scott Lieberman, p. 277t.
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
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Australian Picture Library: pp. 5l, 5br, 14l, 20bl, 27tr, 29b,
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Bowler, Jim: pp. 123r, 125, 126b; Putting flesh on old bones:
Archaeology in Australia today, originally published in
Science Focus 4 by Kerry Whalley et al., Pearson Education
Australia, 2005, pp. 2559.
CSIRO: p. 339r.
CSIRO Human Nutrition: CSIRO Human Nutrition,
reproduced from 12345+ Food and Nutrition Plan by K.
Baghurst et al., 1990, by permission of CSIRO Australia, p. 174t.
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research: CSIRO Marine
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CSIRO Minerals: p. 12l.
Cosmos Magazine: p. 286; Courtesy of Cosmos Magazine,
originally published in Cosmo Magazine, Issue 4 October
2005, p. 65b. Image Source: Virgin Galactic.
DeLillo, Jim: p. 320t.
Dorling Kindersely: pp. 9r, 47, 315r; courtesy of the Natural
History Museum, London, pp. 65bl, 106b.
DW Stock Picture Library: p. 86b.
Energy Information Administration: data supplied by Energy
Information Administration, p. 344.
European Space Agency: ESA/CNES/ARIANESPACEService
Optique CSG, p. 266t.
Fairfax Photo Library: Matthew Bouwmeester, p. 257l; Bryan
Charlton, p. 224; Rick Stevens, p. 218b.
Getty Images: pp. 80r, 85, 87c, 115, 175b, 202r, 205t, 216,
257r, 285.
Heffernan, David: pp. 323, 324br, 325cl, 325cr, 326tr, 327bl.
Jupiter Images Corporation: 2006 Jupiterimages
Corporation, p. 128r.
Karl S. Kruszelnicki Pty Ltd: Great moments in science:
Microwaves cook from the inside by Dr Karl Kruszelnicki,
<www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments/s1204808.htm>.
Lochman Transparencies: p. 87b.
NASA: pp. 246r, 251t, 264, 270l, 271bl, 272b, 273t, 276b, 279,
283r, 284, 291, 336; NASAGoddard Space Flight Center,
p. 348; NASAMarshall Space Flight Center, pp. 280, 281r.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: p. 276tl.
News Ltd: pp. 11l, 127, 161tl, 362tl.
Pearson Education Australia: Elizabeth Anglin, pp. 25l, 157r,
166t, 211br, 313; Natalie Book, p. 79r; Chemistry Contexts 1
by Debbie Irwin, Ross Farrelly and Patrick Garnett, Longman,
2001, pp. 49, 63; Tricia Confoy, p. 20tr; Leanne Hall, pp. 8,
79l; Ben Killingsworth, pp. 73bl, 184tl; Peter Saffin, p. 143l;
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Peter MacCallum Institute: p. 354.
Photolibrary: pp. 4l, 11tr, 12l, 27tr, 30t, 31t, 31b, 36, 38t, 39tr,
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p. 320c.
Picture Desk, The: Paramount/The Kobal Collection, p. 288r.
Picture Source, The: p. 30b.
Resource Imaging Australia: Landsat image supplied by
Resource Imaging Australia, p. 276tr.
Reuters: Pascal Rossignol/Reuters/Picture Media, p. 258.
Rickard, Greg: pp. 4r, 5tr, 21, 41r.
Royal, Paul: p. 81b.
South Australian Museum: p. 105r.
Telstra: p. 308bl.
Visy Recycling: p. 28t.
Willandra World Heritage Area Three Traditional Tribal
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1
1
Materials
L
E
V
E
L

6
Standards:
Science knowledge and understanding
Learning focus
G
e
t
t
i
n
g

s
t
a
r
t
e
d
Students:
investigate how energy may be responsible for the
changes observed in chemical processes and applications
such as exothermic reactions and the production of
new materials
investigate sources of waste generated within the
community
learn how wastes are generated in the processing of
natural materials
investigate strategies that explore the responsible use
of natural and processed resources
make links across related areas of science, for example,
resource management and habitat renewal
design and conduct scientific investigations
use Material Data Safety Sheets (MSDS)
prepare investigation reports using symbols and
diagrams extensively.
Students:
explain the properties of materials in terms of their
constituent particles and the forces holding them together
explain how similarities in the chemical behaviour of
elements, their atomic structure and their compounds
are represented in the way the Periodic Table has been
constructed
use atomic symbols and balanced chemical equations
to summarise chemical reactions
identify the sources of wastes generated within
the community and in industry, and describe their
management
explain change in terms of energy.
1 Why can gold be found as a nugget but sodium cant?
2 What is slag and what has it got to do with iron?
3 Why do plastic objects often have a bump or seam?
4 Why do we feel wet and clammy on hot days if we wear
nylon but not if we wear cotton?
5 Why does soap get us cleaner than water alone?
6 How can water be hard?
3
UNIT
UNIT
The metals gold and silver have been much prized
since primitive times. Copper, its alloy bronze, and
later iron and its alloy steel, replaced the stone
spearheads and axes of primitive humans, giving
them better chances when hunting and waging tribal
wars. Each newly extracted metal allowed technology
to change. Society changed with them.
1
.
1
1
.
1
Properties of metals
Over 70 per cent of elements are metals. They vary
from mercury (Hg), a liquid at room temperature, to
tungsten (W), a hard substance that melts at 3410C.
Most metals are dense, malleable and good conductors
of heat and electricity. These properties can be
explained by looking at their structure.
Metal atoms have low electronegativity, meaning
that they have little tendency to attract electrons.
In fact, they tend to lose their outer-shell electrons
to form positively charged ions. Metals consist of a
lattice (ordered arrangement) of these ions surrounded
by a sea of electrons. These electrons move about
freely between the ions. Electrostatic attractions
between the positive ions and negative electrons hold
the metal together. This arrangement and attractions
between ions and electrons is known as metallic
bonding.
Metals are:
malleable; the bonding allows them to stay
together and not break apart when hammered
or bent
ductile; that is, they can be drawn or stretched
into wires
conductors of electricity; the free outer-shell
electrons allow metals to carry electrical currents
conductors of heat; the free outer-shell electrons
rapidly transfer heat, making metals excellent
thermal conductors.
Pure metals
Some of the many uses of metals are shown in the
table on page 4. While these metals are used in their
pure, elemental form, many other metals are combined
to produce alloys.
+
Electrons rapidly transfer heat.
lattice of
metal ions
Electrons can carry current.
free
moving
electrons
free moving
electrons relocate,
bonding remains
unbroken
force applied
to shift
metal ions
e
e
e
e
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
e
e
e
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
M
+
Fig 1.1.1 Metal atoms lose control of their outer-shell electrons. These electrons are now free to move to carry electrical currents.
4
>>>
Left to right: copper, zinc and brass
(an alloy of copper and zinc) Fig 1.1.2
Alloys
An alloy is a metal combined with another element. The
result is a new metallic substance with properties that
are often an improvement when compared with those of
the main or base metal in the alloy. For example, brass
is more durable than its base metal copper.
Pure metal Element symbol Uses Properties that make them particularly suited to their use
Aluminium Al overhead electricity cables, saucepans
and cans, aluminium foil
excellent conductor of heat and electricity, extremely light,
non-toxic
Copper Cu electrical wiring excellent electrical conductor, easily drawn into wires
Sodium Na nuclear reactor coolant conducts heat well, melts at 98C, allowing molten sodium to flow
along pipes in the reactor
Zinc Zn coating for iron (galvanised iron) protects iron from rusting
Tin Sn coating for steel cans for food, liquid, etc. stops steel from rusting, non-toxic, unreactive
Mercury Hg thermometers liquid at room temperature, expands rapidly when heated, leaves
tubes clean once it retreats, leaving no trace
Lead Pb flashing around windows and roofs to
stop water entry
very soft and easily bent, resists corrosion
Pure iron is extremely soft, but its strength
increases dramatically if small amounts of carbon (up
to 2 per cent) are added. The alloy formed is steel.
Mild steel has 0.5 per cent carbon, while hard steel or
tool steel has about 1 per cent. If the carbon content
increases to between 2.4 per cent and 4.5 per cent,
cast iron is formed. It is strong but brittle, shattering
easily if hit or dropped. Stainless steel has chromium
(20 per cent) and nickel (10 per cent) added to stop
rusting. With only traces of carbon, wrought iron is
the closest we get to pure iron in everyday materials.
Cast iron lace very beautiful, very hard,
but very brittle
Fig 1.1.3
Wanted: Muscular slave for short job
Damascus steel was used in the ancient world to
manufacture swords of extreme strength. The exact
technology was lost about 200 years ago, but one
ancient recipe calls for normal steel to be heated,
then cooled in two stages. The final cooling was
supposedly achieved by thrusting the sword into the
body of a muscular slave. The strength of the slave
apparently transferred on his death into the metal!
Pure metals and alloys Pure metals and alloys
5
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
Jewellery used for body piercing is usually
rust-resistant surgical-grade stainless
steel. Infection can still occur.
Fig 1.1.4
Fig 1.1.5 Ornate 22-carat gold jewellery in the gold souk
(market) of Dubai
Fig 1.1.6 Tutankhamen's blade of iron
and scabbard of gold
Gold cheaper
than iron
When the Egyptian Pharaoh
Tutankhamen was buried
3400 years ago, a dagger
was buried with him. The
dagger had a blade of iron;
its scabbard was gold.
Although the same size, the
iron was far more valuable
than the gold because it
was far more rare!
Alloy Composition Uses Advantages
Brass 70% Cu, 30% Zn household and nautical fittings,
musical instruments
appearance, limited corrosion, harder than
pure copper, sonorous
Bronze 95% Cu, 5% Sn statues, ornaments, bells appearance, little corrosion, harder than
brass, sonorous (rings well when struck)
Duralumin 96% Al, 4% Cu, traces of Mg
and Mn
aircraft frames strong, light
Solder 60 to 70% Sn, 40 to 30% Pb joining metals together, electrical
connections, low-friction bearings
low melting point
Cupronickel 75% Cu, 25% Ni silver coins hard wearing, looks like silver, attractive
EPNS (electroplated
nickel silver)
Cu, Ni, Ag plated onto cutlery, plates and bowls looks like silver, cheaper, resists corrosion
Alnico Al, Ni, Co magnets aluminium is light, nickel and cobalt can
be magnetised
Dental amalgam Hg, Sn, Ag, Zn, Cu tooth fillings hardens slowly after being mixed
Pure gold jewellery would break with the normal
strains of everyday wear and so silver or copper is
added to create a gold alloy of increased strength.
The carat scale measures the amount of pure gold in
jewellery, with pure gold rated as 24 carat. Jewellery is
often 18 carat, meaning that it is 18/24 (three-quarters
or 75 per cent) gold.
1
.
1
1
.
1
6
>>>
1
.
1
U
N
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[
Questions
]
% Cu 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Stress (N/m
2
x 10
6
) 19 16 12 8 5 32 58 40 23 21 33
Revision questions
Properties of metals
1 List the properties that all metals exhibit.
2 What two properties of metals make them ideal for
electrical wiring?
3 Why is aluminium used for overhead electrical cables,
while copper is used for home wiring?
4 List three reasons why mercury is ideal for
thermometers.
5 Do metal atoms have high or low electronegativity?
What do they do with their outer-shell electrons?
Pure metals
6 What factor limits the use of pure
metals?
7 What two metals are commonly used
in their pure forms?
Alloys
8 What advantage do alloys have over
their parent metals?
9 Are coins pure metals or alloys? Explain.
10 a What metal is most abundant in Australian gold and
silver coins?
b What is the only metal that is a liquid at normal room
temperatures?
c What metal is the main component of steel?
d What metal is common to both the alloys brass and
bronze?
e What metals are added to iron to make stainless
steel?
11 List the different types of steel from the lowest carbon
content to the highest.
Homework book 1.1 Toothache!
Homework book 1.2 The alloy nitinol
Prac 1
p. 7
Money, money, money!
Australian gold $1 and $2 coins contain 92 per cent copper,
6 per cent aluminium and 2 per cent nickel (and no gold). The
silver coins are 25 per cent nickel and 75 per cent copper. Metal
was first used as money in about 2000 BCE, but coins were not
invented until 600 BCE in Lydia, Anatolia. They were crude beads
of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold.
Thinking questions
12 What is the base metal in a ferrous alloy? (Use the
element symbols for metals to help you.)
13 If metals had a strong hold on their outer-shell
electrons, would they be good or poor electrical
conductors? Explain.
Analysis questions
14 What fraction and percentage of pure gold is in:
a a 12-carat gold ring
b a 9-carat gold nose stud
c a 22-carat gold chain?
15 The table below shows the stress different alloys of
copper and zinc can take before breaking. Plot a graph
of stress (vertical axis) against the percentage of copper
(horizontal axis).
Use your graph to answer questions 16 to 20.
16 What is the breaking stress of:
a a 5050 alloy of copperzinc
b an alloy of 20 per cent Cu and 80 per cent Zn
c an alloy containing 60 per cent zinc
d pure copper
e pure zinc?
17 What proportions of copper are needed to make the
alloy stronger than pure copper?
18 What proportions of zinc make it weaker than pure
zinc?
19 What is the strongest copperzinc alloy?
20 What is the composition of three alloys that all break at
a stress of 25 x 10
6
N/m
2
?
7
U
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U
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1
.
1
1
.
1
[
Practical activity
] 1
.
1
U
N
I
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How much is it worth?
You will need
$2, $1, 50c, 20c, 10c and 5c coins (one of each),
the business section from a recent newspaper
(not Monday), access to an electronic scale
What to do
1 Find and copy into your workbook the following values:
a the exchange rate from the US dollar to the
Australian dollar
b the prices of aluminium, copper and nickel.
2 Convert any US dollar prices into Australian dollars
by dividing by the exchange rate. For example, if
A$1 = US$0.5064 and the price of aluminium is
US$1408.50 per tonne, then its price in Australian
dollars is 1408.50 0.5064 = A$2781.40 per tonne
3 Convert any prices per tonne into prices per gram
by dividing by 1 000 000. For example, if aluminium
is A$2781.40 per tonne, the price per gram is
2781.40 1 000 000 = A$0.00278 or 0.278 cents
per gram.
4 Convert any prices per ounce into prices per gram by
dividing by 28.35.
Prac 1
Unit 1.1
U
N
I
T
at work
1
.
1
SCIENCE
Surfing
Researching lead and mercury
Surf your available resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias,
Internet, etc.) to find why lead and mercury are referred to
as cumulative poisons. What does this mean? What are the
main sources of these metals? How do they affect you?
Why do schools generally use red alcohol thermometers
and not mercury? What happened in a Japanese village
called Minamata and how was it connected with cumulative
poisons?
Present your findings as a poster warning about cumulative
poisons.
Researching dental fillings
Internet, etc.) to find what dental fillings are made from,
particularly dental amalgam. Find why some dentists are
concerned about using dental amalgam.
Present your research as a brochure to be left in the
waiting rooms of dentists.
Imagining
Bronze and iron
Find out about the Bronze and Iron Ages. Suggest how the
discovery of copper and its alloy bronze, and iron and its alloy
steel, would have changed the life of people at those times.
Present your work in one of the following ways:
an advertisement extolling the superior properties and
uses of the new material
a role play where a salesperson is selling tools in the
new material
the inventor of the new material trying to convince the
directors of a primitive tool company to stop their old
production lines and instead start production using the
new material.
>>
Fig 1.1.7
8
>>>
5 Write a complete list of the prices in Australian dollars
per gram.
6 Use an electronic balance to find the masses of a $1
and a $2 coin.
7 Copy and complete this calculation for each gold coin:
Mass of coin = _______ g
[put mass of coin here]
Mass of copper
in coin = 92% of _______ = _______ g
Mass of aluminium
in coin = 6% of _______ = _______ g
Mass of nickel
in coin = 2% of _______ = _______ g
[put mass of [put price per
metals here] gram here]

Cost of copper = _______ _______ = A$ _______
Cost of aluminium = _______ _______ = A$ _______
Cost of nickel = _______ _______ = A$ _______
8 Add the answers to find the total cost of the coin.
9 What percentage is this of its face value?
10 Use a similar method to calculate the value of the
silver coins.
Questions
1 Were any of the coins worth more than their face value?
2 Fifty-cent coins originally had silver in them, but now
dont. Suggest why.
3 Use the prices of gold and silver to find the cost of each
coin if they were really gold or silver.
Fig 1.1.8 Australian coins
9
Some metals, such as gold and silver, can be found
in their pure state. Most metals, however, are found
as compounds of oxygen and need to be released
from the oxygen they are bonded to before they
can be used. Over the centuries, metallurgists
(scientists who specialise in metals) have developed
a variety of cheap and efficient ways of doing this.
At first they used heat. Many metals such as
aluminium, however, needed
something far more powerful to
extract them from their compounds.
Their extraction had to wait until the
discovery of electricity. Metals are
now a common part of everyday
life. A lot needs to be done to get
them ready for use.
metal trapped in another rock such
as quartz. They just need a little
cleaning or the surrounding rock
removed. Native elements are so
stable and unreactive that they
have survived many millennia
without reacting with the
chemicals of the air, dirt or water.
Digging up the dirt
Metals make up only a quarter of the Earths crust.
Oxygen and silicon make up the rest. The oxygen does
not exist as a gas but is chemically combined with
metal ions (charged atoms) to form oxides. Mining is
by far the most common method of obtaining metals.
Fig 1.2.1 The percentage abundance of elements in
the Earths crust. Oxygen is by far the most
abundant, being combined with metals as oxides
or with silicon as silicon dioxide in sand or
silicates. Commonly used metals are so scarce
that they dont even appear on the pie chart.
aluminium
8.1%

oxygen 46.7%

silicon 27.8%

all the other
metals and
non-metals
1.2%

potassium 2.2%

sodium 2.8%
magnesium 2.2%
calcium 3.6%

iron 5%

Metals ready to go: native
elements
Silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), copper (Cu) and gold (Au)
are all native elements. (Native non-metallic elements
are carbon and sulfur.) These metals can be found
as pure elements, as either a nugget or a vein of the
Gold, gold, gold!
Gold was first discovered in
1823 at Bathurst in New South
Wales and was then discovered
in Victoria at both Warrandyte
and Clunes in 1851. Since
then Victorias mines have
produced 77 million ounces or
2400 tonnes of gold. Victoria
still has two commercial gold
mines. One at Stawell produces
100 000 ounces each year
(gold is measured in ounces
commercially) while the other
at Fosterville, near Bendigo,
produces 30 000 ounces. On
a world scale, these mines
are small-to-medium in size,
but both operators believe
that there are many millions
of ounces in and around their
operations.
Fig 1.2.2 A vein of pure gold trapped in quartz
Metals that need work: minerals
and ores
All other metals are found combined with other
elements as compounds.
Minerals are rocks containing large amounts of a
particular metal. If there is sufficient metal to make it
worthwhile to mine, it is then called an ore.
1
.
2
1
.
2
UNIT
UNIT
10
>>>
Is it worth mining?
Mining produces valuable metals and jobs.
Sometimes, however, mining is not worth its expense
or its negative effects on society and the environment.
Before a mine begins, some important questions
need to be asked:
How much ore is there and how concentrated is it?
How deep is the ore? What type of mine is needed?
Is the site close to existing ports or rail lines?
Is there a population centre nearby from which the
workers can be employed?
Who owns or controls the land? If they live there,
will they be happy to shift? What compensation
will be needed?
What water and air pollution will the mine cause?
Major ore deposits and
extraction sites in Australia
N

Brisbane
Sydney
Melbourne
Hobart
Perth
WESTERN AUSTRALIA

QUEENSLAND
NEW SOUTH WALES
VICTORIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
NORTHERN TERRITORY
TASMANIA
Geraldton
Cairns

Canberra
Bell Bay

Risdon
Mt Lyell
Henty
Rosebery
Savage River
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Kilometres
Adelaide
Darwin
Mitchell Plateau
Sorby Hills

Blendevale

Goongewa

Cadjebut

Admiral Bay

Yarrie

Bamboo Creek

Nifty

Marble Bar

Telfer

Nullagine

Kintyre

Robe River-Deepdale

Manyingee

Mt Tom Price

Paraburdoo

Channar

Newman

Jimblebar

Rhodes Ridge

Abra

Marymia

Plutonic

Peak Hill

Fortnum

Yeelirrie

Bronzewing

Reedys

Weld Range
Cue
Mt Magnet

Agnew-Lawlers Group

Scuddles
Mt Gibson

Worsley

Wagerup

Pinjarra

Jarrahdale

Del Park
Bounty

Norseman

Higginsville

Kambalda-St Ives
Coolgardie

Kalgoorlie Group

Koolyanobbing

Mulga Rock

Copperhead

Mt Morgans

Youanmi

Nabarlek

Jabiluka

Barote

Ranger

Woodcutters

Union Reefs

Mt Todd

Coronation Hill

Bulman

Browns

Sandy Creek

McArthur River

Wollogorang (Redbank)

Pandanus Creek

Able
Echo Island

Nabalco

Orlando

Gecko

White Devil

Peko

Tanami

Callie

The Granites
Bigrlyi

Angela
Arltunga

Plenty River

Koongarra

Horn Island

Wenlock River

Weipa
Pera Head

Aurukun

Palmer River

Red Dome

Kidston

Balcooma

Woolgar

Ben Lomond
Charters Towers Area
Thalanga
Wirralie
Mt Coolon

Lucky Break

Gladstone

Cracow

Dawson Valley

Mt Rawdon

Gympie

Westmoreland

Constance Range

Century
Lady Loretta

Gunpowder

Hilton

Mt Isa

Tick Hill

Selwyn

Cannington

Osborne

Broken Hill

Drake

Comet Valley
Hillgrove

Elura
CSA

Mineral Hill

Northparkes
Lake Cowal

West Wyalong

Temora

Kurri Kurri

Tomago

Newcastle

Port Kembla

Woodlawn

Ballarat

Stawell

Bendigo
Benambra

Woods Point
Geelong

Wedderburn
Portland

Hellyer
Nillinghoo

Tarcoola

Olympic Dam
Beverly

Beltana
Mt Gunson
Menninnie Dam
Whyalla

Kangaroo Island

Burra

Port Pirie
Mt Grainger
Radium Hill
Honeymoon
Aluminium (bauxite)
Copper (chalcopyrite)
Gold
Iron (haematite)
Lead (galena)
Uranium (pitchblende)
Silver
Zinc (sphalerite)
Bingara
Beaconsfield
Port Latta
Legend
Fig 1.2.3
Ore Chemical composition Metal extracted
Bauxite aluminium oxide
(Al2O3)
aluminium (Al)
Chalcopyrite copper iron sulfide
(CuFeS2)
copper (Cu)
Galena lead sulfide (PbS) lead (Pb)
Haematite iron oxide (Fe2O3) iron (Fe)
Pitchblende uranium oxide (U3O8) uranium (U)
Sphalerite zinc sulfide (ZnS) zinc (Zn)
Mining for metals Mining for metals
11
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What damage will be done to the
environment and how can it be
minimised?
What will be the cost of building
the mine and processing plants and
repairing the environmental damage?
What is the current and expected
future price of the metal?
What profit is expected?
Mining process
Underground mines are used for
the mining of deep ores, but water
penetration, possible collapse, venting of
poisonous and explosive gases and the
provision of fresh air for the miners are
problems that must be managed.
If the ore is close to the surface, then
open-cut mining is easier. An overburden
of soil is removed and the ore is dredged
out, creating benches or steps that spiral
into the hole. These are also used as
access roads to haul the ore to the surface
by truck. Problems here are unsightliness,
the pooling of water, dust being blown
into surrounding areas, the destruction of
land above the ore and the repair of the
land after mining ceases.
Fig 1.2.4 Pollution and environmental degradation can
be severe around mines and processing sites.
This photo shows the effect of the Ok Tedi
mine in Papua New Guinea.
The head frame and ore conveyor of a gold mine
Fig 1.2.5
well
winder house
head frame
ore conveyor
mill and
treatment
plant
two-compartment shaft
ladder
pump line
compressor
cage or skip
cross-cut
drive (along the
ore body)
overhead stope
No. 2 level
ORE
BODY
No. 3 level
underhand stope
No. 4 level
No. 1 level
Fig 1.2.6 Structure of an underground mine. To reduce their visual impact on their
surroundings, some mines (such as Mt Henty in Tasmania) also have the
head frame and associated structure underground.
1
.
2
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.
2
12
>>>
Activity series
When metals react, they lose electrons to form
positive ions. Some metals lose their electrons more
easily than others; they are reactive and are harder to
extract from the ore. Different extraction techniques
are required, depending on the metals position on the
activity series shown below.
As you move up the activity series:
the chance of metals reacting with chemicals is
higher
the metals are less stable
there is less chance of finding the metals in their
natural state
the compounds of the metals are more stable and
more difficult to break down
the extraction process becomes more difficult and
more expensive.
Extraction by
electrolysis
Electrolysis is such a powerful
method that it could be used
to extract any metal from its
ore. It uses a huge amount of
electricity, however, and is used
only when there is no cheaper
method available. Aluminium
(Al) is a common metal that
can only be extracted using
electrolysis.
Fig 1.2.7 Benches in an open-cut mine
Concentration of the ore
Impurities and waste called gangue are mined with
the ore. The mined material is crushed by rollers or
by large steel balls that fill a large rotating drum called
a ball mill. Gravity and sieves separate some of the
gangue, with the remainder then separated by froth
flotation. This is a technique pioneered in
Broken Hill, NSW; it floats the crushed ore
away on a frothy emulsion of oil and water.
The gangue is left behind. The ore is now
ready for extraction.
Fig 1.2.8 Froth flotation carries the ore away,
separating it from the gangue.
Prac 1
p. 17
Activity series
Metal Extraction method
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
Electrolysis
M
e
t
a
l
s

m
o
r
e

l
i
k
e
l
y

t
o

b
e

f
o
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n
d

a
s

n
a
t
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e

m
e
t
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l
s
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e
c
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r
o
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e
g
a
t
i
v
i
t
y

i
n
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r
e
a
s
e
s
M
e
t
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l
s

b
e
c
o
m
e

m
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r
e

r
e
a
c
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e
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o
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p
o
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d
s

o
f

t
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e

m
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l

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r
e

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e
s

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e

d
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e
x
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
Zn
Fe
Ni
Sn
Pb
Heating with C
or CO
Cu Roasting in air
Ag
Au
Occurs naturally
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In electrolysis, a voltage is applied to a molten
sample or solution of the ore and the positive metal
ions migrate to the negative electrode. When an
ion gets there, it is forced to take back its missing
outer-shell electrons. Metal atoms form, plating the
electrode. The highly reactive metal sodium (Na)
is extracted by electrolysis of seawater or, more
commonly, rock salt. The salt is melted to break the
salt crystals into its ions, then converted into pure
elements by electrolysis.
Smelting
More reactive metals, such as lead (Pb), iron (Fe) and
zinc (Zn), need carbon or carbon monoxide (CO) to
help the smelting along.
To extract iron, coke (a source of carbon),
limestone (CaCO
3
) and iron ore (Fe
2
O
3
) are heated in a
blast furnace.
e
-
e
-
e
-
e
-
chlorine
gas
Cl
2
Cl
-
Molten Na
+
Cl
-
Na
+
ions
take back
electrons
to form
Na metal
Na
+
Fig 1.2.9 The extraction of sodium from molten rock salt
by electrolysis
molten slag
hot air blast
molten iron
iron ore
limestone
coke
exhaust gas
molten steel
water-cooled
mould
metal solidifies
as it is drawn
out by the
rollers
water
sprayed
on hot
metal
continuous
sheet is cut
into slabs
iron forms
and trickles
down (400C)
carbon
monoxide
forms and
rises (800C)
carbon dioxide
forms and
rises (1400C)
Fig 1.2.10 Smelting iron in a blast furnace and
rolling it into shape
At the negative electrode:
Na
+
+ e

Na
and at the positive electrode:
2Cl
Cl2 + 2e
Overall, 2NaCl(l)
2Na(s)
+ Cl2(g)
Extraction by heat
Heat is sometimes sufficient to extract the pure metal.
This is called smelting.
Roasting
Some stable metals can be extracted simply by
roasting the ore by itself in air. Most copper (Cu) is
extracted by roasting copper(I) sulfide found in the ore
called copper pyrites:
Cu2S(s) + O2(g)
2Cu(l) + SO2(g)
Prac 2
p. 18
1
.
2
1
.
2
14
>>>
Smelting of iron involves a series of chemical
reactions:
1 The coke first reacts to form carbon dioxide:
C(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)
2 Limestone then decomposes:
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
3 Carbon dioxide reacts with more coke:
CO2(g) + C
2CO(g)
4 This reacts with the ore to form molten iron, which
then runs to the bottom of the furnace:
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)
2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
5 Waste calcium oxide reacts with sand in
the ore to form slag, which then floats on
the molten iron.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)
CaSiO2(l)
Molten steel being poured into moulds Fig 1.2.11
Prac 3
p. 19
Metals are non-renewable resources and all
will eventually run out.
Metal Element
symbol
Amount used
per year
(millions of
tonnes)
Estimated year
when known
reserves of the
metal will run out
Iron Fe 800 2110
Aluminium Al 12 2350
Copper Cu 8 2040
Zinc Zn 4.5 2060
Lead Pb 4 2020
Tin Sn 0.25 2015
Recycling of aluminium is common, since the
production cost of new aluminium is twenty times
more than the cost of recycling it. Recycling of other
metals is often too expensive, however, to make it
worthwhile. The difficulty of separating the iron from
tin in food cans makes it far too expensive to recycle
iron at the moment, despite millions of cans being
thrown out every year.
Fig 1.2.12 It is cheaper to recycle than it is to
produce new aluminium.
Recycling versus mining
Metals that make up less than 0.1 per cent of the
Earths crust are considered to be scarce. Silver
(abundance 0.000 01 per cent) and gold (0.000 000 5
per cent) are scarce and therefore expensive, but some
of our most commonly used metals are considered
scarce too: copper (0.007 per cent), mercury (0.000 05
per cent), zinc (0.013 per cent), lead (0.001 6 per cent)
and tin (0.004 per cent). Luckily iron is relatively
common, since iron consumption is currently nine
times that of all the other metals put together.
Eating gold
In many cultures, it has been traditional to decorate food with
pieces of gold leaf (fine layers of hammered gold). Many of
Australias top restaurants are now using it too, on top of dishes
such as risotto and even in cocktails. The gold leaf is eaten but
has no taste, smell or texture. Injections of gold have been used
for many years as relief from arthritis, so maybe this will help
justify the cost of eating it!
Homework book 1.3 Extraction of metals
15
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Digging up the dirt
1 List the eight most common elements in the Earths
crust starting with the most common.
2 In what form is oxygen usually found in the Earths
crust?
Metals ready to go: native elements
3 Some elements are found in their pure form. State four.
4 You discover some gold. Describe its appearance.
Metals that need work: minerals and ores
5 Explain the difference between a mineral and an ore.
6 Give four metals and the ore they are extracted from.
7 List three sites where each of the major ores listed in the
table on page 10 are mined.
Is it worth mining?
8 A company is thinking about mining at a particular site.
Identify three factors that might:
a encourage it to mine there
b stop it mining there.
Mining process
9 List the problems of:
a an underground mine
b an open-cut mine.
10 What is the difference between:
a slag and gangue
b overburden and ore?
Activity series
11 What is the difference between a stable and
a reactive metal?
12 Which metals are:
a extracted by electrolysis
b extracted by heating in a blast furnace
c extracted by roasting
d native?
Extraction by electrolysis
13 For the extraction of sodium:
a what is the raw material
b which ion migrates towards each electrode
c what is the chemical equation
d what other product is made?
Extraction by heat
14 Define the term smelting.
15 Write the chemical equations for the smelting
of iron ore.
over-
burden
Al Fe Cu Au
extraction
Fig 1.2.13
Recycling versus mining
16 a What is a renewable resource?
b Are metals a renewable resource?
17 Identify one metal that is currently cheaper to:
a recycle than to mine and extract
b mine and extract than to recycle.
Thinking questions
18 What is the difference between a shaft, drive and stope?
19 Platinum is a native element. Where should it appear in
the activity series?
20 Explain why a reactive metal atom like sodium (Na) has a
very stable metal ion (Na
+
).
Analysis questions
21 Use the words below to complete the flow chart for
the mining of an ore and the extraction of the metal it
contains.
exploration electrolysis gangue
froth flotation crushing native metal
roasting slag blast furnace
open-cut underground
>>
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at work
1
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SCIENCE
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out how to Start a Mine by connecting
to the Science Dimensions 4 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary,
selecting Chapter 1 and clicking on the Web Destinations
button.
Assessing risk
Safety is obviously your first priority whenever you are
dealing with chemicals. For this reason, you should assess
all the risks involved in an experiment. You would already
know of many risks in the laboratory and methods that can
be taken to minimise them. For example, Bunsen burners
are dangerous, but simple safety precautions make them
relatively safe. You would not, however, know the dangers
that many chemicals pose. This is when some research is
required. For each chemical, its MSDS (Material Safety
Data Sheet) must be obtained, either from a CD-ROM or
the Internet.
Write a risk assessment for one of the following
practical activities. To do this:
use Homework book 1.4 or ask your teacher for
a blank risk-assessment sheet from the
Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website at
analyse each part of the experiment and determine any
potential risks
obtain the MSDS for every chemical used (even water)
recommend safety precautions for every risk and for
every chemical in the experiment, even those you are
about to make.
Present your work as a completed risk-assessment sheet
before you begin the experiment.
Researching mining techniques
Internet, etc.) to find out:
how to pan for gold. Prepare an instruction sheet or a
class or video presentation
why miners used to carry canaries underground with
them. Prepare a role play, a cartoon strip or Flash
cartoon
about the Davy lamp. Prepare a labelled model showing
how it worked and kept miners safe
about the process of mining before pneumatic drills.
Prepare a Word document or a poster
about the dangers of mining. Prepare a warning sign
or a checklist for miners to keep them safe
about a particular mining disaster. Prepare a poster or
Word document.
Present your work in the form indicated.
22 Draw a bar graph showing the elemental composition of
the Earths crust.
23 The years for the first successful extraction of different
metals are:
aluminium 1890 CE
zinc 1500 CE
iron 1400 BCE
lead 2000 BCE
copper 8000 BCE.
a Draw a timeline showing these discoveries.
b Use the activity series to explain why different metals
were discovered at different times in history.
24 Mining companies regularly take out mining leases
on any land that may contain valuable mineral ores.
This may even include the land on which you live.
>>
If they hold the lease, they then have the legal right to
force people to sell their land to them if they wish to
mine. Give two points each in favour and against the
law that allows them to do this.
25 Use the activity series to predict if these metal ions
and metal atoms would swap electrons:
a Na and Au
+
b Na
+
and Au
c Mg and Cu
2+
d Pb
2+
and Al
e Ca
2+
and Cu
26 Prepare a timeline showing the dates by which the
known reserves of different metals are expected to
run out.
Homework book 1.4 Risk assessment
17
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[
Practical activities
] 1
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Froth flotation
You will need
A mixture of sand and iron filings (1 part filings
to 5 parts sand), large test tube, water, rubber
stopper to fit test tube, kerosene, detergent
What to do
1 Add a spatula full of sand and iron filings to the test
tube.
2 Add about 4 centimetres of water and place the rubber
stopper in the top of the test tube.
3 Shake the test tube to mix the contents.
Prac 1
Unit 1.2
at work SCIENCE
>>
4 Add 2 centimetres of kerosene and 5 drops of detergent
to the test tube and replace the stopper. Shake the test
tube for several seconds, then observe its contents.
5 Attempt to recover some of the iron filings.
Questions
1 The kerosene coats the iron filings, making them water
repellent. Suggest what the detergent does in this
process.
2 In the actual froth-flotation process, the ore must be
crushed very finely. Suggest why.
Researching old cars
Internet, etc.) to find how car bodies can be recycled for
their metals. How do the useful metals get separated from
non-recyclable materials?
Present your findings as a flow chart displaying the
recycling process.
Locating
Mining in Australia
Locate a current mine in Australia. Find the answers to these
questions:
What is the ore it mines and what will be extracted from
the ore?
Where is the ore processed and the metal extracted?
What transport facilities probably had to be built to mine
and shift the ore?
Is the mine near a large town or did a town need to be
built near to it?
Present your work as a labelled map.
Estimating
Cans thrown away
In a table, record the number of cans and type of cans your
household throws out each day for a week. Estimate how
many cans are thrown out per year.
Present your work as a table or Excel spreadsheet.
Finding
Aluminium cans
Find the current buy-back price of aluminium cans. Compare
it with the price for new metal from commodity prices in
newspapers.
Present your work as a paragraph of writing.
Graphing
Prices of metals
Prepare a bar graph showing the current prices of metals
listed in the commodity prices section of the newspapers.
Imagining
Gold rush!
Gold has been discovered 200 metres underneath Toorak.
A mining company is deciding whether or not they should
mine. Prepare two letters to a newspaper or two emails to a
politician, one supporting a mine in Toorak and one
against.
Imagine the gold had been discovered instead in a
remote area of the outback, inhabited by its traditional
Indigenous owners. What will you do now? Are your reasons
for and against the same as before? Prepare another two
letters or emails, again one in favour and one against.
1
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2
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2
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>>>
Electrolysis of copper
Prac 2
Unit 1.2
You will need
1 M sulfuric acid, black copper(II) oxide, spatula,
50 mL beaker, glass stirring rod, Bunsen burner,
tripod, gauze mat, heat-proof mat, matches,
6 V power pack, globe, electrodes, connecting
leads (a conductivity kit is ideal), filter paper or
paper towel
What to do
1 Pour sulfuric acid into the beaker until it reaches
about 20 mL.
2 Add a small spatula of black copper oxide.
3 Carefully warm over a yellow Bunsen burner flame.
Stir with the glass rod until all the copper oxide is
dissolved and the solution is blue.
4 Remove from the tripod and place on the heat-proof
mat.
5 Connect up the circuit as shown in
Figure 1.2.14. Set the power pack
on 6 V DC and allow it to run for a
couple of minutes.
6 Draw a diagram of the set-up. Mark
the electrode being copper plated.
What is happening at the other
electrode and to the blue colour of
the solution?
7 Turn off the power and remove the
electrodes. Scrape off any pure
copper onto filter paper or a paper
towel.
Questions
1 Was copper formed at the positive or negative
electrode?
2 What happened to the blue colour of the solution?
3 In this experiment, copper ions in the solution are
taking back electrons to form copper atoms. What
evidence is there of this?
4 Write an equation for what is happening to the
copper ions.
5 Electrolysis is never used commercially to produce
copper. Why?
6 Aluminium can be extracted only by electrolysis.
Suggest why aluminium was not used here.
Fig 1.2.14
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Chocolate-chip mining
Prac 3
Unit 1.2
You will need
Chocolate-chip biscuits, access to electronic
scales, access to a range of laboratory and non-
laboratory equipment such as sieves, beakers,
measuring cylinders
What to do
1 Collect a chocolate-chip biscuit. The biscuit represents
a sample of ore that contains chips of an extremely
valuable mineral called chocolate.
2 In groups, check the equipment available to you
and then develop a method to efficiently extract the
chocolate chips from the waste material (the rest of
the biscuit).
3 Write down your method.
4 Construct a table similar to that shown below.
5 Measure the mass of the chocolate-chip biscuit. Enter
your measurement in the table.
6 In groups, develop a method for measuring or
estimating the volume of a biscuit in cubic centimetres
or millilitres. Enter the volume in the table.
7 After the extraction, measure the mass and volume
of both the extracted chocolate chips and the waste
material.
Mass of biscuit
(g)
Volume of biscuit
(mL or cm
3
)
Mass of chocolate chips
after extraction (g)
Volume of chocolate chips
after extraction (mL)
Mass of waste
material (g)
Volume of waste
material (mL)
8 Refine your technique, improving it where necessary.
9 If time and the number of biscuits allow, try your new
technique.
10 Collect the results from at least two other groups and
enter their data into the table.
Questions
1 Compare the mass of each groups biscuit and the
masses of the chocolate chips extracted.
2 Was the composition of each sample of ore (each
biscuit) the same?
3 Compare the volume of the waste material after
extraction with the volume of the biscuit at the start.
4 Would the waste material after extraction fill the hole
left when the biscuit was originally dug up?
5 In this prac, what represented the:
a ore
b mineral
c gangue?
1
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>>>
UNIT
UNIT
Reactive metals corrode when exposed to water, air
or other chemicals, usually forming metallic oxides.
The iron-steel body of a car, for example, eventually
rusts away. Pure sodium and potassium react with
just about anythingtheir corrosion is very quick
and often explosive! In contrast, gold is extremely
stable and corrosion is rare.
1
.
3
1
.
3
Rust protection
Stainless steel is an alloy that resists rusting and
is used for surgical apparatus, body piercing and
equipment in conditions of high heat and salt, such
as in kitchens and on boats. Other types of steel can
be protected by coatings that stop air and water from
reaching the surface. A scratch or crack in the coating,
however, allows rusting to start again.
Rusting of iron and steel
Iron is common and cheap. Its alloy steel is extremely
strong, making it the most commonly used metal
on Earth: car bodies, skyscraper frames, concrete
reinforcing, pins and needles are all made from some
type of steel. Unfortunately, iron and most grades of
steel react with air and water to form a red coating
of hydrated iron(III) oxide (Fe
2
O
3
.H
2
O) or rust. This
corrosion of iron or steel is called rusting. Rust is
flaky and easy to dislodge, allowing the rusting
process to continue into the next layer. The iron or
steel gets thinner, loses its strength and gradually
returns to the compound that it was extracted from.
Although an extremely complex reaction, it can be
summarised by:
4Fe
(s)
+ 3O
2(g)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)

2Fe
2
O
3
.H
2
O
(s)
For rusting to take place, iron needs the presence
of both oxygen and water as either liquid or vapour.
The rusting process can be accelerated by salts or heat.
Fig 1.3.2 Rusted corrugated irona common sight
around Australia, in back lanes and the bush
Fig 1.3.1 Cars rust badly near the ocean.
Breaks between the rust flakes
allow water and oxygen to enter
into deeper layers.
Rusting causes
iron to thin.
iron(III) oxide (rust)
Fig 1.3.3 Rust is flaky and allows the rest of the iron to
rust away too.
21
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Stainless steel is an alloy that
resists rusting, even in the
hot salty conditions found in
a kitchen or on a boat.
Fig 1.3.4
Method of protection Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Painting car bodies, cast iron lace cheap, easy, attractive chips and scratches easily
Layer of grease or oil tools, machine parts cheap, easy, lubricates parts messy, needs to be reapplied regularly
Plastic coating dishracks, outdoor
furniture
cheap, attractive cracks allow water to enter, plastic deteriorates
with age
Tin plating food cans does not react with food, non-toxic,
less reactive than iron and steel
needs electrolysis to plate steel, expensive, scratches
will rust
Chromium plating car parts attractive needs electrolysis to plate steel, expensive, scratches
will rust
Another method is to coat the surface or attach
another, more reactive metal. Galvanised iron is iron
dipped in molten zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron
and will react instead of it. This is called sacrificial
protection. Scratches and chips will not rust, as long
as some zinc is close by. Nails and roofing materials
are commonly galvanised iron. Reactive magnesium
blocks are often bolted onto steel structures
such as piers and deepwater gas and oil rigs
at sea. The magnesium is sacrificed to protect
the structure.
Aluminium: reactive but it
doesnt corrode
Aluminium is a very reactive metal and the surface
reacts almost immediately with the air, forming a
fine layer of dull grey aluminium oxide, Al
2
O
3
.
4Al(s)
+ 3O2(g)
2AI2O3(s)
Unlike rust, this layer does not flake and acts like
a tightly bound layer of paint. Aluminium thus does
not need further treatment. Anodising is a technique
where the layer of aluminium oxide is deliberately
built up with electrolysis, often being coloured as it
builds. Saucepans and window frames are often made
from anodised aluminium.
Water and oxygen
corrode zinc instead
of iron.
Zn Zn
Fe Fe Fe
scratch
Fig 1.3.5 Zinc is sacrificed to protect the iron it plates.
Prac 1
p. 23
Aluminium oxide tightly
binds to the metal.
water oxygen
aluminium
oxide layer
Aluminium oxide
does not flake.
Fig 1.3.6 Aluminium oxide acts like the perfect paint
layerhard to scratch and non-flaky.
Prac 2
p. 24
Homework book 1.5 Metal experiments
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at work
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[
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>>
Surfing
Researching roofing materials
Internet, etc.) to find why roofing materials are corrugated
or ribbed. Find out what Colorbond roofing is. Find
information about metal roofing materials and the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Present your research as an information brochure for
architects and builders.
Using
The dictionary
Find the dictionary meaning of the word tarnish.
Finding
Rust
Rust is red-orange. Red-orange rocks often have a high iron
content. Find photos of rocks or landscapes that are a rusty
colour.
Present your work as a collage of photos.
Revision questions
Rusting of iron and steel
1 What three substances are required for iron to rust?
2 Identify two things that speed up the rate at which
iron rusts.
3 Write the equation for the conversion of iron into
rust.
Rust protection
4 What is sacrificial protection?
5 Use the activity series to identify metals that would
provide sacrificial protection to iron.
6 Galvanising gives better protection than painting an
iron surface. Why?
7 The magnesium blocks attached to piers dissolve away
over time. Suggest what needs to happen then.
Aluminium: reactive but it doesnt corrode
8 Iron rusts and crumbles while aluminium just dulls.
Explain why.
9 Explain how aluminium is naturally protected from
corrosion.
10 How can you tell whether an aluminium window frame
has been anodised?
Corrosion of metals Corrosion of metals
Thinking questions
11 The paint around a scratch on a car door will eventually
bubble. Use the flaky nature of rust to explain why.
12 Why are the insides of cans of food coated in tin or a
thin layer of plastic?
13 You should never buy cans of food that are dented or
scratched. Explain why.
14 Zinc and aluminium do not rust, but do corrode. Explain.
15 Iron is the most valuable metal on Earth. What do you
think? Explain your answer.
16 Steel window frames would be a silly choice near the
sea. Explain why.
17 The jewellery used in body piercing is surgical-grade
stainless steel, platinum or gold. Explain why these
metals, and not cheaper ones, are used.
Analysis questions
18 Use the activity series to predict which metals would
show little or no corrosion.
19 You need to protect a zinc structure from corrosion.
What metals could you bolt on?
20 Three sheets of iron are coated in three different metals:
copper, magnesium and tin. What will happen to each
sheet if the coating is scratched?
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Corrosion of iron
You will need
Four iron nails (not galvanised), copper wire,
magnesium ribbon, distilled water, salt
(sodium chloride) solution, fine sandpaper
or steel wool, four test tubes, test-tube rack,
marking pen
What to do
1 Polish each nail with sandpaper or steel wool.
2 Tightly wind the magnesium ribbon around a nail and
the copper wire around another.
3 Put both into test tubes containing salt water.
4 Put another two nails in the other two test tubes,
one containing salt water and the other containing
distilled water. Mark the one containing distilled
water.
5 Leave for three or four days.
6 Draw each nail, showing the location of any reddish
rust and any white or blue-green corrosion on the
magnesium or copper.
Prac 1
Unit 1.3
Questions
1 Which encouraged rustingdistilled or salt water?
2 Use the activity series to list the metals used in order
from most to least reactive.
3 Which test demonstrated sacrificial protection?
4 Why did one metal sacrifice itself and not the other?
at work SCIENCE
>>
Researching metals and alloys
Internet, etc.) to find the following metals or alloys:
1 used as the filament in light bulbs
2 used for hot and cold water pipes
3 turns black when exposed to light and is used as film
coating
4 used in fireworks and single-use flash bulbs to give
brilliant light
5 a part of haemoglobin, the part of your blood that
carries oxygen
6 was added to petrol to avoid the engine knocking
7 makes up the metal plates of a car battery
8 used in the catalytic converters of car exhaust systems
to remove pollutants
9 used in smoke alarms as a radioactive source
10 a radioactive element used in atomic bombs
11 used in many street lamps, giving an orange colouring.
Present your work as a list of elements and uses.
Assessing risk
Write a risk assessment for one of the
following practical activities. To do this:
use Homework book 1.4 or download a
blank risk-assessment sheet from the
potential risks.
obtain the MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) for every
chemical used, even water
about to make.
1 2 3 4
water salt solution
magnesium copper
Fig 1.3.7
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Corrosion of metals Corrosion of metals
Anodised aluminium
Prac 2
Unit 1.3
You will need
Piece of aluminium, aluminium foil, 2 M
sulfuric acid, detergent, fabric dye solution,
safety glasses, two 250 mL beakers, tongs,
tissues, 12 V power pack with wires and
alligator clips, retort stand, bosshead and
clamp, hot plate or Bunsen burner, tripod,
gauze mat, heat-proof mat, matches
What to do
1 Line one beaker with aluminium foil, then three-
quarters fill it with sulfuric acid.
2 Scrub the piece of aluminium in warm water
and detergent and dry well. Do not touch the
aluminium with bare handsuse tongs.
3 Place as shown in Figure 1.3.8 and connect to
the power pack.
4 Set the power pack on the lowest voltage, then
gradually increase it until it reaches 12 V. Leave
for 15 minutes, then wash the piece of aluminium
in water.
5 In the other beaker, heat the prepared solution of
fabric dye, then place the aluminium piece in it.
Leave for 10 minutes.
6 Rinse in fresh water and cool.
2 Aluminium is highly reactive but doesnt seem to
corrode as badly as iron. Explain why.
3 What is anodising?
4 Anodising would not work with iron. Explain.
aluminium foil

dilute
sulfuric
acid

aluminium

power pack
Fig 1.3.8
7 To seal the anodised surface, boil the piece in
fresh water for a further 10 minutes.
Questions
1 Why must the aluminium piece be handled
only with tongs after cleaning?
25
Before 1950, plastics were almost unheard of.
Natural materials were used instead. Like metals
before them, plastics changed technology and the
way we build our world.
Plastic: carbon-based compounds
Carbon is a Group IV element and each carbon atom
can bond with up to four other atoms. This gives
carbon the ability to form continuous lattices (such as
in diamonds and graphite) and an amazing variety of
molecules. Most molecules found in living organisms,
fossil fuels, drugs, plastics and fibres have a backbone
made from carbon. This puts them into the same
categorythey are all organic compounds.
Plastics are everywhere. Most packaging and
many fibres are plastic. Fig 1.4.1
Elephants on the billiard table!
By 1868, elephants had been slaughtered in such huge numbers
that the supply of ivory could not meet demand. The Phelan and
Collender Company offered a US$10 000 award to anyone who
could find a replacement for the ivory used in their production of
billiard balls. In response, brothers John and Isaiah Hyatt developed
a polymer, celluloid nitrate or celluloid. Although used for billiard
balls, it found more use as photographic film. It was also used for
dolls and false teeth, a worrying fact since celluloid is
highly flammable!
C H
H H
H
H
H
H
C O C H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C C H C
C H
H
H
H
H
H O
O
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
C
methane

ethanol
(the alcohol
in beer, wine,
spirits, etc.)

methyl butanoate
(artificial rum
flavouring)

benzene

Fig 1.4.2 Organic molecules have backbones
made of carbon.
The properties of plastics make
them extremely useful for a wide
variety of purposes. Plastics:
are thermal and electrical
insulators. Because they are
molecules, they have no free
electrons to conduct electricity
or heat
can be moulded into different
shapes
are strong and light
do not react with water or oxygen, making
them weather resistant. This is both a good and
Snake dreaming
The hexagonal ring
structure of benzene was
devised by the German
chemist F.A. Kekul von
Stradonitz. He took his
inspiration from a dream
in which he saw snakes
swallowing their own tails.
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bad property. Outdoor furniture will not deteriorate,
but plastic packaging will not decompose when
thrown outplastics are not biodegradable
become brittle over time if exposed to sunlight.
Chemicals can be added, however, to make them
more resistant
can be coloured or reinforced by adding other
chemicals (for example, glass fibres are added to a
plastic resin to make fibreglass)
sometimes react with or dissolve in other organic
substances (such as turpentine, methylated spirits,
petrol)
sometimes burns very easily, producing noxious
fumes when they do (for example, PVC produces
hydrochloric acid fumes when it burns).
Monomers and polymers
The scientific name for what most people call a
plastic is a polymer. Plastics are made from small
molecules derived from the oil industry. A process
called polymerisation combines them into the larger
molecules that make up plastic. The small molecules
are called monomers and the large ones polymers.
Poly is a Greek word that means many. Polyethene
is made from many ethene molecules and polystyrene
from many styrene molecules.
If there were a monomer called
paperclip, for example, the
polymer polypaperclip would be
a string of connected paperclips.
H
H
C C C C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
C C C C C
Cl
H
H
H
Cl
H
H
H
Cl
H
Cl
H
C C
H
H
Cl
H
C C
polymerisation
polymerisation
ethene monomers polyethene polymer
chloroethene monomers polychloroethene (PVC) polymer
Fig 1.4.3 Many identical monomers join to make a polymer.
Its only natural
Many natural materials exist
as polymers, too. Wood
is made from the organic
polymers cellulose, lignin
and resin. Natural rubber,
amber and gum are all natural
organic polymers. Wool
is made from an organic
polymer protein. Asbestos is
an example of an inorganic
(no carbon) polymer.
Homework book 1.6 The plastic Teflon
Prac 1
p. 33
Noxious aircraft
Plastics and synthetic fibres are used in the interiors of aircraft
because they are light and can be moulded into the shapes
required. The toxic fumes and smoke they produce on burning
have been the primary cause of death in otherwise survivable
accidents. Fifty-five people were asphyxiated aboard a British
Airtours Boeing 737 at Manchester, UK, in 1985, despite the
aircraft being on the ground. A fuel fire had ignited the fuselage
as it accelerated down the runway.
A fire started in a luggage compartment of a Saudi Arabian
Airlines Lockheed Tristar soon after take-off from Riyadh in
1980, filling the cabin with toxic smoke. The plane returned to
the airport and landed safely. Instead of evacuating as quickly
as possible, the captain taxied and then ran the engines for a
total of 6 minutes. All 301 on board died, including the captain.
Melt or burn?
Plastics can be classified as either thermoplastic or
thermosetting, depending on what they do when
heated.
Plastics and fibres Plastics and fibres
Plastic Uses
Polythene (polyethene) milk crates, rubbish bins, buckets, plastic bags, clingwrap,
soft squeeze bottles
Acrylic safety glasses, plastic screens
PVC (polyvinyl chloride, polychloroethene) waterproof clothing, guttering, pipes
Nylon brush bristles, fabrics, rope, carpets
Polystyrene without bubbles (unexpanded): yoghurt and margarine containers;
with bubbles (expanded): insulation, Eskies, cups, packaging
Melamine unbreakable dishes
Urea formaldehyde electric switches and plugs
Phenol formaldehyde door handles, saucepan handles
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retain their basic structure but can slip over each
other to fill whatever moulds they are poured into.
Thermoplastics are manufactured as powder, pellets
or granules. These can then be shipped to other
factories for heating and moulding.
Thermoplastic
When lightly heated, many
plastics soften and can be
remoulded into new shapes.
When cool, they reset.
These materials are called
thermoplastic. Examples are
PVC, polythene and acrylic. The
molecules in these materials
arrange themselves into long
parallel chains, which slide over
each other, allowing flexibility
and stretch. If heated, they
These thermoplastic granules are unusual
in they are not made from oil like other
plastics, but from plants. This makes
them biodegradable. Fig 1.4.5
Fig 1.4.4 Aborigines traditionally used heated resins
as glue.
Bugs inspire the
first synthetic
plastic
Shellac is a common
natural furniture varnish
and wax, and is made
from the excretions of tiny
Tachardia lacca bugs. In
1907, Belgian chemist Leo
Baekeland was working
in the USA to make an
artificial substitute for it.
His equipment became
clogged when he mixed
phenol and formaldehyde.
The new material could
not be dissolved and was
a superb thermal and
electrical insulator. The
plastic, bakelite, had
been invented and found
immediate and widespread
use in electrical fittings and
saucepan handles.
Bonds break and the plastic
decomposes (chars).

Thermoplastic

long polymer chains

add heat

add heat

Chains slip over
each other and
the plastic melts.

Thermosetting

cross-link
Fig 1.4.6 Thermosetting and thermoplastic
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Jurassic Park
thermoplastics
Some grasses and plants
naturally ooze sap and
resins, especially after
bushfires. Resins are
thermoplastics. They melt
when hot, solidify when
cool and can easily be
melted again. Traditional
Aborigines collect resins
after bushfires, crush them
and heat them until they
are sticky enough to act
as glue.
Amber is a fossilised resin
from now-extinct conifers.
The dinosaurs of Jurassic
Park were supposedly
cloned from the blood
of mosquitos trapped as
amber resin dripped
over them.
28
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Thermoplastics are able to be recycled because
they can be re-melted and re-moulded many times.
Recycling keeps plastics out of the environment;
this is an important way of managing them. Because
most plastics are not biodegradable, they stay in
the environment for hundreds, and even thousands
of years. Plastic bags are a major concern for birds,
animals and fish because they can become tangled in
them or can feed on them and block their digestive
tracts. Because plastic bags do not decay, they are
released once more into the environment when the
animal carcass decays.
Thermosetting
Thermosetting plastics cannot be remoulded. The
polymers have strong cross-linking bonds locking
them into a giant molecular structure. Individual
strands cannot be shifted without breaking part of
the structure. This makes thermosetting plastics hard
(scratch resistant), brittle (will shatter if dropped) and
rigid (not able to be bent). When heated, individual
strands cannot movethermosetting plastics
will char (burn at the edges) but will not
soften. They thus need to be manufactured
and moulded at the same time. Bakelite is an
example of a thermosetting plastic.
Working with plastic
Thermoplastics can be moulded into new shapes in a
number of different ways.
Extrusion moulding
Pipes, hoses, plastic straws, curtain tracks, rods and
fibres are all made by extrusion moulding.
Blow moulding
Bottles are commonly made by blow moulding. A
tell-tale sign of blow moulding is the seam where the
two halves of the mould met.
Injection moulding
This is the most common method of production. A
knob of plastic where the plastic injection took place
is left behind. Toys, bottle caps and outdoor furniture
are commonly made by injection moulding.
pellets of solid thermoplastic
motor screw
heaters
molten plastic
plastic pipe
nozzle
Slit die produces
a continuous strip.
Ring-shaped die
produces a
continuous
pipe.
Fig 1.4.8 The nozzle creates the shape in extrusion moulding.
Homework book 1.7 Recycling
Prac 2
p. 34
Fig 1.4.7 Most plastics are not biodegradable and will
stay in the environment for many years if
not recycled.
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Fibres
A fibre is any substance that can
be woven or knitted into a fabric.
Natural fibres
Wool, mohair, silk, cotton, linen
(flax), hair, fur and coir (the hairy
covering of a coconut) are all
natural fibres. In the past, natural
fibres were knitted and woven into
clothing, blankets, rugs, carpets,
mats, ropes, nets, fishing traps,
and into baskets and bags. The
ancient Egyptians, for example,
used papyrus reeds that grew in
the Nile. They boiled the papyrus
stems and leaves to soften them
and then scraped them to remove
useless material. This left a fibrous
pith that could be layered, pressed
and dried to make a version of
paper, or woven together to make
ropes, sandals and wreaths.
Many traditional societies around
the world use natural fibres
because they are readily available.
Traditional Aborigines use natural
fibres stripped from the bark,
reeds, leaves, grasses and rhizomes
of suitable trees and shrubs
around them. They prepare them
in a similar way to the ancient
Egyptians, first soaking the plant
material and then scraping or chewing it to remove
unwanted material. They use the fibres to create
common items such as baskets, rope, nets and
string games.
compressed air
softened
thermoplastic
Mould
is closed.
Plastic expands to fill
mould, leaving seam.
Mould opens.
mould in open position
metal tube
metal tube
Fig 1.4.11 A basket being made using natural fibres
Gut the cat
The strings in string
instruments such as violins
and cellos were originally
made from fibres stripped
from the intestines of
sheep or goats. Although
often called catgut, they
were never made from cats.
Aborigines sometimes
stripped the tendons
from animals such as
kangaroos they had killed
for food. These were
then used when strong
bindings were required.
pellets of solid
thermoplastic
mould (two parts)

Injection site is left as a bump.

molten plastic heating cylinder
ram

Fig 1.4.10 Molten plastic is squeezed into a two-part
mould to fill it in injection moulding.
Fig 1.4.9 Molten plastic is expanded by compressed air
to fill the mould in blow moulding.
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Synthetic fibres
Nylon, Lycra, Kevlar, spandex, elastane, polyesters
and acrylics are all synthetic fibres.
Length and strength
The molecules in a synthetic fibre are aligned along
the thread, making them stronger than the polymers
they came from. The fibre will be particularly strong
if its molecules are longthe longer the molecule, the
higher will be its attraction to others that lie next to
it, and the stronger it will be. The fibre can still tear,
though, since the end of each molecule represents a
weak spot.
Fig 1.4.12 A coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of georgette crepe, a fabric woven
from synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are produced by the extrusion of a
polymer though a multi-holed head called a spinneret.
Although most synthetic fibres are based on synthetic
polymers, some use natural polymers as their building
blocks. Wood and paper (a wood product) contain the
natural polymer cellulose. If wood pulp is soaked in
solutions of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide (NaOH)),
a sticky cellulose gum forms. When extruded, the gum
forms a new fibre. Viscose, acetate, tri-acetate
and rayon all come from wood pulp.
Prac 3
p. 35
Softened thermoplastic is
squeezed out of a multi-holed
nozzle called a spinneret.
A synthetic fibre is formed.
Fig 1.4.13
Force
Length
Each
molecule
is the
same length
as the
monofilament.
a pair of molecules
As molecules get longer the force of
attraction between them increases.
Molecules
separate at
their ends.
a monofilament
Fig 1.4.14 Longer molecules produce stronger fibres than
shorter ones. The strongest are monofilaments.
Monofilaments are made from molecules that
are the same length as the fibre. There are no ends
and therefore no weak spots. Fishing lines are
monofilaments of nylon. Monofilament materials are
extremely strong and flexible, making them ideal for
uses where a tear or puncture would be catastrophic.
Kevlar is a monofilament that is five times stronger
than steel, but half the density of fibreglass. It is used
in bulletproof vests, the sails of ocean-going yachts
and the fuel tanks (actually fuel-bags) of Formula 1
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Fig 1.4.15 Sharkskin has scales
or dermal teeth that
reduce drag as the
shark swims.
Glass fibre is produced by running molten glass
into a perforated steel bowl (like the barrel of a
washing machine). When spun fast,
glass threads fly out to then cool in
the air. When mixed with resins,
fibreglass is produced.
Fig 1.4.16 Speedos Fastskin
suits direct water
flow in a similar
way to water over
a sharks skin.
racing cars. Ropes, fibre-optic
cables, automotive hoses,
belts and gaskets are often
Kevlar. Goalie masks
in hockey use a
fibreglass and Kevlar
mix.
Other fibre
properties
The rough surfaces of natural
fibres give them a high
surface area that can absorb
and hold water and dirt.
In contrast, the surfaces of
synthetic fibres are smooth
they dont hold water or dirt,
making them stain-resistant,
water-repellent and ideal
for clothing. Drip-dry or
wash-and-wear fabrics are synthetic. Synthetics are
uncomfortable in hot weather, however, since sweat
is not soaked up. It stays on your skin, making you
wet and clammy. Natural fibres absorb sweat and keep
your skin dry.
Synthetic fibres are thermoplastic and will melt if
heated. Ironing must therefore be done with care and
tumble-drying is usually not recommended.
Other fibres
If synthetic fibres are heated strongly with no air
present, they do not burn. Instead they char until all
that is left is a fibre of pure carbon. Carbon fibre is
extremely strong and when mixed with resins can be
used for making lightweight and flexible structures
ideal for bike frames and tennis racquets.
New-improved
Concorde
In 2000, an Air France
Concorde took off from
Charles de Gaulle Airport
in Paris. A tyre burst,
sending fragments into the
wing, puncturing the fuel
tanks there. The spilled
fuel ignited and the plane
caught fire. Concordes
once again took to the sky
in 2001, this time with fuel
tanks lined with Kevlar.
They never regained the
patronage of before the
catastrophe, however, and
were finally removed from
service in 2003.
Prac 4
p. 36
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Revision questions
Plastic: carbon-based compounds
1 List these facts about carbon:
a its group
b its period
c the number of electrons in its outer shell
d two continuous lattices that it forms.
2 What is an organic compound?
Give three examples.
3 List three desirable and three
undesirable properties of plastics.
Monomers and polymers
4 What is the difference between a monomer and a
polymer?
Swimming in shoes!
Australians have always loved
the beach (the first recorded
surf drowning was in 1818 at
Bundye, now called Bondi),
but until 1900 it was illegal
to bathe in daylight. From
1902, bathing was allowed,
although men and women had
to swim separately and fully
clothedmen wore neck-
to-knee woollen bathers and
women wore huge bathing
dresses, caps, stockings and
shoes. Wool holds water
and gets very heavy, making
swimming difficult and
drowning easy. In the 1930s
Jantzens Topper swimwear
allowed men to zip off their
top at secluded beaches, and
in 1938 men were allowed
to go topless on the beaches
of Perth. The womens bikini
was launched in 1952, but
the newly developed lastex
fabric needed bone or metal
stiffeners to prevent them
slipping off.
Modern swimwear is
commonly nylon, elastane
or Lycra blends. Nylon
causes friction, however,
and lifesavers often roll their
bathers up to reduce friction-
burn when rowing surfboats
in competitions. Swimmers
once again are wearing neck-
to-knee bathers, to protect
children from UV radiation
and to allow competitive
swimmers to reduce drag.
Adidas makes a competitive
full-body swimsuit made from
Teflon-coated Lycra, while
Speedo makes suits from
Fastskin, which has a texture
modelled on sharkskin.
>>
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5 List examples of:
a five synthetic polymers
b three natural polymers
c one inorganic polymer.
Melt or burn?
6 What is the difference between thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastics?
7 Explain why thermoplastics can melt and then reset on
cooling.
8 Explain how cross-linking bonds stop thermosetting
plastics from melting.
9 List examples of:
a three thermoplastic polymers
b one thermosetting polymer.
Working with plastic
10 Which type of plastic moulding is most common?
11 What are the tell-tale signs of:
a injection moulding
b blow moulding?
Fibres
12 What is the difference between the surface of a natural
fibre and that of a synthetic fibre?
13 List three examples each of natural fibres, synthetic
fibres made from plastics and synthetic fibres made
from wood products.
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at work
1
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SCIENCE
>>
potential risks
about to make.
Researching plastic foams
Materials such as those used to make polystyrene cups and
insulation are called foams. Surf your available resources
(textbooks, encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to find how plastic
foams are made. Present your findings as a flow chart.
Surfing
Companion Website
Explore plastic recycling by connecting to the
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary,
button.
Assessing risk
Write a risk-assessment sheet for one of the following
use Homework book 1.4 or download a blank risk-
assessment sheet from the Science Dimensions 4
Companion Website at
Length and strength
14 a Fibres are made by which method of plastic
moulding?
b What is the nozzle called?
15 How does the length of a molecule affect the strength of
a fibre?
16 Where do fibres tend to break?
17 Give two examples of monofilaments.
Other fibre properties
18 Its hot and humid. What type of fibre should I wear
and why?
19 Why are natural materials not drip-dry?
Other fibres
20 What is strange about the production of carbon fibres?
21 Briefly outline how fibreglass is produced.
Thinking questions
22 A train is a good model of a polymer. What would
represent the monomer?
23 Would the production of thermosetting plastic powder
be a good idea? Explain.
24 Explain why care must be taken when drying and
pressing synthetic fibres.
25 What is the advantage of fishing lines being
monofilaments?
33
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[
] 1
.
4
U
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Identifying plastics
You will need
Labelled pieces (each about 2 1 cm)
of polythene, polystyrene, PVC, perspex,
nylon, mystery plastics, dissection board
or heat-proof mat, scissors, turpentine,
nail-polish remover, dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl), detergent, 250 mL beaker, tongs,
access to methylated spirits burner set up
in fume hood
What to do
1 Copy the table on the next page into your
workbook.
Your teacher may organise you into groups to
run all tests on one plastic only or to run one test
on all the plastics.
2 Describe the appearanceis it transparent,
translucent or opaque?
3 Describe its flexibilitydoes it bend or is it stiff?
4 Does it feel waxy?
Prac 1
Unit 1.4
250 mL
beaker
turpentine
HCl
nail polish
remover
meths burner
This must be in
a fume hood
2 drops of
detergent
Fig 1.4.17
at work SCIENCE
>>
Modelling
Monomers
Use a paperclip to represent a monomer. Link them together
to create models of a polymer, a thermoplastic and a
thermosetting plastic.
Present your work as two models.
Inspecting
Plastic items
1 Inspect ten plastic items around your home. Look for
seams or bumps. List the items according to whether
they were made by extrusion, blow moulding or injection
moulding.
2 Inspect the washing, drying and ironing instructions
on six different pieces of clothing. Write down the
fibre composition of each. Did any of the instructions
recommend no heat at some stage?
Present your work as a table.
Investigating
Natural versus synthetic
Plan and run an experiment to determine the amount of
water different fabrics can hold.
1 Draw a flow chart showing how you conducted your
experiment.
2 Arrange the fibres tested in order from those that held
the least water to those that held the most.
3 Mark which of those fibres were synthetic.
Present your work as an experimental report. Include all
the normal features, such as aim, materials, method, results,
discussion and conclusion.
Estimating
Plastic bags
Count how many plastic bags are collected in one week
when shopping for groceries, clothes, bread, vegetables,
take-away and so on. Record what each was for and what
alternatives could have been used. Estimate how many your
household uses in one year.
>>
1
.
4
1
.
4
34
>>>
5 Does your fingernail or do the scissors scratch it?
6 How hard is it to cut with scissors?
7 Are the edges smooth or jagged? Does the cut show
bubbles or cells?
8 Add 2 drops of detergent to a 250 mL beaker of cold
water. Add a plasticdoes it float or sink?
9 Place a drop each of turpentine, HCl and nail-polish
remover onto three small squares of each plastic. Leave
5 minutes and record whether it dissolves, or goes soft,
or remains hard.
CAUTION: The methylated spirits burner must be in a fume
hood. If no fume hood is available, do not do any burning tests.
Do not smell any fumes or smoke.
10 Does burning a small piece of plastic produce smoke? If
so, what colour? What colour is the flame? Does molten
plastic drop from it? Do the drops burn as they fall?
11 Run tests to determine the identify of each of the
mystery plastics.
Questions
1 Label each plastic as either thermoplastic or
thermosetting.
2 Identify the mystery plastics.
3 Why must the burning be done in the fume hood and
not in the lab? What does PVC produce when burnt?
4 Did any plastics sink in water, or react with it?
5 A sample of plastic kept burning once lit. Its flame was
blue with a yellow tip. What was the plastic?
Making casein plastic
Prac 2
Unit 1.4
Casein was an early plastic that is still used for
buttons and some wood glues. It is hardened
industrially with formalin.
You will need
Full-cream milk, vinegar, Bunsen burner, heat-proof mat,
tripod, gauze mat, matches, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
two 250 mL beakers, thermometer, stirring rod, elastic
band, coarse cloth for straining, paper towel or filter paper,
assorted moulds (such as bottle caps, moulded chocolate
trays), fine sandpaper, tongs
What to do
1 Set up the Bunsen burner and tripod.
2 Place 100 mL of milk in one of the 250 mL beakers.
Warm gently until it reaches 50C. Do not overheat.
3 Add 10 mL vinegar and stir with the glass stirring rod.
4 The milk should curdle to form white lumps of curds
(casein) and a yellowish liquid called whey.
5 Secure the piece of cloth tightly over the other 250 mL
beaker and strain the curds and whey.
6 Carefully remove the cloth and squeeze to remove as
much liquid as you can.
7 Empty onto the paper towel or filter paper. Pat dry,
then firmly press into moulds. Leave the casein to dry
in the sun.
8 After a couple of days, remove the mould and polish
with the sandpaper.
9 Use tongs to hold a small amount of the dry casein in
a Bunsen burner flame. Does it melt, burn or char?
>>
Polythene Polystyrene foam PVC Perspex Nylon
Appearance
Flexibility
Feel
Ease of scratching
Ease of cutting
Description of cut
Does it float?
Effect of flame
What dissolves it?
35
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Prac 3
Unit 1.4
Making nylon
CAUTION: This demonstration must be done in a fume hood.
Extension
10 Chip off a piece of casein and find its mass.
11 For every 50 g of casein you chip off, measure out 20 g
of borax and 40 mL of water.
12 Add the borax and water to a conical flask and swirl
until dissolved.
13 Crumble the casein into the borax solution and shake
until a creamy glue is formed.
14 Use it to glue two chips of wood together. Use the
clamp or elastic bands to hold the pieces together.
Leave it overnight to cure, then try to separate the
pieces of wood.
Questions
1 Was the casein plastic produced thermosetting or
thermoplastic?
2 What was the purpose of the final test?
3 What is casein used for?
4 How does industry harden it?
5 Little Miss Muffet ate her curds and whey. Would you?
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
250 mL beaker
50C
100 mL milk
curds
cloth
curds
elastic band
whey
filter paper
10 mL vinegar
curds
mould
thermometer
Fig 1.4.18
Teacher demonstration
You will need
Fume hood, 1,6-diaminohexane, anhydrous sodium carbonate,
sebacoyl chloride or adipoyl chloride, cyclohexane, two
250 mL beakers, tweezers, glass stirring rod
What to do
1 Dissolve 2.2 g of 1,6-diaminohexane and 5 g of
anhydrous sodium carbonate in 50 mL of water.
2 In another beaker, mix 2 mL of sebacoyl chloride or
adipoyl chloride in 50 mL of cyclohexane.
3 Gently pour the 1,6-diaminohexane solution down
the side of the beaker and onto the top of the
1
.
4
1
.
4
cyclohexane solution. The two solutions must not
mix but must form layers.
4 Use tweezers to lift part of the layer of nylon formed
between the solutions. Drape it over the glass stirring
rod and wind the fibre out.
Questions
1 Draw a three-frame cartoon or diagram to show how
nylon was made.
2 What would have formed if the two solutions were
allowed to mix?
3 The nylon fibre formed is not very useful. Explain why.
36
Identifying fibres
Prac 4
Unit 1.4
4 List the fabrics in order from the safest near a flame to
the most dangerous.
5 Clothing fires are more common among children than
adults and more common among girls than boys.
Suggest why.
6 What fibres would you recommend to be used for
clothes for babies and young children?
nylon
wool
cotton
linen
silk
Fig 1.4.19 Fibres under the microscope
You will need
Labelled samples of fabrics (wool, cotton, linen,
rayon, nylon, polyester), microscope, microscope
slide and coverslip, pins or tweezers, metal tongs,
matches, heat-proof mat
What to do
1 Remove an individual thread, about 2 cm long, from
each fabric sample.
2 Place it on the microscope slide and use the tweezers or
pins to tease the fibres apart.
3 Place a coverslip on top and inspect the fibres under the
microscope.
4 Sketch and label each fibre, taking note of its surface.
5 Cut or tear a strip about 2 1 cm from each fabric.
6 Use tongs to hold a strip over the heat-proof mat. Hold
a lit match under the strip. Record your observations for
each fabric. Did it catch fire, melt or char? What colour
was the flame and smoke? What was left?
Questions
1 Match your samples with the diagrams opposite.
2 Which fibres were natural and which were synthetic?
3 Why do synthetic fibres have smoother surfaces than
natural ones?
>>>
Fig 1.4.20 a) Wool fibres b) Nylon fibres in curtain material. Note the smoothness of the nylon fibres compared to the wool.
a b
37
at work SCIENCE
Understanding nanotechnology
Michael Crichtons novel Prey tells a story of research
going horribly wrong. In this future world, self-
replicating nanoscale robots start to co-operate with
each other. They prey on living creatures, including
the research scientists who created them, to gain the
building blocks they require to reproduce themselves.
This book triggered a very strong response in some
people who saw nanotechnology as being far too
dangerous and who thought that the book presented
an accurate prediction of the future.
Dont fear! At present nanotechnology is still
evolving and there is little risk of nanobots ever taking
over. Many in the scientific and medical communities
strongly support the development of nanotechnologies
because of the huge benefits they might bring.
Nanotechnology involves making and manipulating
incredibly tiny objects, so small that their size needs
to be measured in the metric unit nanometres. One
nanometre is equal to just one thousand millionth or
one billionth of a metre. A single atom has a diameter
of about 0.1 to 0.3 nanometres. That gives you an idea
of just how tiny the nanometre is.
A different approach
Multidisciplined
Working with incredibly small objects requires
co-operation between scientists from various branches
of science. Nanotechnology draws on chemistry,
physics, electrical engineering, molecular biology,
quantum physics and materials science. It offers
a huge range of possibilities and applications are
already being explored in medicine, computing,
electronics, engineering and lithography.
Top down
The manufacture of small objects is usually a top-
down approach. This means the material would
be reduced down to the desired size, a little like
sculpting a small statue from a large block of stone.
This approach is suitable for micro-sized objects such
as silicon chips and micro machines which are often
etched out of a larger piece of substance.
Limit of human vision
Small fly
5.0 mm
Human hair
~0.05 to
0.10 mm
= 50 to
100 m
Mitochondrion
from
human cell
~500 to
700 nm
Human
red blood cell
~6.0 m
Width
of
DNA
molecule
~2 nm
Nanowire
chemical
detector
wires are
~10 nm
Rhinovirus
(common
cold)
~30 nm
Carbon
nanotubes
~1 nm
Diameter
of atoms
~0.10 to
0.30 nm
Domain of nanotechnology The future?
Limit of light
microscope
Note:
There are 1000 millimetres (mm) in 1.0 metre (m).
There are 1000 micrometres (m) in 1.0 millimetre (mm).
There are 1000 nanometres (nm) in 1.0 micrometre (m).
1
0
3
m

=
1
.
0
0

m
m
1
0
4
m

=

0
.
1
0

m
m
1
0
5
m

=

0
.
0
1
0

m
m
=

1
0

m
1
0
6
m

=
1
.
0
0

m
1
0
7
m

=
0
.
1
0

m
=

1
0
0

n
m
1
0
9
m

=
1
.
0
0

n
m
1
0
8
m

=
1
0
.
0

n
m
1
0
1
0
m

=

0
.
1
0

n
m
Fig 1.4.21
How small is a nanometre? As you move
from left to right across the diagram, each
step is ten times smaller.
38
at work SCIENCE
Fig 1.4.22
These micromechanics components were
etched out of silicon. They were created using
a top-down approach. For scale, the leg of a fly
has been included.
Bottom up
The development of the scanning tunnelling electron
microscope (the STM or STEM) finally made it
possible to produce images of an atom. It was quickly
realised that, with some modifications, the STEM
would be the perfect tool to:
manipulate the surface atoms of a material
lay down incredibly thin surface layers
on a substrate.
The STEM provides the
opportunity to create structures from
the bottom up, assembling a structure
atom-by-atom, similar to the way a
house is built brick-by-brick.
Figure 1.4.22 shows how a
STEM operates. The STEM and
sample are contained in a region
which has had the air evacuated
using a vacuum pump. The STEM
piezotube probe is then moved over
the surface of the sample. A fixed
distance is maintained by ensuring
the tunnelling current between the
probe and sample does not change.
Computer analysis of the data
collected creates an image of the
surface features of the sample.
Using a STEM, individual atoms
can be identified. The chemical
bonds holding a surface atom
in position can be broken by
applying a secondary voltage
between the tip of the probe and
the surface. Once free, the atom
can then be moved. This ability
to manipulate individual atoms
has made bottom-up engineering
of nanoscale objects a realityit
is now becoming possible to
assemble something by building
it atom by atom.
Figure 1.4.23 shows a
STEM image of a surface that
uses single atoms to represent
data. The individual atoms hold data just like the
microscopic pits on a CD. Incredible amounts of data
can be stored this way: 900 pages of a book can be
stored on the cross section of a human hair. A STEM
is required to both write and read the data, just like a
laser is required to record and read data from a CD.
distance control for
piezotube to sample
and scanning unit
tunnelling
voltage tunnelling
electron
current
data processing
and display of images
sample
being
studied
piezotube generates
a flow of electrons
that is focused at
the sample
tunnelling
current
amplifier
applied control voltage
for piezotube containing
electrodes
Fig 1.4.23
The basic features of a scanning tunnelling
electron microscope (STEM)
Red gold
When objects get
incredibly small they do
not behave in the normal
ways expected of larger
objects. Quantum effects
begin to act at the atomic
level and this produces
some very interesting
results. For example,
the metal gold is gold in
colour when you look at a
sample large enough to see
with the naked eye. When
gold atoms are arranged
to produce tiny crystals
of gold on the nanoscale,
however, the gold appears
red. These curious results
show that scientists have
a lot to learn about how
substances behave at the
nanoscale.
39
Fig 1.4.24 Individual silicon atoms (yellow) sit on this
surface and represent data, like pits on a CD.
The future of nanotechnology
Although nanotechnology research and development
is expensive, investment is also high because it is
likely to produce innovative new products. The
possibilities are endless. Some of the most promising
areas where nanotechnology will be applied in the
future are described below.
Surfaces
The ability to lay down incredibly thin layers of
a substance onto the surface of other material can
improve the properties of a substance and offers many
advantages in chemistry and engineering.
Laying down an incredibly thin protective coat on
solar cells could improve transmission of light into
the cells and thereby improve their efficiency.
Surfaces could be made self-cleaning by applying a
coating that repels dirt.
Manipulating the surfaces of materials makes it
possible to store vast amounts of information in
very small spaces.
A scanning beam interference lithography machine
can create gratings or grids with structures on the
scale of a few nanometres. The structures created
are used in astronomical devices such as space
telescopes and satellites. A laser is used to create
the pattern on the target surface. In the future
this could be used to produce nanotechnology
components for computers and machines.
Medical
An application of nanotechnology being explored
is the creation of nanobots (nanoscale robots) to be
placed in humans. Nanobots:
could monitor the internal conditions of the
body, such as blood sugar levels, temperature,
nervous activity or production of hormones by
endocrine glands
could be designed to seek out and destroy viruses
and bacteria in the bloodstream
could be engineered to target certain cells in the
body, identifying the cell and delivering a product
to it. For example, a nanobot could be designed to
detect cancerous cells. Drugs could be packaged
inside the nanobots to be injected directly into the
cancer cells with no damage to the normal cells of
the patient.
Fig 1.4.25
A scanning beam interference lithography
machine creates nanoscale grids and grates
for space technology.
Fig 1.4.26
An artists impression of a nanobot injecting a
drug to kill cancerous cells in a human body.
Could this be how we treat disease in the future?
40
at work SCIENCE
Computing
Nanotechnology offers the potential to manufacture
new, smaller, faster and more efficient integrated
circuits for computing. It has made quantum computing
possible, with processing speeds far beyond the ability
of present silicon-based microprocessors.
Quantum computers would store and process
information at an atomic level. A solid-state quantum
computer element can be made by positioning
phosphorus atoms 20 nanometres apart in very
pure silicon. The phosphorus atoms behave as an
incredibly tiny and extremely fast microprocessor.
Promising research into quantum computing is being
conducted at the University of New South Wales.
Fig 1.4.27 This image of carbon nanotubes was created
using a STEM. Carbon nanotubes have the
potential to be used in electrical devices and
have unusual properties. Much research is
being done with carbon nanotubes, and their
applications are likely to be diverse.
[
Student activities
]
Surfing
Researching quantum computers
Internet, etc.) to research the work being done on quantum
computers at the University of New South Wales (UNSW).
Summarise the work being done and report on any progress
made up to now. Many teams in other countries are doing
similar research. Compare the UNSW research with that
being done in another location.
Present your work as a multimedia presentation.
Imagining
Medical nanobot
As a molecular biologist and nanoengineer, you have been
given the task of designing a nanobot to help solve an
important medical problem. Identify a medical problem
you would like to solve using nanobots, such as diabetes,
cancer, HIV, haemophilia or another problem of your choice.
Present your work as a poster or model of a nanobot that
could help solve this medical problem. Include labels or a key
to show the features of your nanobot, and an explanation of
how the nanobot will tackle the medical problem.
Applying
Carbon nanotubes
Tests on carbon nanotubes show that they have extraordinary,
unexpected properties. Much research is being done into
carbon nanotubes, and their applications are likely to be
diverse.
1 Surf your available resources (textbooks,
encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to find out more about
carbon nanotubes. Find out:
a what they are
b what special properties they have
c their possible applications and uses
d why it would be important to conduct further
research into carbon nanotubes.
2 You are a research scientist and you want to work with
carbon nanotubes but you need funding for your project.
There is $1 000 000 in funding for nanotechnology
available, but you have to appear to be at the forefront
of research to get this. Using the information you have
about carbon nanotubes, construct an application that
will get the funding you need for your research. Include
the possible outcomes and products you will create, and
how they will benefit society.
Informing
About nanotechnology
Produce a poster, display or other presentation to teach the
general public about nanotechnology, and what it may offer
society in the future. You will need to conduct research to
include information about:
examples of current and future research and products
public safety and any social issues
the importance of continuing to invest in this area of
research.
41
1
.
5
Soap, shampoos and detergents
help you wash away dirt, oil
and grease far better than water
alone. They can do this because
they have an amazing chemical
structure.
Washing in water
At home, water (H
2
O) is our
main washing liquid. It is a polar
molecule, having small electrical
charges on its ends. Water
dissolves other polar molecules
such as sugar and ionic substances
such as salt or sodium chloride
(NaCl) that have positive and
negative ions. Water will not
dissolve grease by itself.
+
+
H

O H

O

H
+

+
+
+

+

means slight negative charge means slight positive charge
Water weakens
the forces
holding
salt chemicals
together.
Once
separated, they are
unlikely to rejoin.
a water molecule
H
+ +
H
O
O

H
+

+
H

H
+
O
H
+

H
+ +
H
+
H

O

O

H
+

+
H

O

H
+

+
H

O

H
+
+
H
O
H
+
+
H O

H
+
+
H
O

H
+
+
H
O

H
+

+
H

H
+

H
+

O

O
H
+ +
H
O
H
+

H
+ +
H
+
H

O

O

H
+

+
H

H
+

H
+

O

O
H
+ +
H
O
H
+

H
+ +
H
+
H

O

Fig 1.5.1 Water is a polar molecule and can use its slight
charges to dissolve ionic substances.
Australians are
too clean!
Nearly 31 per cent of
babies in Melbourne and
country Victoria suffer
from eczema, or skin
hypersensitivity. It seems
that we are all using too
much soap, bubble bath
and shampoo, since
all remove essential
oils from the skin. This
causes dryness and
makes us susceptible to
eczema. Dermatologists
recommend using soap-
free cleansers instead. For
babies all that is generally
needed is some bath oil or
moisturiser.
Fig 1.5.2 Detergents, shampoos and soaps are surfactants.
Surfactant molecules are similar to molecules found
in plastics in that they are long and have a carbon
backbone. This long, carbon-based part of the molecule
is non-polar (has no electrical charge). It is termed
hydrophobic (water-fearing) as it does not dissolve in
water. This part of the surfactant will interact with
grease, because grease is also a non-polar, organic
compound. Surfactant molecules also have a polar
or ionic end. This end will dissolve in water. It is
hydrophilic (water-loving). This is the perfect molecule
for dissolving greaseone end attaches to the grease,
while the other end dissolves in water. Once the grease
is dislodged from a surface, surfactant molecules
surround it and keep it from re-depositing onto the
surface. These tiny dissolved liquid grease globules
and the water form a mixture called an emulsion.
Making grease soluble
Oils and grease are made from organic compounds that
normally dissolve only in other organic substances
such as turpentine, methylated spirits or nail-polish
remover. Although there are obvious problems in
washing yourself in liquids like these, dry-cleaners use
similar organic solvents to dissolve and remove grease
from clothes. Most cleaning, however, is done in water
with the aid of soap, shampoos or detergents. These are
examples of surfactants, molecules that assist water in
dissolving dirt and grease.
1
.
5
UNIT
UNIT
42
>>>
Hard and soft water
Tap water contains many impurities.
If it has a significant amount of
calcium and magnesium salts
dissolved in it, then it is hard.
Soap reacts with these salts to
produce calcium and magnesium
precipitates. These are left behind
as a dirty grey substance called
scum, which deposits as a ring
around basins and baths or as scale
in pipes and kettles. Soft water
has fewer dissolved salts and soap
produces less scum. Soap lathers
better, feels smoother and more
slippery, and less of it is required
to get clean.
How soap is made
Soap is made when natural fatty acids found in materials
like vegetable oils and animal fats react with an alkaline
(basic) solution such as sodium hydroxide. The process
is called saponification, summarised by the equation:
fat + alkaline solution
soap + glycerol
Detergents are produced
from chemicals from crude
oil. The big advantage of
detergents is that they dont
produce scum.
Hot water and agitation (vigorous movement) help
loosen the grease from the surface and keep it from
re-depositing on it. Lather (bubbles) also assists in
keeping grease from re-depositing and is particularly
useful in situations where little water is used (such as
shaving, washing cars and washing hair). Many fibres
(including hair) take on a weak negative charge when
wet. Once dissolved and carrying their load of grease,
the surfactant molecules also carry a negative charge
and are thus less likely to re-deposit the grease onto
the fibre.
Surfactant (soap, detergent) molecules
have a hydrophobic end that hates
water but loves grease. The other end is
hydrophilicit loves water.
hydrophobic
tail (organic
end attaches
to grease)
hydrophilic
head (ionic
or polar end
dissolves
in water)
grease
surfactant
molecule
water
Fig 1.5.3
Fig 1.5.4 Lather (bubbles) keeps the dirt and grease
from re-depositing on the hair.
What gorgeous hair!
The molecules of most hair conditioners tend to have positively charged
ends that are attracted to the weak negative charge of the hair. They
stay there even when the hair dries. (Fabric softeners work in the same
way.) Shampoos and conditioners are normally sold in separate bottles
because their opposite charges interfere with each other if they are
mixed. In combined shampoo-conditioners, the conditioner molecules
are trapped in crystalline shells. When lathering hair, the shampoo works,
but there is insufficient water to break down the conditioner crystals.
These only break down on rinsing, when more water is present.
Scum free and
bubbles galore!
Melbourne has excellent
soft water; it lathers
well and leaves very
little scum. Other cities
are less fortunate. In
some, water softener
systems are attached
to each homes water
supply. Beads of zeolite
replace the offending
calcium and magnesium
ions with sodium.
Soap doesnt react with
sodium ions.
Skin soap
Bases such as caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide) and
their alkaline solutions are
extremely dangerous if they
come in contact with the skin.
The skin becomes slippery,
its fats reacting to form soap.
Saponification has occurred.
Prac 2
p. 45
Prac 1
p. 44
Coming clean Coming clean
43
U
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U
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Cows and whales in the bathtub
Soap needs a fat or oil to start its production and nowadays
much of it comes from fat boiled down from the carcasses of
cattle from the abattoir. In the past, whale blubber was used.
Vegetable oils can also be used. Palmolive soap is named
because it is made from palm oil and olive oil.
1
.
5
U
N
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Washing in water
1 What is a polar molecule?
2 What types of substances does water normally dissolve
and why?
Making grease soluble
3 What type of compound is grease?
4 What liquids normally dissolve grease and where are
these solvents used?
5 Define the term surfactant.
6 How are soap molecules similar to:
a plastics
b ionic compounds?
7 Draw a diagram showing how soap helps grease to
dissolve in water.
>>
8 Explain how soap is able to dissolve both in water and
interact with grease.
9 Lather does not help in dissolving grease, so what use
is it?
10 List three ways grease is prevented from re-depositing
on a surface.
Hard and soft water
11 What are the advantages of soft water?
12 What chemicals cause scum?
13 What does scum form in pipes and kettles?
How soap is made
14 What are the reactants in saponification?
15 Identify three vegetable oils that could be used for the
production of soap.
16 Where could animal fat come from to produce soap?
17 Write a word equation for the production of soap.
18 Name two ways in which detergent is different to soap.
Thinking questions
19 Identify as many factors as you can that will affect the
cleaning of a piece of fabric.
20 If shaving cream did not lather, where would the cut
whiskers end up?
Analysis question
21 Draw a three- to four-frame cartoon or diagram showing
how shampoo-conditioners work.
U
N
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at work
1
.
5
SCIENCE
>>
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about soaps and
cleaners by connecting to the
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary, selecting
Chapter 1 and clicking on the Web Destinations button.
Explore the links to find:
what is in a soap-free cleanser like Dove
how special cloths made by Scotch, Sabco, 3M and
ENJO clean without the use of chemicals
how the dry-cleaning process cleans clothes
why soap films are often coloured
a machine that can make three-storey-high soap
bubbles.
Present your research as a written explanation that
includes diagrams and explains the chemistry involved.
Using
The dictionary
1 Find the meanings of the words phobia and phobic
and give examples of phobias.
2 One end of a surfactant molecule is hydrophobic while
the other end is hydrophilic. What do these terms mean
and which end of the molecule is which?
1
.
5
1
.
5
44
>>>
[
] 1
.
5
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Make soap
CAUTION: The soap made here uses and contains very
corrosive sodium hydroxide. Do not get any sodium
hydroxide on your skin or in your eyes. Do not use the
soap produced.
You will need
Olive oil or coconut oil, 6 M sodium hydroxide solution,
saturated solution of sodium chloride, kerosene, three
test tubes, rubber stopper, 400 mL beaker, 100 mL beaker,
250 mL beaker, hot plate (preferably) or a Bunsen burner,
heat-proof mat, tripod, gauze mat, matches, filter paper
or paper towel
What to do
1 Pour about 5 mL of oil into a test tube.
2 Carefully add 10 mL of sodium hydroxide solution.
Prac 1
Unit 1.5
test tube 250 mL
beaker
water
yellow
flame
bench
mat
5 mL oil
10 mL
sodium
hydroxide
solution
Fig 1.5.5
at work SCIENCE
>>
Coming clean Coming clean
Surfing
Assessing risk
Write a risk-assessment sheet for one of the following
assessment sheet from the Science Dimensions 4
potential risks
about to make.
Inspecting
Soaps
Inspect the labels of at least three different brands of soap,
hair shampoo and shower gel. Write down the first six
ingredients of each. What do you notice?
Present your work as a table.
Investigating
Powder and liquid laundry detergents
Identify all the variables or factors that could influence
the effectiveness of laundry detergent in removing grease.
Choose one variable that you think would have a large effect
and design and run an experiment that would test it.
1 Write a conclusion for the variable you tested.
2 Gather conclusions from other groups that tested
different variables. Which variables had an effect and
which didnt?
Present your work as an experimental report on the effect
of the variable you chose. Include all the normal features
such as aim, materials, method, results, discussion and
conclusion.
45
U
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U
N
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T
How hard is it?
Prac 2
Unit 1.5
Hold stopper
and shake.
stopper
Look for
lather.
solution of
different salts
small chip
of soap
Fig 1.5.6 Is the water hard or soft?
You will need
Distilled water, dilute magnesium sulfate
solution, solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate,
suspension of calcium carbonate in water, small
chips of bath soap, shampoo, detergent, five
test tubes, test-tube rack, rubber stoppers to
fit test tubes
What to do
1 Put about 2 cm of distilled water and 2 cm of tap water
into two separate test tubes.
2 Put about 2 cm of each of the other solutions into the
other test tubes.
3 Add a small chip of soap to all five tubes and stopper
lightly.
4 Shake the tubes vigorously and watch for any lather that
forms.
5 Record your results in order from the solution that
produced the most lather (the softest) to the one that
produced the least (the hardest).
6 Repeat the experiment but use a few drops of shampoo.
7 Repeat again with a few drops of detergent.
Questions
1 What does soap do in hard water?
2 Which was the hardest of the solutions?
3 Did water show any hardness with the shampoo or
detergent?
4 What is the advantage of detergent over soap?
5 Design a test to see if temperature has an effect on
water hardness.
1
.
5
1
.
5
3 Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for 30
minutes. Shake the tube every few minutes to mix the
contents.
4 Place 50 mL of the sodium chloride solution in the
100 mL beaker, then pour the hot oil mix in. The soap
formed should float to the top.
5 Scoop up the soap and place it in the 250 mL beaker.
Rinse a few times with a little water.
6 Let the soap dry on filter paper or paper towel.
7 Two-thirds fill the other test tube with water and add a
little soap.
8 Stopper and shake. Does it lather?
9 Fill a fresh test tube with water, then add 3 or 4 drops
of kerosene. This will be our grease. Stopper and
shake.
10 Add some soap, then shake again. Compare with
what you saw before.
Questions
1 Draw a cartoon explaining how you made the soap.
2 What happens to the kerosene in water alone?
3 What effect did the soap have on it?
4 Write a word equation for the soap-producing
reaction.
46
Chapter review
12 Why do natural fibres hold water when synthetic fibres
do not?
13 What stops grease from dropping back onto clothes
after removal?
[
Thinking questions
]
14 Rose-gold is an orange-gold colour. What base metal
and added metal do you think make up this alloy?
15 It is thought that iron simply oozed out of rocks used
to surround cooking pits of ancient hunters. How is this
situation similar to a blast furnace?
16 Primitive prospectors found gold and silver before any
other metal. Explain why.
17 Salt is often used in Europe and North America to help
melt ice on roads. Cars in these countries also rust
quicker than ours. Why?
18 Explain why stainless steel is ideal for use as
replacement bone (hips, tooth implants, knees).
19 Corrugated iron (steel) is galvanised and is commonly
used for roofing. What will happen after all the zinc
coating has corroded away? Can the zinc be replaced?
20 Car bodies are galvanised, so why paint them?
[
Analysis questions
]
21 What percentage of pure gold is 18-carat gold?
22 Prepare a list of ingredients for a blast furnace.
>>>
[
Summary questions
]
1 Give an example of an alloy and its base metal.
2 Are the additives in alloys usually metals or non-metals?
3 List the carbon content of:
a cast iron
b wrought iron
c steel.
4 How many carats is pure gold?
5 What is each of these materials used for?
a aluminium
b zinc
c cast iron
d duralumin
e bronze
f haematite
g bauxite
h celluloid
i Kevlar
6 Give one example each of:
a an alloy of copper
b an alloy of iron
c an impurity commonly added to iron
d a commonly used pure metal
e a non-metal abundant in the Earths crust
f a scarce metal
g a metal that is cheaper to recycle than to produce
h an ore
i a native metal
j a natural fibre
k a synthetic fibre made from wood products
l a monofilament fibre
m a surfactant
n an organic solvent.
7 Name a metal that is extracted by:
a electrolysis
b smelting
c roasting.
8 What special name is given to the corrosion of iron?
9 What is anodised aluminium?
10 What is the problem with using plastic shopping bags?
What can we do about this?
11 List four properties of a thermosetting plastic.
Homework book 1.8 Materials crossword 1
Homework book 1.9 Materials crossword 2
2
Chemical
Students:
investigate how energy may be responsible for the changes
observed in chemical processes and applications such as
endothermic and exothermic reactions and the production of
new materials
investigate sources of waste generated within the community
consider waste treatment and management options
investigate a range of strategies that explore the responsible
use and management of natural and processed resources
make links across related areas of science, such as resource
management and green chemistry
use Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) when appropriate
prepare investigation reports, using symbols and diagrams
extensively
develop an understanding of the big ideas of science
debate science-related issues such as personal safety, a clean
and healthy environment, energy use
and ecological footprints.
Students:
explain the properties of materials in terms of their constituent
particles and the forces holding them together
explain how similarities in the chemical behaviour of elements,
their atomic structure and their compounds are represented in
the way the Periodic Table has been constructed
use atomic symbols and balanced chemical equations to
summarise chemical reactions, including neutralisation,
precipitation and combustion
use a specific example to explain the sustainable management
of a resource
explain change in terms of energy.
1 How many elements are normally found as gases?
2 Which element helped to cause the fall of the Roman Empire?
3 What is dephlogisticated air?
4 What caused the Hindenburg disaster?
5 Why is sulfuric acid known as the king of chemicals?
6 How can rhubarb kill?
7 What is the common name of 1, 2-ethanediol?
G
e
t
t
i
n
g

s
t
a
r
t
e
d
Learning focus
Standards:
L
E
V
E
L

6
reactions
48
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
States of matter
Chemicals can exist as solids, liquids or gases.
Their physical state may be indicated by using the
appropriate subscript: (s) for a solid substance, (g) for
a gas and (l) for a pure liquid.
2
.
1
2
.
1
In Years 7, 8 and 9, you were introduced to several
important concepts in chemistry. A revision and
summary of these concepts is needed before you
are introduced to any new concepts.
Matter
Here is a brief summary of some important facts:
All matter can be divided into pure substances and
mixtures. An example of a pure substance is water,
while an example of a mixture is air.
Pure substances are elements or compounds.
An element consists of atoms having the same
number of protons in their nuclei, such as iron
(Fe), chlorine (Cl) and hydrogen (H). There are 92
naturally occurring elements and at least nineteen
manufactured elements. Elements may be metals,
non-metals or semi-metals (metalloids).
A compound consists of two or more different
atoms chemically bonded together, such as carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
matter
mixtures
e.g. sea water
pure substances
compounds elements
metals
e.g. iron (Fe)
non-metals
ionic
e.g. sodium (NaCl)
covalent
discrete
molecules
e.g. chlorine (Cl
2
)
network
e.g. diamond
(C)
discrete
molecules
e.g. carbon (CO
2
)
network
e.g. quartz
(SiO
2
)
Fig 2.1.1 A classification of matter
Chemical properties
reaction with
Physical properties
colour malleability
acids bases water oxygen other
substances
solubility melting
point
odour ductility
hardness conductivity boiling point
taste
density
Fig 2.1.2 The difference between physical properties and
chemical properties
Standard laboratory conditions (SLC)
The state of a substance will depend on both
temperature and pressure conditions. In chemistry,
it is not sufficient just to say normal laboratory
conditions because the temperature and air pressure
must be specified. Instead, chemists refer to standard
laboratory conditions (SLC) which are specified as
25C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere (normal air
pressure at sea level).
49
U
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U
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Solutions
Solutions consist of one or more solutes dissolved
in a liquid solvent.
Solutions in which water is the solvent are called
aqueous solutions.
In an equation, (aq) shows that a substance is in
aqueous solution (dissolved in water).
Dilute solutions contain a small quantity of solute
in a relatively large volume of solvent.
Concentrated solutions contain a large quantity of
solute in a relatively small volume of solvent.
Although normally a gas, nitrogen can be
cooled and compressed to become a liquid. Fig 2.1.3
Fig 2.1.4 In this solution, nickel(II) chloride is the
solute and water is the solvent.
M
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metal
cations
sea of
delocalised
electrons
Fig 2.1.5 Metallic bonding can be viewed as an array
of cations (positively charged ions) stabilised
by the movement of a sea of delocalised
electrons.
Pure substances can be placed into one of these
groups based on their bonding and physical properties.
Metals
The bonding within metals is called metallic
bonding. When metals bond, the valence (outer
shell) electrons are free to move through the lattice.
These electrons are termed delocalised.
All metals are solid at 25C and 1 atmosphere
pressure, except mercury (Hg) which is liquid.
Structure and bonding
All the pure substances you encounter can be
classified in one of the following ways:
metallic
ionic
discrete molecular
covalent network.
Fig 2.1.6 Metals are lustrous due to their
delocalised electrons.
2
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2
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1
50
>>>
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7
Chemistry: the story so far Chemistry: the story so far
51
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
Ionic compounds
Ions are charged particles. Ions have unequal
numbers of protons and electrons. Cations
(positively charged ions) have more protons than
electrons; for example, Na
+
and Pb
2+
. Anions
(negatively charged ions) have more electrons than
protons; for example, Cl
and O
2
.
A polyatomic ion is a charged particle made up
of more than one atom; for example, NH
4
+
and
CO
3
2
.
The fall of Rome
It is believed that lead poisoning played a significant part in the fall
of the ancient Roman Empire. Infertility was caused by drinking wine
from leaden vessels. Lead was also used as a cure for diarrhoea.
Cosmetics used by ancient peoples included white lead on the face,
mercury(II) sulfide as lipstick and arsenic sulfide as eyeshadow: the
ultimate self-poisoners make-up kit!
Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions. Common salt, sodium
chloride (NaCl) is an example of an ionic compound.
Ionic compounds generally have high melting and
boiling points, making them crystalline solids
at SLC.
The formula of an ionic compound is not a
molecular formula, since ionic compounds form
crystal lattices, not molecules. It simply shows the
ratio of positive ions to negative
ions in the crystal. For example,
the ionic compound magnesium
oxide has the formula MgO. This
does not mean that one atom
of magnesium and one atom of
oxygen move around together,
it just means that in any sample
of magnesium oxide, the ratio
of magnesium ions (Mg
2+
) to
oxide ions (O
2
) is 1:1. A small
crystal may contain a million
magnesium ions and a million
oxide ions, while a larger crystal
Some properties of metals
Property Meaning Why metals have this property
malleable can be moulded into different shapes bending the metal does not break the metallic bond, it only
rearranges the positions of the atoms
ductile can be drawn into thin wires stretching the metal does not break the metallic bond, it only
rearranges the positions of the atoms
good electrical conductivity electrons move easily through the structure presence of delocalised electrons
good thermal conductivity heat moves easily through the structure presence of delocalised electrons
lustrous shiny, light-reflecting surface presence of delocalised electrons at the surface
relatively high melting and
boiling points
takes considerable energy to change state the metallic bond is a strong type of bonding
The Voltaic pile
In 1800, Alessandro
Volta described a pile of
alternating copper and
zinc discs. In between the
discs, he placed pieces
of cloth soaked in salt
solution. This pile was
capable of generating an
electric current. The Voltaic
pile eventually led to the
creation of batteries.
Some properties of ionic compounds
Property Meaning Why ionic compounds have this property
high melting and boiling points it takes considerable energy to change states ionic bonding is strong
conduct as liquids but not solids a flow of charge is possible when liquid in the liquid state the ions are free to move
conduct as an aqueous solution the solution allows a flow of charged particles when dissolved, the ions separate from the lattice and
are mobile
crystalline the ions are arranged in a regular pattern the ions will be arranged to maximise attraction between
oppositely charged ions and minimise repulsion between ions
with like charges
brittle shatter when struck hitting the crystal forces ions with like charges together;
the repulsion causes shattering
2
.
1
2
.
1
52
>>>
may contain 1 10
25
magnesium ions and 1 10
25
oxide ions. Either way, the formula is still MgO.
When writing a chemical formula, brackets
are used when more than one of a particular
polyatomic ion is needed; for example, Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
,
Ca(OH)
2
, (NH
4
)
2
CO
3.
When writing the name of an ionic compound that
includes a transition metal, brackets and Roman
numerals must be used to show their ionic charge.
For example, in CuSO
4
the copper ion has a charge
of +2 so the name of this compound is copper(II)
sulfate.
Some properties of discrete molecular substances
Property Meaning Why discrete molecular
substances have this property
low melting
and boiling
points
it takes little
energy to
change states
when they melt or boil, weak
bonds between the molecules
break but strong covalent bonds
within the molecule stay intact
non-conductive
in any state
no flow
of charge
possible
no delocalised electrons or ions
present
brittle shatter when
struck
bonding between molecules is
easily broken
Covalent network structures such as carbon (C)
and silica (SiO
2
) have strong covalent bonds
throughout the structure and so have very high
melting and boiling points.
Fig 2.1.8 Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds (such
as HCl, NaOH and NaCl) conduct electricity.
Pure water is a very poor conductor and can be
considered in most cases to be an insulator.
Fig 2.1.9 This covalent network substance is
a girls best friend!
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding is the sharing of pairs of
electrons and occurs between non-metal atoms
such as carbon and oxygen.
A molecule is a group of non-metal atoms
covalently bound and represented by a chemical
formula. Examples of discrete molecular
substances are CO
2
and H
2
O. Atoms of the noble
gases (Group VIII) exist by themselves. For this
reason, their molecules are monatomic. Discrete
molecular substances tend to have relatively low
melting and boiling points.
A diatomic molecule consists of two non-metal
atoms covalently bonded. Some elements that
exist as diatomic molecules at SLC are the gases
hydrogen (H
2
), oxygen (O
2
) and nitrogen (N
2
).
Many inorganic (and a few organic) covalent
compounds are named using Greek prefixes.
Examples include:
CO
2
: carbon dioxide
CO: carbon monoxide
H
2
S
2
: dihydrogen disulfide
SF
6
: sulfur hexafluoride
No prefix is needed in front of the first part of the name
if there is only one of those atoms in the formula.
53
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U
N
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T
Reaction types
A physical change is one in which no new substance
is formed, such as ice melting. A chemical change
or chemical reaction has occurred if one or more
new substance has formed. A chemical reaction has
definitely occurred if any of the following is observed:
a permanent colour change
a gas given off
energy produced or absorbed (change in
temperature)
a precipitate (solid) formed in solution
one metal deposited on another.
Fig 2.1.10 The production of energy is a sign of
chemical change.
The formation of a precipitate is a
sign of chemical change. Fig 2.1.12
Fuel cells
The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
used in the Apollo space missions
produced pure water (a discrete
molecular substance) as a
by-product. This was then used for
drinking by the astronauts.
The equation for this reaction is
2H2(g) + O2(g)
2H2O(l)
Homework book 2.1 Writing formulas
Some properties of covalent network substances
Property Meaning Why covalent network substances have this property
high melting and
boiling points
it takes considerable
energy to change state
melting these structures involves breaking many strong
covalent bonds
non-conductive
except graphite
no flow of charge
possible
electrons are usually involved in bonding but graphite
contains delocalised electrons
brittle shatters when struck the lattice is very rigid and so will fracture rather than bend
hard difficult to scratch strong bonding in lattice
One metal depositing on another
is a sign of chemical change. Fig 2.1.11
2
.
1
2
.
1
54
>>>
The production of a gas is a
sign of chemical change. Fig 2.1.13
Some reaction types
Reaction type General equation and example
Combination: two or more substances
combining to become one new substance
X + Y
XY
C(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)
Decomposition: one substance breaks
down to form two or more new substances
XY
X + Y
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Precipitation: a solid forms when two
solutions are mixed
solution + solution
solid + solution
AB(aq) + CD(aq)
AD(s) + CB(aq)
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Combustion: a reaction that uses oxygen,
happens quickly, and produces a flame
many possibilities; O2 is always a reactant
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Displacement: one metal deposits on
another
solution + metal
different metal + different solution

AB(aq) + C(s)
CB(aq) + A(s) (where C is a more reactive metal than A)

Fe(s) + 3AgNO3(aq)
Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3Ag(s)
Neutralisation: a reaction between an acid
and a base. These are sometimes known as
acidbase reactions.
can take a number of forms:
acid + metal hydroxide
salt + water
HCl(aq) + KOH(aq)
KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
acid + metal oxide
salt + water
H2SO4(aq) + Li2O(s)
Li2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
acid + metal carbonate
salt + water + carbon dioxide

2HNO3(aq) + Na2CO3(s)
2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

acid + metal hydrogen carbonate
salt + water + carbon dioxide

H2SO4(aq) + 2CuHCO3(s)
Cu2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

Acid with a metal: a reaction where
an acid dissolves a metal, producing
hydrogen gas
acid + metal

salt + hydrogen
2HA + M
MA2 + H2
2HNO3(aq) + Zn(s)
Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Homework book 2.2 Revising chemical equations
Joseph Priestley was ridiculed and
dubbed Dr Phlogiston. Fig 2.1.14
Dr Phlogiston
Joseph Priestley isolated
oxygen in the eighteenth
century by heating
red mercury(II) oxide.
He dubbed oxygen
dephlogisticated air.
An English clergyman,
Priestley suffered some
derision, being dubbed
Dr Phlogiston by
newspaper reporters of
the day. Nevertheless,
he was delighted with
the effects of breathing
his dephlogisticated air,
which was actually pure
oxygen. He said that ,
my breast felt peculiarly
light and easy for some
time afterwards. Who
can tell but that, in time,
this pure air may become
a fashionable article in
luxury. Hitherto only two
mice and myself have had
the privilege of breathing
it. Unfortunately, the
lightness and easiness of
the mice was short-lived,
as they perished soon after
in Priestleys subsequent
experiments. As predicted
by Priestley, breathing pure
oxygen became fashionable
for a short time in the
early 2000s, particularly in
California, USA. Patrons
of oxygen bars would
be hooked up to breathe
bottled oxygen.
55
U
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U
N
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T
Balancing chemical equations
Chemical equations are a shorthand way of
representing chemical reactions. These equations
take the form:
reactants
products
The substances present at the start of a reaction are
called the reactants, and the new substances formed
are called the products.
Look at the chemical equation shown below.
Na + H2O
NaOH + H2
There are two problems with this equation:
it is not balanced
there are no subscripts of physical state shown.
The correct way to write the equation is:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Chemical equations need to be balanced to comply
with the law of conservation of matter, which states
that matter can be neither created nor destroyed;
it can only be changed from one form to another.
Another way to express the same idea is with the
law of conservation of mass, which states that in any
chemical reaction, the mass of the reactants will equal
the mass of the products.
Think of a chemical reaction as a rearrangement of
atoms. The laws simply mean that there must be the
same number of a particular type of atom on each side
of the equation.
When balancing equations,
remember:
1 You cannot change the
small subscript numbers in
a formula. You can only add
whole numbers in front of
a formula. Changing NO
2
to
N
2
O
2
changes the compound
completely.
2 Atoms cannot appear from
nowhere, nor can they
disappear into thin air; this
is why equations must be
balanced.
3 If you place a number in front of
a compound like Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
, you
have to multiply all the atoms in
the formula by that number; for
example:
2Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
contains:
2 2 = 4 Fe atoms
2 1 3 = 6 S atoms
2 4 3 = 24 O atoms
The subscripts (s), (g), (l) and
(aq) should be used to show the physical state of
reactants and products. A few more examples are
shown in the table below.
E = mc
2
breaks
the rules
Unless you are about to
work in a nuclear power
plant or as a radiographer
or radiologist, most of
the reactions you will
ever meet are chemical
reactions. (Imagine if the
reaction that happens
when you burn your toast
was nuclear!) All chemical
reactions obey the law of
conservation of matter and
the law of conservation of
mass, but nuclear reactions
do not. In some instances,
some of their mass is
converted into pure energy,
or energy is converted into
mass, via Einsteins famous
equation E = mc
2
. Nuclear
reactions are explained in
more detail in Chapter 9.
Combustion in
the body?
Our bodies use glucose
to make energy according
to the equation:
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(aq)
6CO2(aq) + 6H2O(l)
Although this looks like
a combustion equation,
it is not. This reaction
doesnt produce a flame,
so it cannot be called
combustion.
Prac 2
p. 58
Prac 1
p. 58
Homework book 2.3 Writing and balancing chemical equations 1
Homework book 2.4 Writing and balancing chemical equations 2
Equations Reaction class
unbalanced chemical equation: C3H6(g) + O2(g)
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
combustion
balanced chemical equation: 2C3H6(g) + 9O2(g)
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
unbalanced chemical equation: Pb3O4(s)
PbO(s) + O2(g)
decomposition
balanced chemical equation: 2Pb3O4(s)
6PbO(s) + O2(g)
unbalanced chemical equation: (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
BaSO4(s) + NH4NO3(aq)
precipitation
balanced chemical equation: (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
BaSO4(s) + 2NH4NO3(aq)
unbalanced chemical equation: CH3COOH(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s)
Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2O(l)
neutralisation
(acidbase)
balanced chemical equation: 2CH3COOH(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s)
Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
unbalanced chemical equation: Mg(s) + AgNO3(aq)
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Ag(s)
displacement
balanced chemical equation: Mg(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
2
.
1
2
.
1
56
>>>
2
.
1
U
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T
[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Matter
1 Define:
a an element b a compound.
2 What conditions does SLC represent?
3 At SLC, oxygen exists as O
2(g)
. Write the formula
for each of these substances at SLC, including the
appropriate subscript of physical state:
a water
b carbon dioxide
c dilute sulfuric acid
d calcium chloride
e neon.
4 What is the difference between NaCl
(s)
and NaCl
(aq)
?
Structure and bonding
5 Which of the following are discrete molecular
substances?
a CO
2
e N
2
b H
2
O f CaO
c NaCl g Ar
d Li
2
CO
3
6 For each of the following substances, (i) write the
chemical formula and (ii) state what type of bonding is
present within the substance (metallic, ionic or covalent).
a magnesium
b strontium sulfate
c oxygen gas
d carbon monoxide
e calcium chloride
f sulfur dioxide.
7 Why is Na
2
SO
4
not a molecular formula, but H
2
O is?
Reaction types
8 What are four signs of chemical change?
9 a Write out in words what the equations below are
showing.
i Ba(NO
3
)
2(aq)
+ K
2
SO
4(aq)

2KNO
3(aq)
+ BaSO
4(s)
ii 2HCl
(aq)
+ CaO
(s)

CaCl
2(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
b Identify what reaction class each reaction belongs to.
Balancing chemical equations
10 Define the following terms:
a reactants b products
11 How many Fe, S and O atoms are represented by
6Fe
2
(S
2
O
3
)
3
?
>>
12 Why is it necessary to balance equations?
13 Balance the following equations:
a H
2(g)
+ O
2(g)

H
2
O
(l)
b KClO
3(s)

KCl
(s)
+ O
2(g)
c CH
4(g)
+ O
2(g)

CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
d BaO
(s)
+ HNO
3(aq)

Ba(NO
3
)
2(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
e Pb
3
O
4(s)

PbO
(s)
+ O
2(g)

f Al
(s)
+ O
2(g)

Al
2
O
3(s)
g C
6
H
12
O
6(aq)
+ O
2(g)

CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
Thinking questions
14 Suggest what the + and
signs mean in chemical

equations.
15 For each of the following reactions, (i) state what
reaction type it is and (ii) predict the products.
a Sulfuric acid solution is added to solid strontium
carbonate.
b Zinc is added to copper(II) sulfate solution.
c Solid nickel(II) carbonate is heated to produce carbon
dioxide gas and one other substance.
d Propane gas (C
3
H
8
) is burned in excess oxygen.
16 Balance these equations and add the missing states
(assuming SLC):
a Na + Cl
2

NaCl
(s)
b CaCO
3(s)

CaO
(s)
+ CO
2
c P
4(s)
+ O
2

P
2
O
5(s)
d Pb(NO
3
)
2(s)

PbO
(s)
+ NO
2(g)
+ O
2
17 For each of the following reactions, (i) write the word
equation (ii) write the balanced formula equation
including states.
a Dilute sodium hydroxide solution is added to dilute
sulfuric acid solution, producing sodium sulfate and
water.
b Nitrogen gas is added to hydrogen gas, producing
ammonia (NH
3
) gas.
c Carbon monoxide gas combines with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide gas.
d Solid iron combines with chlorine gas to produce
solid iron(III) chloride.
Analysis questions
18 Solid sodium reacts with oxygen from the air, producing
solid sodium oxide. The experimental data in the table
on the next page was obtained for the reaction between
sodium and oxygen, producing sodium oxide.
57
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at the top of the test tube relit, showing that oxygen gas
was also produced. A fine black solid, copper(II) oxide,
was left in the test tube.
a In this reaction, what were the reactants and what
were the products?
b Write the word equation for this reaction.
c Write the balanced chemical equation, including
subscripts.
20 David added some dilute hydrochloric acid to some
solid limestone (calcium carbonate) in a beaker. When
he weighed the products after the bubbling had
stopped, he noticed that there had been a reduction
in mass. Why did his results not agree with the law of
conservation of mass?
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at work
Assessing risk
Safety is obviously your first priority whenever you are
dealing with chemicals. For this reason, an assessment
should be made of all the risks involved in an experiment.
You would already know of many risks in the laboratory
and methods that can be taken to minimise them. For
example, Bunsen burners are dangerous but simple safety
precautions make them relatively safe. You would not,
however, know the dangers that many chemicals pose.
This is when some research is required. For each chemical,
its MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) must be obtained,
either from a CD-ROM or the Internet.
assessment sheet from the Companion Website
potential risks
obtain the MSDS for every chemical used (even water)
about to make.
2
.
1
SCIENCE
Homework book 2.5 Risk assessment
Mass of sodium
reacting (g)
Mass of oxygen
reacting (g)
Mass of sodium
oxide produced (g)
2.00 0.70 2.70
3.00 1.04 4.04
4.00 1.39 5.39
a Write the balanced chemical equation for this
reaction, including states of reactants and products.
b How do the above results illustrate the law of
conservation of mass?
19 Jessica heated some bright blue copper(II) nitrate
crystals in a test tube. She noticed brown nitrogen
dioxide gas being produced, and a glowing splint held
Modelling
LEGO reactions
In a chemical reaction, the bonds in the reactants are broken
and then new bonds form in order to make the products.
This is like pulling apart LEGO blocks and putting them
back together.
Take ten LEGO pieces, making sure that you have at
least three different shapes and colours.
1 Using the pieces, make two molecules of five pieces
per molecule. Sketch them. These are your reactants.
2 Now break the molecules up. How many products are
possible in this reaction? (That is, how many different
ways can you put them back together?) Sketch them.
Present your work in the ways indicated.
Surfing
Companion Website
Connect to the Science Dimensions 4
select Chapter 2 and click on the Web Destinations
button to:
find out more about the differences between metallic,
covalent and ionic bonding
link to the CSIRO Double Helix websites to find Cool
Experiments that you can safely perform at home
find links to websites that will either balance equations
for you or give you interactive practice at balancing
equations.
2
.
1
2
.
1
58
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] 2
.
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Study of a reaction
In this experiment, you will examine the reactants
and products of an acid + metal reaction.
You will need
Magnesium strips, 1 M nitric acid, large beaker,
small filter funnel, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
clingwrap, gloves, lab coat, safety glasses
Prac 1
Unit 2.1
Conservation of mass
The law of conservation of mass states that,
in any chemical reaction, the total mass of
the reactants will equal the total mass of the
products.
You will need
Electronic balance, solid calcium carbonate, 0.5 M
hydrochloric acid, 200 mL conical flask, balloon, spatula,
100 mL measuring cylinder, lab coat, safety glasses
Prac 2
Unit 2.1
What to do
1 Cut a 4 cm piece of magnesium. Place it under the
filter funnel in the beaker.
2 Fill the beaker with water until it covers the filter funnel.
3 Fill the measuring cylinder with acid and cover it in
clingwrap.
4 Carefully invert the measuring cylinder on top of the
filter funnel. Let the neck of the filter funnel pierce the
clingwrap.
5 Let the reaction proceed and measure the volume of
gas collected in the measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Write the word equation and the balanced formula
equation for this reaction. The products are hydrogen
and magnesium chloride.
2 What volume of hydrogen gas would have been
produced if you had used:
a a 10 cm strip of magnesium
b a 0.25 cm strip of magnesium?
large beaker
water
filter
funnel
magnesium
inverted measuring
cylinder of acid
cling
wrap
Fig 2.1.15
calcium
carbonate
30 mL acid
conical flask
balloon
Fig 2.1.16
What to do
1 Measure out approximately 0.2 g of calcium carbonate
in the conical flask.
2 Measure out 30 mL of hydrochloric acid into the
measuring cylinder.
3 Place the conical flask, measuring cylinder and balloon
on the balance and record the mass.
4 Pour the acid into the conical flask and quickly place
the balloon on top.
5 When the reaction is complete, reweigh the flask and
empty measuring cylinder.
Questions
1 Write the word equation and balanced formula equation
for this reaction.
2 Do your results agree with the law of conservation of
mass? Explain.
3 What function did the balloon serve?
>>>
at work SCIENCE
59
Investigating maths in chemistry
Lets say that you wanted to weigh out ten molecules
of water. Ten water molecules are collectively too
small to see, let alone weigh. This is why chemists
deal instead with very large numbers of atoms, ions
and molecules. Weighing a drop of water means
finding the mass of billions of water molecules. To
speak of the actual number present gets very confusing
because the number is so huge. A more convenient
way of counting in chemistry is needed, and that is
where the mole comes in. The maths involved in
chemistry is tricky at first, but very useful once you
get the hang of it.
A mole is used in the same way that you use a dozen
or a pair. A dozen people means twelve people. A
mole of people means 6.02 10
23
peoplea huge
number! The mole is useful in chemistry because it
gives a number of fundamental particles that you can
actually see and measure out. A single atom, ion or
molecule is far too tiny to work with.
Using the mole
As an example, lets take a look at the reaction
between gallium and oxygen. The word equation for
this is:
gallium + oxygen
gallium oxide
The balanced chemical equation is:
4Ga(s) + 3O2(g)
2Ga2O3(s)
This equation tells us that four gallium atoms react
with three molecules of oxygen gas, producing two
ion clusters of gallium oxide.
In terms of the mole, the equation tells us that
4 mol of gallium reacts with 3 mol of oxygen to give
Fig 2.1.18
How big is a mole? A mole of cane toads
would leave Queensland buried in a layer of
amphibians many kilometres thick!
atomic
number
atomic mass
(the mass in
grams of
1 mole of
these atoms)
element
symbol
element
name
Fig 2.1.17 The atomic mass is the mass, in grams,
of one mol of that element.
The atomic mass given on the Periodic Table is
the mass (in grams) of a very large number of atoms
of that type. This very large number is called the
mole, often abbreviated to mol. For example, the
mass of one mole of carbon atoms is 12 grams.
The mass of one mole of oxygen atoms is 16 grams.
The number of particles in a mole is 6.02 10
23
, or
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000. This is also called
Avogadros number. The mole in chemistry has
nothing to do with small, furry, burrowing animals!
60
at work SCIENCE
2 mol of gallium oxide. Using the atomic masses given
on the Periodic Table on page 50, we can express this
equation as follows:
4Ga(s) + 3O2(g)
2Ga2O3(s)
(4 69.7 g) + (6 16.0 g)
2[(2 69.7 g) + (3 16.0 g)]

278.8 g + 96.0 g

374.8 g
In words, 278.8 g of gallium
reacts with 96 g of oxygen to
produce 374.8 g of gallium
oxide. You can see that the law
of conservation of mass holds
true; the mass of the reactants
equals the mass of the products.
A total of 374.8 g of reactants
produces 374.8 g of products.
To calculate a molar
mass, the mass of 1 mole of
a compound, simply break
the substance down into its
constituent elements. For
example, ammonium carbonate
has the formula (NH4)2CO3.
This is made up of 2 nitrogen
atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, 1
carbon atom and 3 oxygen
atoms. From the Periodic Table,
the atomic masses of these elements are:
nitrogen (N): 14.0
hydrogen (H): 1.008
carbon (C): 12.0
oxygen (O): 16.0
Hence, the molar mass =
(2 14.0 g) + (8 1.008 g) + (1 12.0 g) + (3 16.0 g )
= 96.1 gmol
1
This means that one mole of (NH4)2CO3 has a mass of
96.1 grams.
So how is any of this useful? Well, to begin with,
you can work out what mass of reactants is needed to
carry out a particular reaction. For example, hydrogen
sulfide reacts with chlorine gas to give hydrogen
chloride gas and solid sulfur. The balanced chemical
equation for this reaction is:
H2S(g) + Cl2(g)
2HCl(g) + S(s)
Using the atomic masses from the Periodic Table
(H = 1.008 g, S = 32.1 g, Cl = 35.5 g), the formula
masses are found to be:
H2S = (2 1.008 g) + (1 32.1 g) = 34.116 gmol
1
Cl2 = (35.5 g 2) = 71.0 gmol
1
HCl = (1 1.008 g) + (1 35.5 g) = 36.508 gmol
1
Using the balanced equation, you can see that 34.116 g
of H2S reacts with 71.0 g of Cl2, producing 73.0 g of
HCl (36.5 g 2) and 32.1 g of S.
In a particular reaction, 4.5 g of sulfur is produced.
What mass of each reactant is required to produce this
amount of sulfur?
Fraction of a mole of sulfur produced
= 4.5/32.1
Mass of hydrogen sulfide needed
= 4.5/32.1 34.1 g
= 4.8 g
Mass of chlorine needed
= 4.5/32.1 71.0 g
= 10.0 g
Breaking down formulas
If you take a look at the formula for carbon dioxide,
you can see that 12.0 g out of its molar mass of
44.0 gmol
1
comes from carbon and the rest comes
from oxygen. Calculated as a percentage:
Percentage of carbon in carbon dioxide
= 12.0/44.0 100
= 27.3 per cent
Percentage of oxygen in carbon dioxide
= 32.0/44.0 100
= 72.7 per cent
Carbon dioxide may be formed in many ways,
for example:
C(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)
2CO(g) + O2(g)
2CO2(g)
It doesnt matter how carbon dioxide is formed, it will
always contain the same proportions of carbon and
oxygen. This is called the law of constant proportions;
it states that a compound, regardless of how it is
formed, will always contain the same elements in
the same proportions by mass.
Did Lecoq crow?
For a scientist to name
a new discovery after
himself is simply not done.
The element gallium was
discovered and named
in 1874 by Frenchman
Paul Emile Lecoq de
Boisbaudran. The name
gallium came from Gallia,
the Latin name for France.
But gallus is rooster in
Latin, while le coq is
French for rooster. A
coincidence, or was this
Frenchman cleverly putting
his personal stamp on
his find?
61
[
Student activities
]
Revision questions
1 What is a mole?
2 How many:
a socks are in a pair of socks
b eggs are in a dozen eggs
c atoms are in a mole of gold
d H
2
O molecules are in a mole of water
e pairs of socks are in a mole of socks
f dozens of eggs are in a mole of eggs?
3 Express the following equation in terms of:
a moles of reactants and products
b masses of reactants and products.
2H
2(g)
+ O
2(g)

2H
2
O
(l)
4 Calculate the molar mass of:
a glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
)
b calcium nitrate (Ca(NO
3
)
2
)
c hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
)
d sodium phosphate (Na
3
PO
4
).
5 Iron reacts with sulfur, producing iron(II) sulfide.
a Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
b Express this reaction in terms of reacting masses and
product mass.
c If 55.9 g of iron reacts with excess sulfur, what mass
of iron(II) sulfide will be produced?
6 Copper(II) carbonate decomposes when heated,
producing copper(II) oxide and carbon dioxide. If 6 g of
copper(II) oxide is produced, what mass of copper(II)
carbonate must have reacted?
7 Nitrogen forms many different compounds with
oxygen. One of these was found to contain 28 g of
nitrogen for every 64 g of oxygen. What is the formula
of this compound?
8 Would it be cheaper to buy sodium carbonate (washing
soda) as the anhydrous (waterless) salt Na
2
CO
3

at $2.00 per kilogram, or as the decahydrate salt,
Na
2
CO
3
.10H
2
O, at $1.00 per kilogram?
9 Given the formula of lead(IV) oxide is PbO
2
, complete
the following table:
Mass of lead
reacting (g)
Mass of oxygen
reacting (g)
Mass of lead(IV)
oxide produced (g)
2.00 4.00 6.00
8.00
10 A student produced a compound that he believed to
be Al
2
O
3
. He found that his compound was 45 per
cent aluminium and 55 per cent oxygen. Could it be
Al
2
O
3
?
Surfing
Companion Website
Practise some maths in chemistry by connecting to
the Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website at
Homework book 2.6 Calculating chemistry
62
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
Some reactions are slow. Others are fast. When
you take an antacid, you hope its reaction in your
stomach will be a quick one since it will relieve your
indigestion. Some reactions are so fast, however,
that an explosion results. Your teacher might show
you the reaction of sodium metal with water. This
reaction produces hydrogen gas so quickly that it
pushes the shrinking lump of sodium around like
a small speedboat. The heat generated might even
set the hydrogen alight, possibly exploding it in the
process. In contrast, the chemical reaction that
2
.
2
2
.
2
Measuring the rate of reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction is inversely
proportional to time; that is:
rate of reaction
time
This means that the longer a reaction takes, the
slower the rate. The less time a reaction takes,
the faster the rate.
turns a banana brown is a very slow one.
How quickly a reaction happens can make
the difference between a safe reaction or a
dangerous one and may determine whether
it can be used in industry.
Fig 2.2.2 Socrates died after drinking the poison hemlock.
For a long time, hydrogen was
blamed for the Hindenburg disaster. Fig 2.2.1
The Hindenburg disaster
On 6 May 1937, the Hindenburg airship burst into flame while
landing in New Jersey. Hydrogen was viewed as the culprit for
many years. Extensive recent research has since discovered
that it was not the hydrogen filling that was initially to blame,
although once the fire started the hydrogen would have been
quickly ignited. The actual cause was the high flammability
of the fabric cover. It was made of a cotton substrate with
an aluminised cellulose acetate butyrate covering. The
observations at the scene were consistent with a huge
aluminium fire. The fabric was ignited by electrical activity
in the atmosphere.
Fast-rate poisons
Hemlock has taken the life of many, including the famous
philosopher Socrates. It kills in two to twelve hours. Accused of
corrupting the youth of Athens, Socrates had been condemned
to death by the Athenian court and ordered to drink a cup of
hemlock. He did so and paralysis gradually took hold of his
body until it reached his chest, whereupon he died.
One of the fastest acting natural poisons is that of the box
jellyfish, which is capable of killing an adult in less than three
minutes by inducing cardiac arrest.
1
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The tricky thing is finding a way to measure the
rate of a reaction. To measure the rate of the reaction
A + B
C + D, you would need to either measure

the rate at which A and B are consumed or the
rate at which C and D are produced. There are
various ways this might be done, depending on
the physical properties of the reactants and products.
The table below shows some methods for measuring
reaction rates.
The collision theory
The collision theory of chemical reactions states that,
for a reaction to occur, three things must happen:
1 the reactants must collide
2 the reactants must collide with sufficient energy
to react
3 the reactants must collide in the correct
orientation.
Reaction What you would measure Apparatus used
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
H2(g) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
rate of production of hydrogen gas sealed flask with gas syringe attached
2KBr(aq) + Cl2(aq)
2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
rate of production of bromine (which is red-brown) colorimeter (measures colour intensity)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
change of pH with time or rate of pH increase pH meter
If a student carried out the experiment shown in
Figure 2.2.3 and found that 10.0 mL of hydrogen was
produced in the first 5.0 seconds, the rate over that
time would be:
rate of reaction (production of H
2
)
= 10.0 mL/5.0 s
= 2 mL/s
The units of mL per second will not be
appropriate for every rate of reaction
calculated, but it works for this example.
Changing the rate of reaction
Chemists often change the rates of chemical reactions,
speeding up some and slowing down others. There
are various means by which the rate of a chemical
reaction may be manipulated, but each will require
an understanding of the collision theory that explains
how a chemical reaction occurs.
reactants
side-arm flask
stopper (firmly attached)
rubber tubing
well-oiled
gas syringe
Fig 2.2.3 This apparatus may be used to measure
the rate of production of a gas.
Prac 1
p. 69
Sometimes two reactants will meet but will not
have enough energy to react. Instead they will move
away from each other without reacting. Alternatively,
the two reactants may collide with enough energy, but
in the wrong orientation. Again they will move away
from each other without reacting. In other words,
not all collisions between reactants will result in
a reaction.
Reactants
(HI molecules)
Collision
between
reactants
H
2
I
2
HI
reactant
molecules
s
u
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

e
n
e
r
g
y
fo
r

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
insu
ff
ic
i
e
n
t

e
n
e
r
g
y
fo
r

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
product
molecules
Fig 2.2.4 These three things must happen for a
reaction to occur: collision, collision
with sufficient energy and collision in the
correct orientation.
2
.
2
2
.
2
64
>>>
Effect of
temperature
One way to preserve
food is to refrigerate
it. Refrigeration simply slows
down the chemical reactions
by which the food goes off.
Kinetic energy is the energy
of movement. Temperature
is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of particles
in a particular system. If the
temperature decreases, particles
move more slowly. When the
temperature increases, particles
move faster. This increases
the kinetic energy of reactants,
increases the frequency of
collisions between reactants and
therefore increases the reaction rate. One exception to
this is biological reactions involving proteins called
enzymes. Above certain temperatures, heat destroys
the enzymes and stops the reaction altogether.
Effect of concentration
Consider the reaction between magnesium and
nitric acid:
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
When nitric acid dissolves in water, it breaks up into
H
+
ions and NO
3
ions. The nitrate ions do not react

with magnesium, but the hydrogen ions do. Leaving
out the unreactive NO
3

spectator ion, the above
reaction may be written as:
Mg(s) + 2H
+
(aq)
Mg
2+
(aq) + H2(g)
In this reaction, H
+
ions must come into contact
with the solid magnesium surface. Imagine that two
experiments have been set up. In experiment A, the
acid is half the concentration of that in experiment B.
Fewer H
+
ions in experiment A will result in a slower
rate of reaction than in experiment B because the H
+

ions are meeting the surface of the magnesium less
frequently. Thus, an increase in reactant concentration
results in an increase in the rate of reaction.
Fig 2.2.5 The reaction between magnesium
and hydrochloric acid
Iron ignites easily if it is mixed with a
good supply of oxygen. Fig 2.2.6
Exploding flour mills
Flour mill explosions
have taken many lives.
Flour dust in the air can
be ignited by any energy
source like a lamp or static
spark. An explosion is
likely to occur if the grain
dust particles are less
than 0.1 mm in size, the
concentration in the air
is greater than 40 g/m
3
,
the dust is dry and there
is a good supply of
oxygen. The first known
dust explosion occurred
in a bakery in Turin,
Italy in 1785. The dust
was accidentally ignited
by a lamp in the bakery
storeroom.
Effect of surface area
If you try to light a pile of flour it will brown
but not burn, but if you let a cloud of flour
dust fall onto a candle, it will ignite. Similarly, a
piece of iron does not burn, but powdered iron does.
This is because a cloud of flour dust has a greater
surface area than a pile of flour and powdered iron
has a greater surface area than the piece of iron. They
ignite because their high surface area allows them to
mix easily with oxygen in the air (the other reactant).
Prac 2
p. 70
Prac 3
p. 70
More and faster: rate and yield More and faster: rate and yield
Powdering a solid reactant allows for a large increase
in the frequency of collisions between reactants and
hence a dramatic increase in the rate of reaction.
65
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Homework book 2.7 Rates of reaction
Effect of a catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a
chemical reaction, but is not itself consumed in the
reaction. A homogeneous catalyst is in the same state
as the reactants. A heterogeneous catalyst is in a
different state to the reactants.
A catalyst may work in one of two ways:
It may provide a surface to help the reaction
proceed. For example, platinum metal is a
heterogeneous catalyst that is very effective at
catalysing gaseous reactions.
It may participate in the chemical reaction, but
is then re-formed at the end. One example of this
is the use of a homogeneous acid catalyst in the
formation of esters.
Biological catalysts are called
enzymes. These molecules are very
specific and are capable of increasing
the rate of reaction by a factor
of many thousands. Enzymes
help your body do vital jobs
like producing energy and
responding to stimuli.
Industrial reactions
For a reaction to be carried out profitably in industry
it must occur fairly quickly, and it must give a good
yield. The yield is the amount of product obtained,
and may be expressed as a percentage of the expected
mass of the product.
Take the production of aluminium, for example.
If 6.00 g of aluminium were reacted according to the
equation 4Al
(s)
+ 3O
2(g)
2Al
2
O
3(s)
, you could expect
to obtain 11.3 g of Al
2
O
3
. (See pages 59 to 60 for the
maths involved.) If only 5.00 g was obtained, then it
would represent 5.00/11.3 100 = 44 per cent yield.
R
e
a
c
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
Temperature
R
e
a
c
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
Temperature
R
e
a
c
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
Temperature
Most reactions Explosive reactions Enzyme reactions
ignition
temperature
optimum
temperature
ezymes are
destroyed by heat
Fig 2.2.7 A change in temperature
drastically changes the rate
of a chemical reaction.
Prac 4
p. 71
Fig 2.2.8 Platinum metal is a very
effective catalyst for
reactions involving gases.
The slowest
reaction
All the chemical reactions
in your body would
occur more slowly
without enzymes, but
exactly how slow would
they be? Researchers
have found what they
believe to be the slowest
biological reaction.
Without catalysts, this
reaction would take
around a trillion years,
but an enzyme can
make it happen in a
mere 10 milliseconds!
This particular reaction
involves a group of
compounds called
phosphate monoesters.
Prac 5
p. 71
The electrolytic refinement of aluminium is only
profitable if it can be done quickly with a good
yield. It produces aluminium bars like these.
Fig 2.2.9
2
.
2
2
.
2
66
>>>
Methods commonly used to improve yield include:
carrying out the reaction at a reasonably high
temperature
using a catalyst
removing the products as they are formed
constantly adding reactants to replace those
used up.
As an example of an industrial process, we will look at the
production of sulfuric acid. You will probably be amazed to
discover just how important this chemical is to our everyday
lives. Sulfuric acid production dates back to the early
alchemists. At one stage, concentrated sulfuric acid was called
oil of vitriol because it was prepared by distilling hydrated
ferrous sulfate (FeSO
4
.7H
2
O), otherwise known as iron vitriol.
Sulfuric acid is the cheapest bulk acid, and is sometimes
referred to as the king of chemicals because it is produced
in such huge quantities worldwide. A countrys sulfuric acid
production is considered an excellent indicator of its industrial
wellbeing.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
S
h
o
r
t

t
o
n
s

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)
Year
stock market crash
affected production
Fig 2.2.10
The production of sulfuric acid reflects the state
of a countrys economy. High production occurs
when the economy is doing well.
rayon
dyes
car
battery
superconductors
nitroglycerine
Fig 2.2.11 Sulfuric acid has
many uses.
Study of a chemical: sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Uses of sulfuric acid
In the nineteenth century, the German chemist Baron Justus
von Liebig discovered that when sulfuric acid was added to soil
it increased the amount of phosphorus in the soil for plants
to use. The current largest single use of sulfuric acid is in
making the fertilisers superphosphate and ammonium sulfate.
It is also used to make many organic compounds, including
ether, nitroglycerine and dyes. It is important in refining
petroleum, making paints and pigments, processing metals and
making rayon. It is found in car batteries. It is also used in the
superconductor industry for cleaning.
Some properties of sulfuric acid include
the following:
It is a strong acid.
Concentrated solutions are
corrosive.
It is oily.
It is a colourless liquid (at SLC).
Its density is 1.85 g/cm
3
.
Its melting point is 10.4C.
Its boiling point is 340C.
It is very soluble in water.
Dissolving the concentrated acid in water is highly
exothermic (releases large amounts of heat).
It is a dessicant, absorbing water from the surroundings.
Concentrated acid destroys skin and flesh.
It can cause blindness if it gets in the eyes.
Production of sulfuric acid
Two processes for sulfuric acid production are in use
today. The first is the lead-chamber process. The second,
more efficient process is the contact process. We will
limit our discussion to the contact process, as this is most
commonly used.
>>
67
Who was the False
Geber?
The man who discovered
sulfuric acid around 1300
did not write under his real
name. Instead, he borrowed
the name of Geber from
a long-dead Arabic
alchemist. His real name
was never revealed, so this
great chemist is known as
the False Geber.
Step 1
Molten sulfur is burned in air to produce sulfur dioxide gas.
S
(l)
+ O
3(g)
SO
2(g)
The reactant O
2
comes from air which has been dried with
96 per cent H
2
SO
4
and then had dust particles removed.
Step 2
In the converter, SO
2
reacts with O
2
in the presence of a
vanadium pentoxide catalyst to produce SO
3
.
2SO
2(g)
+ O
2(g)
2SO
3(g)
The gases are passed over several catalyst beds, rather than
just one, to give them more chance of reacting, thus increasing
the yield further.
Step 3
In the absorber, oleum (H
2
S
2
O
7
) is produced. Like the
other reactions involved in sulfuric acid manufacture, this
drying tower
heat exchanger
converter
storage tanks
SO2 SO2
+ air
SO3
SO3
SO2
+ air
air
water
molten
sulfur
diluter
absorption
tower
conc. H2SO4
sulfur burner deduster
Fig 2.2.12
The contact process for the production
of sulfuric acid
is exothermic. The energy released can be harnessed and used
to make electricity, which helps maintain the cheap price of
sulfuric acid.
SO
3(g)
+ H
2
SO
4(l)

H
2
S
2
O
7(l)
oleum
Step 4
Oleum is hydrated to form sulfuric acid.
H
2
S
2
O
7(l)
+ H
2
O
(l)

2H
2
SO
4(l)
To make this series of reactions occur at a greater rate, they are
maintained at a reasonably high temperature, a catalyst is used,
products are removed as they are formed, and fresh reactants
are injected. The combination of all these things gives the
industrial process for sulfuric acid production a greater than
99 per cent yield.
10% SO
2
11% O
2
feed gas
heat
exchangers
to oleum or
intermediate
absorber
from intermediate
absorber
to final absorber
420C
600C 63% conversion
84% conversion
93% conversion
99.5% conversion
450C
510C
450C
475C
450C
460C
reaction bed 1
reaction bed 2
reaction bed 3
reaction bed 4
Fig 2.2.13 In the converter, gases are cooled before
being passed over the next catalyst bed.
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Measuring the rate of reaction
1 Give an example of
a a fast reaction
b a slow reaction.
2 How are the rate of a reaction and time related?
3 How could you measure the rate of these reactions?
a CaO
(s)
+ 2HNO
3(aq)

H
2
O
(l)
+ Ca(NO
3
)
2(aq)
b F
2(aq)
+ 2NaBr
(aq)

2NaF
(aq)
+ Br
2(aq)
>>
2
.
2
2
.
2
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at work
find out more about the Hindenburg disaster. Produce
a newspaper article that reveals the chemistry of the
Hindenburg disaster.
Assessing risk
experiments. To do this:
2
.
2
SCIENCE
Surfing
Companion Website
Connect to the Science Dimensions 4
select Chapter 2 and click on the Web Destinations
button to find out:
how elemental sulfur is mined. Draw a labelled diagram
of the process
Changing the rate of reaction
4 What three things must happen for a chemical reaction
to occur?
5 Two students carry out an investigation to determine the
rate of this reaction:
2AgNO
3(aq)
+ Zn
(s)

Zn(NO
3
)
2(aq)
+ 2Ag
(s)
Student A uses a silver nitrate solution twice as
concentrated as that used by student B. How will the
rates compare?
6 Describe in terms of collision theory how a decrease
in concentration can change the rate of a precipitation
reaction.
7 Explain why a pile of flour will not ignite but flour dust
will.
8 Explain why most reactions occur more quickly at higher
temperatures while others stop altogether.
9 How are temperature and kinetic energy related?
10 What is a catalyst?
11 Explain the difference between a homogeneous catalyst
and a heterogeneous catalyst.
Industrial reactions
12 Why are a fast reaction rate and a good yield particularly
desirable for industrial reactions?
13 What are four ways to increase the yield of an industrial
process?
Study of a chemical: sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
)
14 Why is sulfuric acid known as the king of chemicals?
15 What are three major uses of sulfuric acid?
16 Write equations for each step in the production of
sulfuric acid by the contact process.
17 What catalyst is used in the contact process?
18 Why are several catalyst beds used in the contact
process, rather than just one?
Thinking questions
19 What would be the ideal yield of a reaction?
20 When magnesium reacts with nitric acid, magnesium
nitrate and hydrogen gas are formed. The rate at which
bubbles of hydrogen gas are formed is a measure of
the rate of this reaction. Identify one thing that could
increase the rate of bubbling, and explain in terms of
collision theory why this would work.
Analysis questions
21 Construct a simplified flow chart to show the four steps
of the contact process used in the production of sulfuric
acid.
22 If a 1.0 cm
3
block is cut into eight identical cubes, by
how much has its surface area increased?
23 Ten grams of calcium reacts according to the equation
2Ca
(s)
+ O
2(g)

2CaO
(s)
a Calculate how much CaO should be able to be
obtained from this reaction.
b Only 11 g of CaO was obtained in the reaction.
Calculate the percentage yield.
c Propose reasons why the yield was less than
100 per cent.
>>
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[
] 2
.
2
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N g C F
T
cotton wool
marble chips
balance
2 M HCl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
100 mL measuring
cylinder
Fig 2.2.14
Calculating the rate of reaction
Prac 1
Unit 2.2
potential risks
recommended safety precautions for every risk and for
about to make.
Researching airbags
The airbags in cars only work because of a very fast
chemical reaction. Surf your available resources (textbooks,
encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to find details about how an
airbag works.
Present your findings as a brochure for car owners that
explains this clearly.
Researching sulfuric acid and
sulfur dioxide
Internet, etc.) to find details about sulfuric acid and
sulfur dioxide and the problems they can cause in
the environment.
Present your findings as a web page or PowerPoint
presentation.
at work SCIENCE
>>
4 Loosely place the cotton wool in the neck of the conical
flask.
5 Place the measuring cylinder next to the conical flask
on the balance and re-zero.
6 Carefully pour the acid onto the marble chips, starting
the stopwatch at the same time.
7 Quickly place the measuring cylinder back next to the
conical flask on the balance and replace the cotton
wool in the neck of the conical flask.
8 Every 20 seconds, record the reading on the balance
(record the number as a positive value). Continue until
three consecutive readings are identical.
Questions
1 Why were the readings on the balance negative?
2 Draw a graph of your results with time on the x axis and
mass lost on the y axis.
3 The gradient of your graph is the rate of this reaction.
Calculate the gradient:
a at the start
b in the middle
c at the end.
Think carefully about what the units of rate should be in
this instance.
4 Explain the differences in rate observed.
In this experiment you will draw a graph to show
how the rate of reaction changes over time.
You will need
250 mL conical flask, marble chips, 2 M HCl,
cotton wool, balance, 100 mL measuring cylinder,
stopwatch
What to do
1 Place the conical flask on the balance and re-zero.
2 Add 20 g of marble chips.
3 Place 50 mL of HCl solution in the measuring cylinder.
2
.
2
2
.
2
70
>>>
Effect of concentration on reaction rate
5 Pour the acid into the beaker, starting the stopwatch
at the same time. Quickly stir and then let the solution
sit undisturbed. Record the time taken for the cross to
disappear from view.
6 Wash the beaker and dry with paper towel.
7 Repeat the experiment, this time starting with 40 mL of
sodium sulfate solution and 10 mL of distilled water in
the beaker.
8 Repeat the experiment three more times using the
volumes shown in the table.
Questions
1 Concentration of sodium thiosulfate
0.16 volume (thio)
=
volume (thio) + volume (acid) + volume (water)
M
Calculate the concentration for each experiment and
add the values to the table.
In this experiment you will examine how
concentration changes affect the rate of reaction.
The reaction occurring is:
2HCl
(aq)
+ Na
2
S
2
O
3(aq)

2NaCl
(aq)
+ SO
2(g)
+ S
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
You will need
0.16 M sodium thiosulfate (Na
2
S
2
O
3
), 2 M HCl, white tile,
black marker, 10 mL measuring cylinder, 100 mL beaker,
100 mL measuring cylinder, stopwatch, stirring rod, paper
towel, distilled water
What to do
1 Copy the table below into your workbook.
2 Put 50 mL of sodium thiosulfate solution in the beaker.
3 Measure out 5 mL of acid in the 10 mL measuring
cylinder.
4 Draw a black cross on the white tile and place the
beaker on top.
Prac 2
Unit 2.2
Effect of surface area
on reaction rate
Changing the surface area of a solid reactant
greatly changes the rate, as demonstrated in this
experiment. Note that marble chips are almost
pure calcium carbonate.
You will need
Marble chips, powdered CaCO
3
, spatula, 1 M HCl, two
100 mL beakers, stopwatch, 50 mL measuring cylinder,
access to electronic balance
What to do
1 Measure out 5.0 g of marble chips into a beaker.
2 Add 50 mL of HCl solution and start the stopwatch.
Prac 3
Unit 2.2
Fig 2.2.15
>>
Experiment Volume of sodium
thiosulfate
solution (mL)
Volume of
distilled water
(mL)
Volume of
acid added
(mL)
Time
(s)
Concentration
(M)
1 50 0 5.0
2 40 10 5.0
3 30 20 5.0
4 20 30 5.0
5 10 40 5.0
2 Plot a graph of
concentration (x axis)
versus time
(y axis).
3 Calculate
1
time
for each
experiment.
4 Plot a graph of
concentration (x axis)
versus
1
time
.
5 Comment on the
shapes of your graphs.
71
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3 Measure out 5.0 g of powdered CaCO
3
into the other
beaker.
4 Add 50 mL of HCl solution and note the time on the
stopwatch.
5 Write down your observations of each reaction for the
next 5 minutes.
Effect of temperature
on reaction rate
In this experiment you will examine how
temperature changes affect the rate of reaction.
The reaction occurring is:
2HCl
(aq)
+ Na
2
S
2
O
3(aq)

2NaCl
(aq)
+ SO
2(g)
+ S
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
You will need
0.16 M sodium thiosulfate (Na
2
S
2
O
3
), 2 M HCl, white tile,
black marker, 10 mL measuring cylinder, 100 mL beaker,
100 mL measuring cylinder, thermometer, Bunsen burner,
heat-proof mat, tripod, gauze, stopwatch, stirring rod
What to do
1 Put 50 mL of sodium thiosulfate solution in the beaker.
Record the temperature of this solution.
2 Carefully measure out 5 mL of HCI in the 10 mL
measuring cylinder.
3 Draw a black cross on the white tile and place the
beaker on top.
4 Pour the acid into the beaker, starting the stopwatch
at the same time. Quickly stir and then let the solution
sit undisturbed. Record the time taken for the cross to
disappear from view.
5 Repeat the experiment, this time heating the sodium
thiosulfate solution to 10C above room temperature
before adding the acid.
6 Repeat the experiment two more times, raising the
temperature of the solution by 10C each time.
Questions
1 Which substance was causing the cloudiness in the
solution?
2 Plot a graph of temperature (x axis) versus time (y axis).
Comment on the shape of the graph.
3 Now calculate the factor
1
time
for each experiment.
This factor is a measure of rate.
4 Draw a graph of temperature (x axis) versus
1
time

(y axis). Comment on the shape of this graph.
Prac 4
Unit 2.2
Homogeneous and
heterogeneous
catalysts
Catalysts may be in the same state as the
reactants (homogeneous) or in a different state
(heterogeneous).
You will need
Manganese dioxide powder, hydrogen peroxide solution
(5%), three 100 mL beakers, spatula, 0.1 M KI, 1 M NaOH,
10 mL measuring cylinder, eye dropper or Pasteur pipette
What to do
1 Put 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution in each of the
beakers. Beaker 1 will be the control and have nothing
more added.
2 Add a small quantity of MnO
2
powder to beaker 2 and
record your observations.
3 Add 5 drops of NaOH and 10 drops of KI to beaker 3
and stir. Observe over several minutes.
Questions
1 How do you know the MnO
2
was a catalyst and not
a reactant?
2 The reaction occurring was:
2H
2
O
2(aq)
2H
2
O
(l)
+ O
2(g)
.
What evidence was there that the NaOH and KI
combination catalysed this reaction?
3 Which catalyst was more effective?
Prac 5
Unit 2.2
Questions
1 Which reaction had the faster rate? How could
you tell?
2 Explain your observations in terms of collision theory.
2
.
2
2
.
2
72
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
The term organic in chemistry has a different
meaning to when it is applied to things like fruit and
vegetables. Organic food is natural, being grown only
with the assistance of water, compost and manure and
perhaps some cow dung. Organic
chemistry, however, refers to
carbon-based compounds and
the reactions they are involved in.
2
.
3
2
.
3
Multiple bonds
The bonding between non-metal
atoms can be single covalent
bonds, double covalent bonds or
triple covalent bonds.
A single covalent bond is one pair of electrons
being shared between two atoms.
A double covalent bond is two pairs of electrons
being shared between two atoms.
A triple bond is three pairs of electrons being
shared between two atoms.
Carbon has atomic number 6, which means
it contains 6 protons and 6 electrons. It has two
electrons in the first shell, and four electrons in its
second, outer (valence) shell, giving it an electron
configuration of 2,4. Its four valence electrons place
it in Group IV of the Periodic Table. Carbon is able to
form single, double and triple bonds with itself, using
its four valence electrons. Carbon needs to gain four
more electrons in order to achieve a stable octet in its
Organic chemistry
A large part of organic
chemistry involves only four
elementscarbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. Carbon
is unique in that it is able
to form millions of different
stable compounds. When
carbon forms compounds, it
generally has eight shared
electrons. Living or once-living
organisms are the source of
many carbon compounds,
which is why the name
organic is traditionally
applied to this branch of
chemistry. Organic compounds usually contain
carbon bonded to hydrogen. They can also contain
oxygen, nitrogen and other non-metallic elements. The
compounds carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) are considered to be inorganic compounds.
Deadly rhubarb
Rhubarb contains large quantities of the deadly organic compound
oxalic acid. While the stalks contain a lower proportion of the deadly
chemical, the amount in the leaves is high, so high that people died
during the First World War from eating them. Beetroot and peanuts
also contain significant quantities of oxalic acid, but you would have
to eat a lot to overdose. Oxalic acid kills by lowering your blood
calcium below the critical level.
Fig 2.3.1 A human contains
many organic
compounds, including
proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
Meet my
grandmother!
Humans are built from
organic substances and are
therefore a good source
of carbon. Diamonds are
one of the forms pure
carbon can take. LifeGem,
a US company, converts
cremated human remains
into diamonds which can
then be worn as jewellery
by grieving relatives.
Organic water
One brand of mineral water
is currently being marketed
as 100% organic. Does
this mean that the water
was grown by natural
methods or does it mean
that is full of both living
and dead organisms?
Marketing campaigns
frequently misuse
terminology and should
be regarded with caution;
for example, a brand of
marshmallows are currently
being labelled as fat free.
Marshmallows have always
been fat free, but are full
of sugars, which will be
converted to fat if you eat
too many!
73
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valence shell. It does this by forming four covalent
bonds. Each carbon atom could therefore form:
four single bonds
two double bonds
a single and a triple bond
one double bond and two single bonds.
Hydrocarbons
The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons.
These are compounds that consist only of carbon
and hydrogen. Hydrocarbon compounds play a part
in our everyday lives. Cars, for example, run on
C C C C
C C
C C
H
H
H
H H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
C C H H
one shared
pair of electrons
two shared
pairs of electrons
three shared
pairs of electrons
Ethane contains
only single bonds
Ethene contains one carboncarbon
double bond and four carbonhydrogen
single bonds
Ethyne contains one carboncarbon triple bond
and two carbonhydrogen single bonds
Single bond Double bond
Triple bond
Fig 2.3.2 Multiple bonds
These products are all hydrocarbon-based.
Fig 2.3.3
hydrocarbon fuels and their engines are lubricated by
other hydrocarbon compounds. Many plastics are also
derived from hydrocarbons.
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that only contain single
bonds between carbon atoms. They have the general
formula C
n
H
2n + 2
, where n is the number of carbon
atoms in the molecule. Put simply, the number of
hydrogen atoms equals double the number of carbon
atoms plus two. For example, say n = 2 (two carbon
atoms). The number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule
is therefore 2n + 2 = (2 2) + 2 = 6. The molecular
formula is thus C
2
H
6
. Molecules that have formulas
differing by one or more CH
2
units form homologous
series. The first two members in the homologous series
of alkanes are methane (CH
4
) and ethane (C
2
H
6
).
CH
4
C
2
H
6
H
H
H H C
H
H
H C
H
H
H C
C C
H
H
H
H H
H
C
H
H
H
H
methane
ethane
Fig 2.3.4 Methane and ethane
The first part of the name indicates how many
carbon atoms are in the chain. The prefixes used for
naming are listed in the table below.
The second part of the name indicates what type
of compound it is. For alkanes, the name ends in -ane.
Prefix Number of carbon atoms in chain
meth 1
eth 2
prop 3
but 4
pent 5
hex 6
hept 7
oct 8
non 9
dec 10
2
.
3
2
.
3
74
>>>
For example, the alkane containing four carbons is
called butane. It has the formula C
4
H
10
.
Fossil fuels such as coal and crude oil are formed
from the remains of plants and animals that lived
millions of years ago, and are composed mostly of
alkanes. Crude oil is refined (separated into its
components) by fractional distillation. This means that
the crude oil is heated and passed into a fractionating
column. The components are separated according to
their boiling points into the different fractions.
Fig 2.3.6 Crude oil also forms from the remains of dead
animals and plants in the Earths crust. Oil rigs
like this one are used to extract the oil.
cool
(25C)
very hot
(400C)
Name of
fraction
How many carbons
in the chain?
What is it used for?
Fuel for cars
Fuel for jets
1620
Lubricating oil 2030 Oil for machines like cars. Can be cracked
Fuel oil 3040 Fuel for ships and power stations
Paraffin wax 4050 Waxy papers, candles, polishing
Gas 14 Fuel
Petrol 410
Kero 1016
Diesel oil
Bitumen 50 and over Roads
crude
oil in
Fuel for central heating. Can also be
cracked to make smaller molecules
Fig 2.3.7 Fractional distillation of crude oil
Coal is a fossil fuel formed from the remains
of dead animals and plants in the Earths
crust. Here a massive bucket excavator digs
coal in an open-cut mine. Fig 2.3.5
Some of the fractions are used as they are, while
others are cracked to produce shorter chain alkanes
and some alkenes. Cracking involves heating the large
molecules in the presence of a catalyst.
Strictly organic Strictly organic
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and propene. They are named in
the same way as alkanes, but their
names end in -ene.
The biggest use for alkenes is
in making plastics. The double
bond can break, and the molecules
can join end-on-end to form
long polymer chains. Polymers
were discussed in more detail in
Chapter 1.
Alkynes
Alkynes contain triple bonds and have the general
formula C
n
H
2n2
. The number of hydrogen atoms in
an alkyne molecule is equal to double the number of
carbon atoms minus two.
Alkenes
Alkenes contain a double bond and have the general
formula C
n
H
2n
. This means the number of hydrogen
atoms in the molecule is exactly double the number
of carbon atoms. The two smallest alkenes are ethene
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C
C
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C C
C C
H
H
H
C
C
C
+
heptane
ethene pentane
heat
Fig 2.3.8 A cracking reaction
H H
H H
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
H
C
C
n C
2
H
4
heat
catalyst
Part of a polyethene polymer looks like:
n
Fig 2.3.10 The formation of polyethene (polyethylene)
Alkenes
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
C
C C
C
2
H
4
C
3
H
6
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H C
ethene propene
H
H
Fig 2.3.9
Plastic bags kill thousands of sea birds
and marine animals each year. Fig 2.3.11
Checking out
Nearly seven billion
plastic bags are used each
year in Australia. Even
biodegradable plastic bags
stay in the environment for
a long time before breaking
down. Plastic bags in
the ocean are a big killer.
They can be mistaken
for jellyfish by turtles,
whales, sea birds and other
animals. Once ingested,
the bag kills the animal
slowly and painfully.
When the animals body
decomposes, the bag is
once more released into
the environment.
H
H
H
C
2
H
2
C
3
H
4
C C C H
H
H
H
C H H C
ethyne propyne
C
C C H H C C H C
Fig 2.3.12 Alkynes
2
.
3
2
.
3
76
>>>
The simplest alkyne is ethyne, commonly called
acetylene. It is highly reactive due to the presence
of a triple bond. If acetylene is burned in a stream of
oxygen, very high temperatures (almost 3000C) are
reached. This is why the oxyacetylene torch is used in
welding. Other alkynes are used as intermediates in
many manufacturing processes.
Alcohols
Alcohols are not hydrocarbons because they contain
oxygen in addition to carbon and hydrogen. All
alcohols contain the hydroxy group, OH. The
hydroxy group is known as a functional group. A
functional group is an atom, or group of atoms, which
affects the physical and chemical properties of the
basic compound it is attached to.
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C C
H
O O
H
H H
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
H
C C
C C
H
H
H
H
H
C C
ethanol
1-propanol
The hydroxy group is
attached to the first carbon.
2-butanol
The hydroxy group is
attached to the second carbon.
H
Fig 2.3.13 How to name alcohols
Ethanol is the best known of the alcohols, being
found in beer, wine and spirits such as whisky and
brandy. Ethanol also has many other uses. It is an
excellent solvent, and is found in many glues, paints
and inks. It is also used as a reactant to make rubbers
and flavourings.
One way to produce ethanol is by the fermentation
of fruit or vegetable matter. This reaction may be
represented as:
Glucose
ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6H12O6(aq)
2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
Yeast helps this reaction proceed.
Other widely used alcohols
include:
methanol, a component of
methylated spirits
1,2-ethanediol, better known
as anti-freeze; the addition
of this molecule to radiator
fluid lowers the melting
point of the liquid so that it
wont freeze in cold weather
propanol, which is used as
rubbing alcohol
1,2,3-propanetriol, known
as glycerine or glycerol,
a component of many
moisturisers
the biological molecule
cholesterol, an important
component of our cells.
Combustion of
hydrocarbons and
alcohols
Carbon dioxide and water are
produced when hydrocarbons
or alcohols burn in excess
oxygen. This is called
complete combustion. These
reactions also produce
heat energy, which can be
harnessed, for example in
coal-fired power stations, to
produce electricity.
Ethane + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)
4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Sometimes, if the supply of oxygen is limited,
incomplete combustion may occur. This is usually
characterised by a black, smoky flame.
In incomplete combustion, two reactions tend to
occur simultaneously, producing carbon monoxide
and soot. For example:
Ethane + oxygen
carbon monoxide + water

2C2H6(g)
+ 5O2(g)
4CO(g)
+ 6H2O(l)
Ethane + oxygen
carbon + water
2C2H6(g)
+ 3O2(g)
4C(s)
+ 6H2O(l)
Zero tolerance
The legal limit for all
learner and provisional
licence holders is zero.
For other drivers it is
0.05 BAC (blood alcohol
concentration). There is
good reason for these
strict laws.
Even a little bit of ethanol
in your system has a huge
effect on your body. Low
doses affect the reticular
systemthe primitive
part of the brain that
maintains consciousness
and responsible behaviour.
The initial effect you feel
depends on how much
sensory input you are
getting, as this determines
which brain pathways are
affected. In quiet settings,
you may become drowsy.
In a social setting, you
are more likely to feel
stimulated. This is actually
the result of the alcohol
affecting the pathways
dealing with inhibition.
Ethanol is not a stimulant;
it is a central nervous
system depressant. Even
in small amounts, it slows
your reflexes and impairs
your judgement.
77
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Organic chemistry
1 What is organic chemistry?
2 What are the main elements involved in organic
chemistry?
3 Name one carbon compound that is not an organic
compound.
Multiple bonds
4 Describe the difference between single, double and
triple bonds.
Hydrocarbons
5 What is a hydrocarbon?
6 What is a homologous series?
Homework book 2.8 Organic chemistry
Fig 2.3.14 Incomplete combustion in car engines
produces carbon, carbon monoxide and other
compounds that contribute to the formation of
photochemical smog.
Incomplete combustion produces less
heat energy than complete combustion.
As shown in the equations, it can also
produce carbon monoxide gas, a
deadly pollutant.
Prac 1
p. 78
7 Write the name and chemical formula for:
a the fourth member of the homologous series of
alkanes
b the alkane with seven carbon atoms.
8 Describe how fractional distillation separates the
alkane fractions in crude oil.
9 What does the cracking of alkanes achieve?
Alcohols
10 Which alcohol is a major ingredient of alcoholic
beverages?
11 What is the molecular formula of:
a propanol
b butanol?
12 What special functional group do alcohols contain?
13 What is another name for:
a anti-freeze
b acetylene?
14 In the fermentation equation, what is the reactant and
what are the products?
Combustion of hydrocarbons and alcohols
15 What products are formed from:
a the complete combustion of methane
b the incomplete combustion of methane?
Thinking questions
16 Why is it not possible for the molecules methene and
methyne to exist?
17 Compared with the blue flame of a Bunsen burner,
the yellow flame is relatively cool and very dirty,
leaving a layer of black carbon on anything heated in
it. Propose reasons for the two flames being be so
different when they burn the same gas.
18 Copy and complete the following table.
Molecule name Molecular formula
pentane
C4H8
propyne
octane
C10H18
2
.
3
2
.
3
78
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Complete and incomplete combustion
Prac 1
Unit 2.3
What to do
1 Light the candle and note things like the colour of the
flame and any sign of soot.
2 Put a few drops of ethanol on a watch-glass and light it
carefully. Observe the flame.
3 Light the kerosene burner and observe the flame.
Questions
1 What evidence did you see of:
a complete combustion
b incomplete combustion?
2 The molecular formula of ethanol is C
2
H
5
OH. Kerosene
is a mixture of hydrocarbons with an average formula of
C
12
H
26
. How could you explain the difference in the way
these compounds burned in terms of their formulas?
3 When petrol burns in cars, do you think this is an
example of complete combustion, or incomplete
combustion? Explain your answer.
Several different products are possible when
carbon compounds are burned. The products
formed are dependent on how plentiful the
oxygen supply is.
You will need
Ethanol, Pasteur pipette, kerosene burner, lab coat, safety
glasses, heat-proof mat, watch-glass, candle
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SCIENCE
Surfing
Companion Website
Find the role of bubble caps in the fractional
distillation of crude oil by connecting to the
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary, selecting
Assessing risk
Write a risk-assessment sheet for the following practical
activity. To do this:
potential risks
ethanol kerosene
Fig 2.3.15
recommended safety precautions for every risk and for
about to make
Modelling
Making molecules
Use a molecular model building kit to make models of
some alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and alcohols. Draw and
name the models you make.
79
Environmental concerns have become paramount
due to the growing awareness of the damage that
humans have wreaked upon our planet. In the past,
chemists used massive quantities of toxic solvents.
They also pumped tonnes of poisonous gases into
the atmosphere through industrial processes.
Much less pollution is now produced and there are
tighter controls over the chemicals that can be used
and the disposal of them. The human race is now
faced with a dilemma: how can we produce all the
products we have come to enjoy and rely on without
doing even more damage to our environment? The
answer may lie in green chemistrya relatively new
branch of chemistry. Green chemistry aims to develop
industrial procedures that have minimal environmental
impact and use chemistry to help prevent pollution.
The green way
Green chemistry is not a theory or a hypothesis; it is a
philosophy that has arisen out of necessity. It connects
chemical reactions to the world in which they occur
and encourages chemists to consider the consequences
of using certain reactants, or allowing certain products
to escape into the environment. In other words,
chemists are encouraged to count the cost of chemical
processes. The twelve principles of green chemistry
were originally described by Paul Anastas and John
Warner in Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice.
Green chemistry aims to:
1 Prevent waste.
2 Design safer chemicals.
3 Find safer ways to make synthetic products.
4 Maximise atom economy (convert the maximum
quantity of reactants to products, with few
side-products).
5 Use safer solvents.
6 Use renewable reactants. (Avoid use of reactants
such as those derived from petroleum.)
7 Maximise energy efficiency. (Avoid wasting energy
such as heat and electricity during the process.)
8 Avoid chemical derivatives. (Avoid unnecessary
tinkering with molecules during synthesis.)
9 Use catalysts whenever possible.
10 Design biodegradable products.
11 Use real-time analysis to prevent pollution.
(Real-time analysis is completed as a chemical
process is proceeding. Ideally, the production of
pollutants can be circumvented).
12 Minimise the potential for accidents.
Fig 2.4.1 Just a few of the products we would
find it difficult to do without
Biodegradable products are better for the
environment, although they are not without
their problems.
Fig 2.4.2
UNIT
UNIT
2
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4
2
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4
80
>>>
Examples of green chemistry
No more chlorine
Despite all the bad press that chlorine gets, not all
chlorine compounds are toxic. Sodium chloride, for
example, is a fairly safe and innocuous substance.
Major environmental problems, however, have
resulted from chlorine compounds such as CFCs being
released into the soil, atmosphere and waterways.
Often a seemingly harmless compound can undergo
further reactions in the environment to produce highly
dangerous molecules. In green chemistry, the use of
chlorine compounds is avoided unless the desired
product contains chlorine. Alternatives are found to
solvents such as carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
), which
was once used extensively in dry-cleaning, and DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), a pesticide.
Allyl alcohol is a useful but very toxic molecule
needed to make many drugs and plastics. Figure
2.4.5 shows two ways that allyl alcohol can be made.
The first one produces hydrochloric acid as a waste
product, while the second greener pathway avoids
the use of chlorine compounds.
Fig 2.4.4 The overuse of fertilisers can cause the
death of waterways by the overgrowth of
algae (eutrophication), which blocks light.
The recipients of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Fig 2.4.3
The Nobel Prize goes green
Three researchers have shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Dr Yves Chauvin (France), Professor Robert H. Grubbs (USA)
and Professor Richard R. Schrock (USA) have developed a new
method of organic synthesis called catalytic metathesis, which
has applications in many areas including the development of new
drugs and making polymers with special properties. This new
method offers shorter synthesis routes and higher yields, making it
a truly green alternative.
Problems caused by the chemical
industry
A great deal of chemistry research is underway to find
solutions to the problems listed in the table below.
The question remains the same, however: how can we
maintain our comfortable lifestyles without damaging
the environment further?
Chemical Problem caused Solution
Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)
hole in the ozone layer CFCs have been
replaced with less
damaging compounds
Fertilisers algal blooms
(eutrophication)
organic farming
Pesticides,
herbicides
contamination of
groundwater
organic farming
Paint pigments heavy metal
contamination of soils
development of safer
pigments
Petroleum-based
fuels
global warming, smog renewable energy
sources
Toxic solvents sicknesses in exposed
workers
green synthesis with
non-toxic solvents
Green chemistry Green chemistry
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Environmentally friendly plastics
It is difficult to imagine trying to do without all of
the plastics that are used everyday. Many plastics are
derived from non-renewable petroleum, which creates
several problems. First, this is not sustainable since
petroleum will not always be available. Second, quite
a few of the plastics are not biodegradable, and third,
synthesising the plastics involves the use of hazardous
chemicals.
One relatively new polymer from which plastic
products may be made is very appealing from a green
chemistry perspective. Polylactic acid, or PLA, is
derived from starch-rich plants like corn or wheat.
It is biodegradable and can be made into a
fibre that has many uses including sutures
(stitches), food packaging, disposable
tableware and compost bags.
A greener clean
Workers in the dry-cleaning industry have long put
their health at risk, spending a large part of each day
inhaling toxic fumes. Fortunately, alternative solvents
are now being found and dry-cleaning workers
worldwide can breathe a little easier.
One toxic substance used in dry-cleaning is
tetrachloroethylene (also called perchloroethylene or
just perc), which can cause liver and kidney damage.
An alternative green solvent is supercritical carbon
dioxide. Unlike perc, supercritical carbon dioxide is
not toxic to work with.
Cl
H
H
C C
H
C H Cl
H
H
O
C
O
H H
O
H H
H
H
O
H
H
C C
+ +
+
H
H
H
C
H
H
C C
H
H
H
H
O
O O
C
C
H
H
H
H
C C O O + +
Traditional synthetic route
Greener synthetic route (no chlorine involved)
C
1
2
step 1
H
H
H
O
C
H
O H
O
C
H H H
O O
C
H
H H
H H
C C C
O
H H
H
H
H
C
H
H
C C C + +
step 2
H
C
H H H
C
H
H
H
Fig 2.4.5 Allyl alcohol synthesis
What does
biodegradable
mean?
Many products claim to
be biodegradable, and
yet you can leave them
outside for days and see
no change. So what does
biodegradable actually
mean? It means that the
material is capable of being
broken down by the action
of micro-organisms. The
Australian standard for
biodegradability requires
80 per cent of the product
to have broken down
within twenty-one days
if it is to carry the label
biodegradable.
Prac 1
p. 83
Fig 2.4.6 Some products made from PLA
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4
82
>>>
Gases have very high kinetic energy. Most gases
can be liquefied by subjecting them to sufficient
pressure. For every gas, however, there exists a
temperature above which the gas cannot be liquefied
because the molecules have too much energy to bond
to each other effectively. The highest temperature
at which a substance can be liquefied is its critical
temperature. The pressure that must be applied at this
temperature to bring about liquefaction is its critical
pressure. A substance at temperatures and pressures
above its critical temperature and critical pressure will
have properties of both liquids and gases and is called
a supercritical fluid. It moves like a gas, but is much
more dense than gases normally are. These fluids, in
particular supercritical CO2, are increasingly finding
applications as industrial solvents.
C C
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Fig 2.4.7 Tetrachloroethylene (perc)
2
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
The green way
1 State three principles of green chemistry.
2 Why is it desirable to turn the maximum quantity of
reactants into products?
3 Why is it advantageous to use renewable reactants?
Problems caused by the chemical industry
4 What does CFC stand for?
5 How have the following substances caused
environmental problems?
a CFCs
b herbicides
c paint pigments
Examples of green chemistry
6 Name:
a a non-toxic chlorine compound
b a toxic chlorine compound.
7 What is allyl alcohol used for?
8 Why is it not desirable for waste chlorine compounds
to be released into the environment?
9 What are two problems with plastics derived from
petroleum?
10 What is PLA?
11 Why is PLA preferable to plastics derived from
petroleum?
12 Identify four uses of PLA.
13 Name:
a one toxic solvent used in dry-cleaning
b one non-toxic solvent used in dry-cleaning.
14 Define:
a critical temperature
b critical pressure
c supercritical fluid.
Thinking question
15 How would increasing the use of catalysts help
achieve green chemistry aims?
>>
Green chemistry Green chemistry
Step 2
placed in wash chamber with solvent
(fresh solvent constantly supplied)
825 minutes
Step 3
rinse cycle with fresh solvent
Step 4
solvent extraction (by spinning)
Step 5
dried in a stream of warm air
Step 6
cool air removes last solvent traces
Step 1
pretreatment for stains
Fig 2.4.8 The dry-cleaning process
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Exploring the biodegradability of plastics
Prac 1
Unit 2.4
4 Record the temperature of the compost.
5 Place the container in a warm spot and monitor the
condition of the plastics over three weeks. Add water
when needed to keep the compost moist.
Questions
1 How did the condition of the plastics change over
three weeks?
2 By what percentage (approximately) had each
deteriorated?
3 Why was compost used, rather than normal soil?
4 In your opinion, did the plastics tested live up to their
claim of being biodegradable?
Note: This exercise takes several weeks.
Biodegradable is quite a trendy word these
days, but are the products labelled in this manner
as biodegradable as they claim?
You will need
Compost, one ice-cream container, pH paper, samples of
five different biodegradable plastics, balance, thermometer
What to do
1 Weigh a mass of compost into the ice-cream container,
so that it is half full. Make sure the compost is moist
but not wet through.
2 Place identically sized pieces of the plastics into the
compost.
3 Record the pH of the compost with a damp piece of
pH paper.
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SCIENCE
Analysis question
16 Atom economy can be calculated as follows:
Atom economy

=
100 mass of atoms in desired product
mass of atoms in reactants
Ethanoic acid can be made from ethanol according to the following equation:
2Cr
2
O
7
2
(aq)
+ 3C
2
H
5
OH
(aq)
+ 16H
+
(aq)

4Cr
3+
(aq)
+ 3CH
3
COOH
(aq)
+ 11H
2
O
(l)
Use the calculations described on pages 59 to 60 to calculate the atom economy for this reaction.
2
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4
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4
container, or biodegradable or light-degradable plastic bags.
Analyse the article you find by answering the following
questions:
1 What is the product featured in the article?
2 Where is it used?
3 What is it made from?
4 Why is the product considered green?
5 Why is this product better than previous products that
did the same job, and how does it benefit the health of
the environment?
Present your work as a set of answers to the above
questions.
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about the history of
green chemistry by connecting to the
Analysing
Media article
Surf the Internet to find a newspaper or journal article on
a degradable product. This may be a corn starch food
84
Chapter review
15 In a few sentences, sum up the aims of green chemistry.
16 How can the overuse of fertilisers cause environmental
problems?
17 From what plants can PLA be made?
[
Thinking questions
]
18 When 1 M sulfuric acid is added to powdered rubidium
carbonate, the following reaction occurs:
H
2
SO
4(aq)
+ Rb
2
CO
3(s)

Rb
2
SO
4(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
+ CO
2(g)
a How could the rate of this reaction be measured?
b How could you repeat the experiment at a slower
rate?
19 Use the chemical formulas below to answer the
questions that follow.
Molecule A = C
2
H
6
Molecule B = C
4
H
10
O
Molecule C = CO
2
Molecule D = C
5
H
10
Which molecule:
a contains a carboncarbon double bond
b is not organic
c is a hydrocarbon
d could be an alcohol?
[
Analysis questions
]
20 Classify the following substances as either covalent
network, covalent molecular, ionic or metallic:
a Substance A melts at 1200C, is lustrous and
conducts in both the solid and liquid states.
b Substance B is crystalline, melts at 3000C and is a
non-conductor in all states.
c Substance C melts at 20C and is a non-conductor
in all states.
>>>
Homework book 2.9 Chemical reactions crossword
[
Summary questions
]
1 Describe in words what these equations are showing.
a 2Na
(s)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)

H
2(g)
+ 2NaOH
(aq)
b CuO
(s)
+ 2HNO
3(aq)
Cu(NO
3
)
2(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
2 Balance the following equations.
a Al(OH)
3
+ HNO
3

H
2
O + Al(NO
3
)
3
b H
2
O + K
H
2
+ KOH
3 Which formula is a molecular formula, SO
2
or Na
2
SO
4
?
4 Write an equation, including subscripts, to represent
solid lithium carbonate reacting with dilute hydrochloric
acid, producing a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
5 Complete this word equation:
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid
_______ + _______
6 Define:
a delocalised electrons
b physical property
c chemical property.
7 Explain why metals:
a mostly have high melting points
b have good electrical conductivity
c are malleable.
8 State three things that can change the rate of a
chemical reaction and explain in terms of collision theory
how they change the rate.
9 Does a fast reaction rate guarantee a good yield?
10 Reactions catalysed by enzymes slow down above
45C. Explain.
11 What percentage yield is obtained in the manufacture
of sulfuric acid?
12 Explain why ethanol is not a hydrocarbon.
13 What is cracking?
14 Complete this table:
Name Chemical formula
ethene
C3H4
hexane

3
Students:
understand how scientific theories are based on evidence
that may initially be tentative and limited, an example being
natural selection and evolution
explore how scientific theories are both powerful and
tentative at the same time
investigate plant and animal adaptations that enable them to
survive in their environments
learn that scientific theories are both powerful and never final
learn that using a theory to successfully predict the
consequences of changes is important in that theorys
validation
develop an understanding of the constancy of the big ideas
of science
debate science-related issues that are reported in the popular
media
explore how science concepts, language and perspectives
can be misunderstood and misrepresented
consider issues significant to themselves and to the broader
society, such as the history and philosophy of science.
Students:
demonstrate the link between natural selection and evolution
explain how the co-ordination and regulation in plants and
animals assist them to survive in their environments
apply concepts of geological time to elaborate their
explanations of natural selection and evolution.
1 What was the first life on Earth like?
2 How did giraffes get their long necks?
3 The bright colours of some animals make them easy to see.
How does this help them survive?
4 What does survival of the fittest mean?
5 Dolphins and sharks have very similar features despite being
very different creatures. Why?
6 What is a fossil and what can it tell us?
7 How many different types of humans have there been?
G
e
t
t
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s
t
a
r
t
e
d
Learning focus
Standards:
L
E
V
E
L

6
Evolution
86
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UNIT
UNIT
Nearly two million different kinds of organisms,
plants, animals and micro-organisms, are known to
be currently living on Earth. More are being found
each year. Many more organisms have come and
gone, as the average time that a species survives
on Earth is only about four million years. Some, like
the dinosaurs, are long extinct. The extinction of
many others is far more recent and a direct result of
human activity. How did this tremendous diversity
3
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Surviving in different environments
Adaptations
Organisms are able to survive and breed in their
environments because they are suited to them.
Specific structures, functions and behaviours increase
their chances of surviving, at least until the organism
is able to reproduce. These characteristics are called
adaptations. They are inherited; that is, passed from
parents to offspring. Adaptations take a variety of
forms but many can be classified as either structural
(where the adaptation is physical), functional (where
the adaptation involves the internal function of an
organism) or behavioural (where the adaptation
involves the way an organism acts).
Structural adaptations are physical adaptations.
They can take many forms.
Many animals are camouflaged to blend with their
background so that they cannot be seen by predators.
Some animals resemble objects such as leaves,
twigs or even bird droppings.
Cuddles the
furry shark
New species are usually found in wild and unexplored places, but in
2004 a radically new species of shark was found in a fishtank. Cuddles
the shark is a 70-centimetre female that looks much like other sharks,
except that she is covered in red bristles, has bigger nostrils and an extra
gill. Cuddles doesnt swim, but instead hops along the floor of the tank
by clapping together its shorter-than-normal and more muscular fins.
Cuddles now lives in the Sea Star aquarium in Coburg, Germany, but she
previously lived in Schonbrunn Zoo in Vienna, Austria, and before that in
an animal rescue centre. It is thought that Cuddles originally came from
southern Africa, where it is suspected she lived in dark ocean caves.
Her bristles are thought to be an adaptation that gives her increased
sensitivity to water movement that might suggest food or prey. Cuddles
will not get a mate, however, until scientists find out exactly where she
came from. It is very likely that this newly discovered species of shark
will disappear when Cuddles eventually dies.
of life come to exist on our planet? The theory of
evolution suggests that all forms of life stem from
the same remote beginnings and that the different
species we now know have developed gradually over
millions of years.
Fig 3.1.1 The leaf mimic mantis relies on
camouflage for its survival.
With some animals it is difficult for a predator to
tell which end is which. The predator attacks the
wrong end, giving the prey a chance to escape.
Fig 3.1.2 With some lizards it is difficult to work out
what is the head and what is the tail. What
advantage is this to the lizard?
87
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Some extremely colourful animals look like
they would be easy prey. These animals usually
sting, taste bad or are poisonous and their bright
appearance warns predators to stay away.
A tricky variation is the mimic. The mimic is
not dangerous to predators, but has copied the
colourings of another dangerous animal, so that
predators avoid it.
The brilliant butterfly fish has a large fake
eyespot near its tail, making it appear to be
a larger and more fearsome fish. Fig 3.1.4
The eyes on the wings of this moth make
it appear much bigger and therefore more
dangerous to a bird. Fig 3.1.3
Some animals have features that make them look
larger and more frightening to predators; for
example, the neck frills of some lizards can be
opened to make the head seem like that of a much
larger lizard.
Functional adaptations affect how the internal
functions of an animal works. Their internal function
changes depending on their immediate environment.
For example, the chameleon changes colour to blend
with changing backgrounds.
Behavioural adaptations involve the way an
animal acts. They too can take many forms.
Some animals sit very still or move slowly to avoid
predators.
Others are active only at certain times of the day
or year to avoid unfavourable conditions such as
extremes of heat or cold.
Some collect and store food for future use.
Many larger animals form herds to provide some
protection from predators.
Some have learnt to use tools to access food
that is hard to get at; for example, chimpanzees
commonly use broken twigs to extract termites.
Fig 3.1.5 This chimp is using a stick to collect
termites to eat. It could also collect them
by destroying the nest, but this would
destroy an ongoing food source.
Adaptations serve many purposes. Arctic fish
contain a kind of anti-freeze in their blood, allowing
them to survive in waters that would freeze the blood
of other fish. The long mane of a male lion makes it
appear larger to opponents. This kind of adaptation for
intimidation is common. Intimidation also involves
behaviours such as puffing out the chest and standing
up as tall as possible.
Plants have adaptations too. The silvery coloured,
narrow-shaped leaves of the wattle tree help reduce
water loss by evaporation. Some flowers achieve
pollination by imitating the shape, colour and smell
of a female insect. When male insects attempt to mate
with the flowers, they transfer pollen.
All organisms have adaptations that assist their
survival in their particular environment.
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Variation
The individuals within a species are very similar;
all Sumatran tigers, for example, are similar, as are
all chimpanzees. They are not identical, however;
variation occurs within all species. Much of this
variation comes from the differences in genes and
chromosomes that each individual inherits from
their parents. Variation can also result from genetic
mutations and from environmental factors such as
differences in diet, availability of water and habitat.
Favourable characteristics
The survival of a species relies on at least some
individuals producing offspring. The organisms best
suited to their environment are those most likely
to produce offspring. These are the organisms that
have favourable characteristics, enhancing their
ability to survive and reproduce. Their offspring
will inherit these favourable characteristics. Over
several generations, individuals with favourable
characteristics will become the most common. In
contrast, those with less favourable characteristics will
find the environment inhospitable. They will be more
likely to die before they get a chance to reproduce
and so will become less common. It can be said that
favourable characteristics are selected.
Variation in a species is particularly important if
environmental conditions change. While others die,
some individuals will have characteristics that are
favourable, allowing them and the species to survive
the change.
Theory of evolution
How is the huge variation in life forms explained?
Where did they all come from?
Evolution is the gradual development of different
species from a common ancestor. The theory of
biological evolution states that life on Earth has
changed over time. Although the idea of a gradual
unfolding of life goes back to the ancient Greeks, the
modern theory of biological evolution has only been
developed in the past 200 years.
Early theories of evolution
Up until the late 1700s, most scientists believed
that the different types of organisms and their
characteristics had been fixed for all time. This idea of
the fixity of species was questioned in the late 1700s
by the French naturalist Georges Buffon (170788),
who suggested that species could change. Erasmus
Darwin (17311802), grandfather of Charles Darwin,
also suggested that one species could change to
another, but he had no evidence to support his ideas.
Lamarcks theory
The first detailed account of how species could
change and evolve came from French naturalist Jean
Baptiste Lamarck (17441829). Lamarck was a tutor of
Buffons son and spent many years classifying plants
and invertebrates. He thought that the similarities and
differences between living things made sense only if
species were evolving.
Fig 3.1.7 Jean Lamarck, French naturalist
To a male bee this orchid looks and smells
like a female bee. Pollen is thus transferred
from flower to flower. Fig 3.1.6
Evolution of a thoery Evolution of a theory
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Lamarck believed that organisms adapted through
their struggle to survive. In 1809 he suggested that:
organs are improved when used repeatedly and
weakened when not used. These changes are
called acquired characteristics. Working out at
the gym develops the acquired characteristic of
larger muscles. Playing music or computer games
develops the acquired characteristic of improved
handeye coordination
any improvements (or weaknesses) developed
due to the environment are passed on through
reproduction to the next generation of individuals.
Lamarck suggested that the long necks of giraffes,
for example, developed because giraffes stretched their
necks to reach food high in the trees. The acquired
characteristic of a long neck was then inherited by
their offspring, which would
then be born with long necks.
Lamarck had no
experimental evidence for his
ideas, and modern genetics
shows his ideas to be wrong.
Acquired characteristics
cannot be inherited. Inherited
characteristics come from
the chromosomes passed to
the offspring by its parents.
These chromosomes are
not altered by changes that
occur during the life of the
organism. If Lamarcks theory
were true, then bodybuilder
parents would give birth to
children who would develop equally muscular bodies.
Likewise, an amputee should give birth to babies
lacking the limb the parent had lost.
Darwins theory
Charles Darwin (180982), abandoned his studies in
medicine and theology (religion) to become a naturalist.
In 1831, aged 22, he took a position as naturalist on
the HMS Beagle, a ship commissioned to survey and
chart the coast of South America. For the next five
years, Darwin observed the geographical distribution
of plants, animals, fossils and rocks in various parts
of the world. He puzzled over the enormous variety
and adaptations of the organisms he saw, and became
convinced that different species of the same animal
developed from a common ancestral type.
Mice with no tails
Experiments have been
conducted to test if
acquired characteristics
can be inherited. In one
experiment, the tails of
mice were removed. Their
offspring were all born
with tails. The experiment
was repeated for twenty
generations and all mice
were born with tails. The
acquired characteristic was
not inherited.
Fig 3.1.9 Charles Darwin
Darwin in Australia
Darwin visited Australia aboard
HMS Beagle in January 1836.
His journal states that he was
impressed by the climate. He
found the countryside uninviting,
however, and couldnt think of any
reason to move here. Despite this,
the city of Darwin in the Northern
Territory was named in his honour
when the Beagle made a further
voyage to Australia in 1839.
Darwin never lived in Darwin.
Lamarckian evolution of the giraffes long neck
Fig 3.1.8
Ancestral giraffes with short necks
stretched to reach the tree tops.
The stretched neck (acquired
characteristic) was inherited
by the offspring.
Continual stretching and inheritance
produced the modern giraffe.
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Darwins finches
On the Galapagos Islands, about 1000 kilometres
off the coast of Ecuador, Darwin marvelled at the
diversity in the flowers, tortoises, iguana and birds
found there. Much of the wildlife differed in small but
significant ways from island to island and to those on
the mainland.
The islands were effectively isolated from one
another by strong ocean currents, and there were no
winds blowing from one island to another. Darwin
found fourteen species of finches, all with similar
colourings, calls, nests, eggs and courtship displays.
They differed, however, in habitat, diet, body size and
beak shape. Darwin believed these fourteen species
had come from a common ancestor, and proposed the
process of natural selection to explain it.
He suggested that a few finches had arrived at
the islands at some time in the past. These finches
showed natural variation in their beak shape. On one
island, those with beaks of one shape were better
able to feed on the cacti found there. Finches with
other beak shapes found it difficult to survive. On
other islands, other beak shapes gave some finches
a feeding advantage. The birds most suited to their
island survived to produce offspring, which inherited
that beak shape. This is sometimes called survival of
the fittest. The fittest were the birds that were able to
feed and reach breeding age. The beak type that gave
particular birds on a particular island an advantage
was selected for. Over many generations, the birds
on different islands became sufficiently different from
each other to be recognised as a different species.
Race to be first
Darwin spent the next twenty years collecting and
sorting evidence for his natural selection theory of
evolution. Meanwhile, another naturalist, Alfred
Russel Wallace (18231913), was developing a similar
theory. While suffering from a severe malarial fever
in the Malayan jungles, Wallace realised that natural
Survival of a phrase
The phrase survival of the
fittest is usually attributed
to Darwin but was first
stated by the philosopher
Herbert Spencer in 1867,
eight years after Darwin
first published his theory.
Darwins finches. This evolutionary tree shows
how different beaks might have been selected
for the food available on each particular island.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
large ground
finch
(one species)
vegetarian
tree finch
(one species)
woodpecker
finch
(one species)
warbler finch
(one species)
insectivorous
tree finches
(several species)
cactus ground
finches
(several species)
2
10
1
3, 4, 5
8
6, 7, 9
Fig 3.1.10
Fig 3.1.11 The evolution of the giraffes long neck according to Darwin
Ancestral giraffes had necks of
various lengths.
By natural selection, those with longer
necks survived and produced offspring
with long necks.
Eventually all giraffes had long necks.
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selection would improve the species, later stating
that the inferior would inevitably be killed off and
the superior would remain. Wallace had reached a
conclusion similar to Darwins: that evolution occurs
by natural selection.
In 1858, Darwin and Wallace together presented
a paper on their theories of evolution and natural
selection.
Fig 3.1.12 Alfred Russel Wallace
An 1871 cartoon showing
Charles Darwin as an ape
Fig 3.1.13
Darwin completes his work
Darwins major work, published in 1859, had the
title On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection
or Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle
for Life. Although all 1250 copies of the first edition
sold out within a day, religious leaders throughout
England denounced his work as heretical (against the
word of God). The Bible held that man was formed
in the image of God, so how could man have apes as
ancestors?
Neo-Darwinism
Darwin was not the first to suggest evolution, but
he was the first to give it a scientific explanation.
Darwins explanation that evolution occurs through
natural selection is regarded as one of the most
important theories of science and is still regarded as
being essentially correct. At that time there was no
understanding of genetic inheritance. Darwin was,
therefore, unable to explain the source of the variation
in species that his theory was based on.
Darwins theory can be restated in terms of modern
genetics. This is sometimes called neo-Darwinism.
Evolution is natural selection based upon the natural
genetic variation that appears in all populations.
Apes shocked they have human relatives
While Darwin did not initially state that humans were descended from apes,
it was implicit in his theory. There was much shock and alarm at this idea.
Newspapers and magazines printed cartoons showing the shock of people
(and apes) at the idea of being related. Despite church opposition to his
theory, Darwin was given a state funeral in Westminster Abbey in 1882.
Religious opposition to Darwins ideas has not disappeared. Some American
states require equal time to be given in science classes to the teaching of the
biblical story of creation and to the theory of evolution.
Homework book 3.1 Evolution crossword 1
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[
Questions
]
Ancestral form Long-legged
tree-grazing form
Fig 3.1.14
14 Jack rabbits, bilbies and fennec foxes all live in
desert habitats, have very large ears and are nocturnal.
Explain how their adaptations allow them to live in their
desert habitats.
15 Match the adaptations below to their survival value and
the habitat in which they are likely to occur:
Adaptation Survival value Habitat
body colour that
blends with the
background
avoidance of the
hottest parts of
the day
saltwater
production of
small volumes of
concentrated urine
avoids
dislodgement by
moving fluids
desert
hooks and suckers
on the head end of
the organism
enables waste
removal with
minimal water
loss
rainforest
broad, flat, bright
green leaves
avoidance of
predators
intestines
of a sheep
live underground
by day, and are
active at night
maximum
absorption of
sunlight
any
16 Draw a series of sketches to show how the long-
legged, tree-grazing animal shown in Figure 3.1.14
might have evolved according to:
a Lamarcks theory
b Darwins theory.
Revision questions
Surviving in different environments
1 Give an example of an adaptation and how it helps an
animal and its species to survive.
2 Give three examples each of an adaptation that is:
a structural
b behavioural.
3 Explain how two animals of the same species can be
different.
Theory of evolution
4 Explain what is meant by the term evolution.
5 Evolution can only ever be considered a theory.
Explain why.
Early theories of evolution
6 How does Lamarck explain the evolution of the
giraffes long neck?
7 It is easy to prove Lamarcks theory is wrong. Give an
example that proves Lamarcks theory wrong.
Darwins theory
8 Darwin observed fourteen species of finches on the
Galapagos Islands. Give two possible explanations for
this large number of species.
9 True or false?
a Darwin was the first to think of the idea of evolution.
b Darwins theory depended on the developments of
acquired characteristics.
c Darwin suggested that differences in finches were
due to mutations.
d Darwin published his theory many years after his
return on HMS Beagle.
10 What was the main objection religious leaders made to
Darwins theory when it was first published?
11 Which naturalist developed a similar theory to Darwins
at about the same time?
12 Darwin was unable to explain the natural variation that
existed within a species.
a Explain why.
b How do we account for this variation today?
Thinking questions
13 Are the red bristles on Cuddles the shark an adaptation
to its tank environment or its original environment of
dark ocean caves? Explain your answer.
>>
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at work
Surfing
Researching scientists
Internet, etc.) to find out:
about the significance of the Wallace line. Write a journal
article summarising your findings
more about Darwins journey to the Galapagos Islands,
what he saw there and how it moulded his theory of
evolution. Write a diary of his travels around the islands
about Darwins other important work as a biologist,
which was so important that he would be remembered
even without his theory of evolution. Write a summary of
this work
about the influence on Darwin of the works of economist
Thomas Malthus and the geologist Charles Lyell.
List these influences and how they helped mould
Darwins view.
Present your findings in the form indicated.
Researching adaptations
Internet, etc.) to research a particular biome such as a
rainforest, a desert, the ocean shore or the tundra. Find:
the climate and special conditions experienced in the
biome
the adaptations of plants and animals in the biome that
assist their ongoing survival.
An excellent starting resource might be a DVD such as
The Living Planet by David Attenborough or one of the IMAX
DVDs on specific environments such as Antarctica.
Present your work in one on the following ways:
a PowerPoint presentation
a poster.
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SCIENCE
17 Like the males of many bird species, male peacocks are
very colourful and perform spectacular displays
with their tail feathers. Suggest how this helps the
species continue.
18 Are the following characteristics acquired or inherited?
a a suntan
b black hair
c the athletic ability of a gymnast
d high resistance to a bacterial infection
e blue eyes.
19 Use Darwins theory to explain what the phrase survival
of the fittest means.
Researching the Galapagos Islands
Internet, etc.) to find out more about the unique wildlife of
the Galapagos Islands.
Present your work as a map of the islands and the
different creatures found on them.
Finding
Cuddles
Find the Latin name for shark and propose a scientific
name for Cuddles.
Imagining
New planet
Imagine a new planet with new environments never seen
on Earth. Imagine the animals that live there and the
adaptations that assist them in surviving.
Present your new world and animals in one of the
following ways:
a Flash cartoon
a painting or drawing
a cartoon strip
a model or series of models.
What did Darwin see?
Trace the voyage of HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836.
Present your work as a page of Darwins journal for one
place that he visited. Describe the plants and animals
he may have seen and how his observations might have
influenced his ideas on natural selection and evolution.
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Science at work
at work SCIENCE
There is also a story of the first man, Adam, being
created from clay and the first woman, Eve, being
created from his rib.
Intelligent design (ID)
Intelligent design is a relatively recent theory that
suggests that an intelligent designer was responsible
for the complexity of the structure of organisms and
cells. Although some supporters of this theory agree
In scientific terms, a theory is not just a guess or
speculation. It is a collection of ideas that have been
tested and supported consistently by the available
evidence. Scientific theories are concerned with
what is observable, measurable and testable. Like all
theories, the theory of evolution must constantly be
subject to scrutiny, re-evaluation and change.
The theory of evolution is not the only explanation
for the existence and diversity of life on Earth. Most
societies have stories about the origin and diversity
of life.
Creation stories
Creation stories explain how the world and
everything in it was made by supernatural means, by
a god or gods. The ancient Greeks suggested the world
grew out of Chaos, a dark mass where everything was
hidden. From Chaos emerged a god and/or a goddess.
They produced other gods and goddesses and then
mortal men and women to populate the ancient world.
Some Australian Aborigines view the
Earth at the beginning of time as a flat,
featureless plain. Later, in the Dreamtime,
creatures partly resembling humans arose out of this
plain. They suddenly disappeared, but left their mark
as mountains, rivers, animals, plants and all the other
features of Earth.
The Christian Bible and Jewish Torah tell how
God created the Earth and all life on it in six days.
Fig 3.1.15 A rock painting showing Dreamtime figures
Alternatives to evolution:
Interpreting ideas
A busy week in 3928 BCE
In 164244, Dr John Lightfoot of Cambridge University
in England wrote that the world was created on Sunday,
12 September 3928 BCE and that man was created on
Friday 17 September 3928 BCE at 9 a.m. In 1650, an Irish
Archbishop, James Ussher, counted the generations of the
Bible, adding them to modern history and fixed the date of
Biblical creation as Monday 23 October 4004 BCE.
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Fig 3.1.16 The fresco The Creation of Adam (1508-1512) by Michelangelo is part of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.
[
Student activities
]
that natural selection can take place within a species,
they believe natural selection would never be able to
develop complex mechanism such as the replication
process of DNA or the whip-like tails (flagella) of
some bacteria. The question
then becomes who or what is
the intelligent designer?
Fact or fiction?
A major problem arises when
considering these accounts
of creation. Are they to be
seen as factual? Some people
believe the events happened
exactly as stated. Other people
interpret these accounts
as stories with symbolic
meaning, as teachings about
the relationships between
God or gods, the universe and
humans. Others treat such
accounts as nothing more
than stories. The whole
question of the origin of
life is very tightly bound
to religious belief.
Descended from ET
There have been various
suggestions that life on
Earth originated in outer
space. In his 1969 book
Chariots of the Gods, Erik
von Daniken proposed that
aliens visited Earth and
created human intelligence
through deliberate genetic
mutation. These visits
were supposedly recorded
and handed down through
religion and myths, and
in a few physical signs,
such as the Nazca lines in
Peru. In more recent times
the famous astronomer Sir
Fred Hoyle also proposed
that life originated from
outer space.
Surfing
Alternative theories
Internet, etc.) to find details about the following alternative
theories and any evidence offered to support them:
creationism or intelligent design
the steady state theory, which proposes that species
did not have a beginning at all but have always existed
that extraterrestrial beings settled Earth or influenced
the development of animals and humans on Earth.
Present your findings in one of the following ways:
a debate between two theories
a segment for a current affairs TV show
a set of cards to be used in a debate in support of the
theory you researched
a piece of art, drama, music or dance expressing the
alternative theory you investigated
a class debate on whether alternative theories such as
creationism or intelligent design should be taught in
science classes.
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UNIT
UNIT
Evolution is usually considered to be a slow process,
but this is not always so. The myxoma virus was
released in Australia to kill rabbits and it killed
millions, yet rabbits still exist. Natural selection meant
that rabbits developed resistance to the disease.
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decrease the proportion of those without it. Natural
selection takes several generations to become evident
and so it is extremely difficult to observe in large
plants and animals. It is more obvious in organisms
that reproduce quickly. Bacteria and insects
are two organisms in which natural selection
can occur quickly enough to be observed.
Selection of peppered moths
Over the last 150 years, dramatic changes have
been seen in the populations of peppered moths in
England. Originally, populations of the peppered
moth, Biston betularia, were mostly light-coloured
(typica). In the mid-1800s, however, scientists noticed
that populations were changing to mostly dark-
coloured forms (carbonaria).
Natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which the
environment selects favourable characteristics,
reducing the frequency of unfavourable characteristics.
This means that after many generations of selection, a
species becomes better adapted to its environment.
Individuals will become highly adapted if their
environment does not change. Except for the effect
of mutations, each individual will be very similar
since the amount of variation will have declined.
Environments are rarely constant, however.
Suppose the environment for a particular species
suddenly got colder. Some individuals within
the species may naturally be more tolerant to the
cold, having thicker coats or some other favourable
characteristic. They are better suited to the new,
colder conditions than the rest of their species. Over
time, natural selection would increase the proportion
of individuals with this tolerance of the cold and
Natural selection has also allowed some types of
bacteria to become resistant to antibiotics. These
bacteria are now a significant cause of death of
patients in hospital for other illnesses.
Fig 3.2.1 Temperatures are expected to rise in the
future due to global warming. Will alpine
species such as the Mountain Pigmy Possum
evolve quickly enough to survive warmer
climates or is their extinction imminent?
Prac 1
p. 103
The peppered moth of England comes in a
light-coloured and a dark-coloured form.
Fig 3.2.2
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The change occurred during the Industrial
Revolution when coal-burning factories produced large
amounts of black soot, which blackened nearby trees.
When sitting on the soot-darkened trees, the light-
coloured form of the moth was easily seen by birds,
their main predator. The dark-coloured moth blended
with the blackened background, increasing its
chances of survival. The dark colour is an inherited
characteristic. Hence, more dark-coloured moths
survived to produce dark-coloured offspring.
Peppered moths on a lichen-covered tree trunk
(left); peppered moths on a blackened tree
trunk (right). Which form of the moth would be
selected for in each situation? Fig 3.2.3
After clean air regulations were implemented,
lichen began to regrow on tree trunks and the
trees returned to their original paler colouring.
Moth populations in many of these areas have shifted
back towards the light-coloured forms. Natural
selection seems to have taken the moths from pale to
dark and back to pale again.
Selection and rabbit control
Rabbits overran the land in Australia for many years,
digging burrows, stripping vegetation and causing
erosion. In December 1950, the myxoma virus was
released in Australia to control the booming rabbit
population. Carried by fleas and mosquitos, the virus
caused the disease myxomatosis and within two
months, 90 per cent of rabbits in certain areas had
died. Less than 1 per cent of rabbits infected with
the virus survived. Ten years later, only 25 per cent
of rabbits in those same areas died as a result of the
virus, and around 40 per cent of those infected with
the virus survived. These dramatic changes were the
result of natural selection acting on both the rabbits
and the virus.
It is probable that a few rabbits had a natural,
genetic resistance to the myxoma virus. These
resistant rabbits would have survived the initial
myxoma spread and produced offspring with an
inherited resistance. A healthy rabbit may produce
seven or more litters of young per year and so the
nearly all dark
nearly all light
mixed light
and dark
Manchester
London
Fig 3.2.4 Peppered moth populations in England in 1950.
The moths were nearly all dark in industrial
areas, and nearly all light in rural areas.
A rabbit affected the myxoma virus
Fig 3.2.5
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number of resistant rabbits would have increased
dramatically within a few years. The myxoma-
resistant rabbits were selected for.
Natural selection also worked on the virus. The
highly virulent form of the virus (the one most able
to kill) killed the rabbit within six to ten days of
infection. A less virulent form might have taken three
to four weeks to kill the rabbit. The virus can multiply
only within a live rabbit and so it is beneficial to the
virus for the rabbit to live longer. The less virulent
form was therefore selected for. The more virulent
form killed too quickly for it to spread.
Selection and diseases
Mosquitoes that can carry the diseases yellow fever
and malaria have been controlled using chemical
pesticides. Populations of mosquitoes with a natural
resistance to the pesticides have developed over the
twenty-year period following the introduction of the
pesticides into their environment.
Similarly, many bacteria are now resistant to
certain types of antibiotics. When penicillin was first
introduced it was very effective in treating infections
caused by the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, known
as golden staph. Now, MRSA (methicillin resistant
Staphylococcus aureus) is resistant to penicillin and
around twenty other substances, including other
antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants. Recently,
several strains of MRSA have become resistant to the
drug of last-resortvancomycin. If vancomycin fails,
the death rate from MRSA will rise dramatically.
Speciation
A species is defined as a group of organisms that
normally interbreed in nature to produce fertile
offspring. The formation of a new species is called
speciation. It can happen through natural selection
combined with other factors such as isolation and
genetic mutations. Speciation occurs over long
periods of time and generally cannot be seen in a
human lifetime or even through the recorded history
of humans. A possible mechanism for speciation is
shown in Figure 3.2.6.
Step 1: Geographic isolation
Geographic isolation is the first step in speciation.
Figure 3.2.6 shows a population of rabbits being
split into two physically and geographically isolated
groups. Each group will now experience a different
1
Geographic
isolation of
populations
2
Mutations
and natural
selection
operate to
form two
subspecies
3
Reproductive
isolation
produces
two species
Ancestral
population
Fig 3.2.6 Stages in speciationgeographic isolation
leads to different evolutionary paths and
eventually to reproductive isolation.
set of circumstancesfood type and availability
might differ, as might climate and the predators that
live there.
Step 2: Natural selection at work
Although initially the same species, each population
will change over many generations through natural
selection and the occasional genetic mutation.
Eventually the two rabbit populations will have their
own characteristics, sufficiently different from each
other to be called a variety, or subspecies. Subspecies
appear different but are still capable of interbreeding.
Step 3: Reproductive isolation
If the populations are isolated long enough, the
change might be sufficient to make them incapable
of interbreeding. They will then have reproductive
isolation. At this point a new species has emerged.
Factors that might cause reproductive isolation are:
a change in colour patterns so that mates are no
longer recognised
a change in mating habits so that mates are no
longer recognised
seasonal differences in mating times
a changed chromosome which prevents the sperm
of one group from fertilising eggs of the other.
Evolution explained Evolution explained
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Types of evolution
Speciation illustrates how new species might arise
from a common ancestor. Does it account for the huge
variety of life forms that exist now, and those that
have come before us? Different evolutionary paths
and mechanisms have been suggested.
Divergent evolution
The Galapagos Island finches and the geographically
isolated rabbits illustrate the idea that new forms
can evolve from a single ancestor. This is known as
divergent evolution. The idea is that new species will
evolve in new environments.
Divergent evolution results in a phenomenon
known as adaptive radiation. Ancestral organisms
became adapted to their new environments, evolving
into new forms suited to them. Australias marsupial
ancestors have evolved and radiated into many
different forms, from tree-dwelling, fruit-eating
possums into everything from blind, meat-eating
underground moles to the more familiar kangaroos
and koalas.
There is very little genetic variation among
cheetahs, putting them at risk of extinction.
Fig 3.2.7
Will the cheetah
survive?
There is very little genetic
variation among cheetahs.
The differences are about
the same as are found in
brothers and sisters in
other species. It is thought
that at one time all but one
mating pair of cheetahs
died. This means that
all cheetahs are closely
related. Interbreeding
between close relatives
usually results in the
population becoming
homogeneous, with very
little genetic variation.
Such a population is less
likely to be able to respond
to an environmental
change, and could easily
become extinct.
bear
deer
bat
flying
squirrel
sloth
monkey
sea cow
whale
seal
beaver
shrew
gopher
wolf
antelope
Fig 3.2.8 These mammals are all thought to have evolved from the shrew-like
ancestor in the centre. This is an example of adaptive radiation.
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In similar habitats, the same types of characteristics
are selected for, resulting in organisms that look
similar despite having very different genes passed
down from very different ancestors. These organisms
may even have analogous structures; that is, specific
Convergent evolution
Evolution can produce similar structures in organisms
of quite different origins. For example, Australias
different marsupials show resemblances to cats,
wolves, moles, mice and squirrels even though they are
not closely related and do not have a common ancestor.
Convergent evolution, or convergence, occurs
when organisms evolve and develop similar
adaptations due to:
living in similar environments and habitats
having similar lifestyles and food sources.
Placental mammals Marsupial mammals
wolf
the extinct
Tasmanian
wolf (tiger)
flying
squirrel
flying
phalanger
Fig 3.2.10 Convergent evolution: Australian marsupials and placental mammals
of other continents have many similarities, but are not closely related.
Fig 3.2.9 Australias marsupial ancestors have evolved into many different forms including the common spotted cuscus
and eastern grey kangaroo.
Convergent evolution: Despite having quite
different ancestors, the shark, ichthyosaur
and dolphin have evolved a similar set of
characteristicsstreamlined body, bilobed
tail, fins and flippers.
shark
(cartilagenous fish)
ichthyosaur
(extinct reptile)
dolphin
(mammal)
Fig 3.2.11
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body parts that appear similar. One example is the
gliding membrane found between the front and
rear limbs of Australias gliding possums. Similar
membranes are found in the flying squirrels of North
America, Europe and Asia, and in the flying lemurs
of South-East Asia. These three animals are similar in
their lifestylethey are all nocturnal herbivores.
Parallel evolution
Another type of evolution is parallel evolution,
which occurs where related species evolve similar
features while separated from each other. The result is
organisms that look alike and have common ancestry,
but are found in different locations. For example, Old
and New World monkeys share many features because
they come from common ancestors. Their tails,
however, indicate different evolutionary paths: New
World monkeys live in the trees and have prehensile
tails that hold onto the branches; Old World monkeys
evolved to live on the ground and do not have
prehensile tails.
Homework book 3.2 Natural selection
Fig 3.2.12 Parallel evolution: A vervet monkey uses its
prehensile tail to hold onto a branch (top).
Old World monkeys like the baboon lack a
prehensile tail (bottom).
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Natural selection
1 Give an example of natural selection and explain how
it makes a species stronger in its environment.
2 Use the peppered moth to explain what is meant by:
a natural variation
b natural selection.
3 Give a reason why the less virulent strain of the
myxoma virus was naturally selected for following its
release to control rabbits.
4 What is the difference between a highly virulent virus
and a virus of lesser virulence?
5 Describe how it is thought the MRSA bacteria
developed.
6 Why it is easier to observe natural selection in action
with bacteria and insects rather than larger animals?
Speciation
7 Give two reasons why isolated populations of a
species may evolve differently from one another.
>>
8 Two animals are different, but very similar to each
other. How can you tell if the animals are of the
same species?
Types of evolution
9 State three different types of evolution.
10 What is divergent evolution and what conditions are
required for it to occur?
11 Give analogous structures that are shared by:
a gliding possums, flying squirrels and flying lemurs
b sharks and dolphins.
12 Explain how Old and New World monkeys are examples
of parallel evolution.
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>>>
20 Which of the following diagrams could represent the
processes of:
a divergent evolution
b convergent evolution
c parallel evolution?
A
B C
Fig 3.2.13
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Complete the following activities
on evolution by connecting to the
1 Complete the interactive activity on the peppered moth
and record their changes. Draw a conclusion from your
observations.
3
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SCIENCE
2 Complete the quizzes and tutorials on the development
of the theory of evolution. Construct a timeline showing
the history of these theories.
Researching selection
Internet, etc.) to find details about the following examples of
natural or artificial selection.
Extensive studies have been made of populations
of brown-lipped snails, Cepaea nemoralis. Describe
how changes in the snail populations illustrate natural
selection.
Thinking questions
13 Mosquitoes carrying the disease yellow fever have
developed a resistance to chemical pesticides once
sprayed to kill them. Explain how this may have
happened.
14 Explain why a population that is very homogeneous is
more likely to be at risk of extinction than a population
that has considerable variation.
15 What factors will decide whether the mountain pigmy
possum will survive in the future?
16 Explain why the cheetah is greatly at risk of extinction
despite there being acceptable numbers of the animals
at present.
17 New breeds or subspecies of domestic animals are
regularly created by breeders through artificial selection.
It takes far longer for natural selection to do the same.
Suggest why.
18 Suggest three events that might lead to geographic
isolation of a population.
19 Rearrange the following events in the order in which
they occur in the process of speciation:
reproductive isolation
natural selection
formation of a species
further natural selection
geographic isolation
formation of a subspecies.
21 The African aardvark and the South American anteater
have similar feet and tongues, but they are not closely
related.
a What type of evolution best describes these
similarities?
b Suggest why the these similarities developed.
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Prac 1
Unit 3.2
Natural selection
You will need
100 green toothpicks (to represent green worms),
100 reddish-brown toothpicks (to represent brown
worms), a grassy area and an area of brown earth
What to do
1 Draw up a results table.
2 Scatter the 200 toothpicks on the grassy area.
3 Allow your partner (acting as a predator of the worms)
30 seconds to pick up (feed on) as many toothpicks as
possible, picking up one at a time between the thumb
and forefinger.
4 Record the number of each colour toothpick collected.
5 Gather up all the toothpicks.
6 Repeat the procedure until five feedings have occurred.
7 Repeat the procedure on the area of brown earth.
8 Total the numbers of each type of worm in each area.
Questions
1 How do you account for the differences (if any)
between the numbers of worms caught in each area?
2 This experiment is testing one factor that might affect a
worms ability to survive.
a What is this factor?
b State three other factors that affect survival of
worms in their normal habitats.
3 Discuss the relevance of this experiment to the study of
natural selection.
DDT and other chemicals have been used in programs
to control mosquito populations. Describe how
mosquitoes can develop acquired immunity and how
they can then be controlled.
Artificial selection has long been used to develop
specialised breeds of animals such as cattle, cats, dogs
and sheep. Compare and contrast artificial selection
with natural selection.
Present your findings as a written report.
at work SCIENCE
>>
3
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Feeding 1 Feeding 2 Feeding 3 Feeding 4 Feeding 5 Totals
Green worms on grass
Brown worms on grass
Green worms on brown earth
Brown worms on brown earth
104
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
3
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The theory of biological evolution still provokes
strong disagreement from some religious groups and
others in the community. Evidence, however, supports
the theory and it is widely accepted as the best
scientific explanation of the origin of the species.
Fossils are the preserved evidence of past life,
usually found in sedimentary rocks. They may be:
actual remains of organisms (such as mammoths
frozen in ice and insects trapped in a type of sap
called amber)
hard parts of organisms (such as shells, teeth and
bones)
impressions of organisms (such as hollowed casts
and moulds where substances have replaced the
organism)
evidence of the presence of organisms (such as
footprints and carboniferous markings on rocks).
Fossil record
Direct evidence for evolution comes from
palaeontology, the study of fossils. The fossil record
from all over the world provides evidence of continual
changes in life forms from over 3500 million years ago
until the present.
ERAS
PERIODS
EPOCHS
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
Palaeozoic
Pre-
Cambrian
Formation of
Earth's crust
Quaternary
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carbon-
iferous
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Recent
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Palaeocene
Devonian
0
65
248
570
4500
1.8
65
141
195
248
280
345
395
435
500
570
0
1.8
5.5
22.5
37
54
65
Fig 3.3.1 The geological time scale. Ages are shown in millions of years before the present.
The ages of the fossils and the
rocks in which they are found can
be estimated using radioisotope-
dating techniques. These techniques
have enabled scientists to devise a
geological time scale, dividing the
history of the Earth into eras. These
eras are subdivided into periods,
which are further subdivided into
epochs.
Using the fossil record
The fossil record traces the major
events in the history of life on Earth.
Life seems to have begun around
3500 million years ago. The first
organisms were probably simple,
single-celled, anaerobic (no oxygen
was available) bacteria which fed on
organic compounds in the primitive
seas.
Later, photosynthetic bacteria
and blue-green algae appeared,
releasing oxygen into the
atmosphere. This release allowed
ozone (O
3
) to form and accumulate,
screening out some of the ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. This gave
some safety to the newly
evolving organisms.
Prac 1
p. 114
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Early life
In 1924, the Russian scientist A. J. Oparin suggested
how life first appeared on Earth. The early atmosphere
is thought to have consisted of gaseous methane (CH
4
),
ammonia (NH
3
), hydrogen (H
2
) and water vapour
(H
2
O). Energy from lightning, ultraviolet rays and
gamma rays split some of these gas molecules. New
bonds formed to create complex organic molecules
that collected in pools to form an organic soup.
Over millions of years this organic soup became
concentrated, more complex molecules formed and
the first cells appeared.
In 1953, S. Miller and H. Urey tested the idea in
a laboratory experiment at the University of Chicago.
Electric sparks were passed into a gas mixture that
was thought to be similar to the early atmosphere
of the Earth. Organic molecules, the basis of life,
were produced. Later work used a more accurate
composition of gases and produced similar results. No
experiments, however, have ever produced a living cell.
electrodes
spark
condenser
mixture
of
NH
3
CH
4
H
2
H
2
O
mixture containing
amino acids and
other complex
organic molecules
to vacuum
pump
Fig 3.3.2 The MillerUrey experiment. Given suitable
conditions, inorganic molecules can combine
to form organic molecules, the basis of life.
More complex life evolves
Around 1500 million years ago, organisms with a
more complex cellular structure appeared. Sexual
reproduction appears to have begun around this time.
Organisms recognisable as animals appeared around
600 million years ago. Thousands of specimens
of these invertebrates have been collected from
sandstone deposits at Ediacara, in the hills north of
Adelaide. They are possibly related to present-day
jellyfish and earthworms.
Ediacarans are life forms that appeared
600 million years ago. It is possible they
were the first animals. The fossil shown is
of Dickinsonia, a primitive flatworm.
Fig 3.3.3
From bacteria to humans
An abundance of fossils from the Palaeozoic era
(570 to 248 million years ago) shows the existence
of bacteria, algae, soft-bodied invertebrates and
representatives from all the major animal groups
we know today. Characteristic organisms from the
earliest Palaeozoic period are the trilobites. The
earliest known land organisms are the vascular plants,
appearing around 400 million years ago. The first
land vertebrates were the amphibians, appearing
slightly later. At this time most organisms lived in
the sea.
The Mesozoic era (248 to 65 million years ago)
is often called the age of the reptiles because of the
abundance and diversity of reptilian forms (including
dinosaurs) that lived in this era. This era also marks
the appearance of the earliest mammals, flowering
plants and birds.
Fossils from the most recent era, the Cenozoic
era (from 65 million years ago), show the increasing
dominance of mammals and the appearance of
humans (around 200 000 years ago).
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A changing record
The fossil record provides evidence of continual change.
A vast number and variety of species has emerged from
those earliest life forms. Whole groups of organisms
have appeared, become abundant and then disappeared.
Some of these changes include the following.
Dramatic climate change and altered sea levels may
have caused the disappearance of 50 per cent of
all shallow water marine invertebrates around
225 million years ago.
First
land
organisms
Organisms
with
complex
cellular
structure
Oxygen
builds up
in the
atmosphere
First
organisms
(single-
celled)
Organic
compounds
form
DIVERSITY
OF
LIFE
ORIGIN
OF
LIFE
Years before
present (millions)
Cenozoic
(modern
life)
Mesozoic
(middle life)
Palaeozoic
(ancient
life)
Pre-Cambrian
(primal and
primitive life)
65
248
570
1000
2000
3000
4000
0
First
animals
Origin of the Earth
Fig 3.3.4 The evolution of life on Earth
Fig 3.3.6 Composognathus: a tiny dinosaur now
fossilised in stone.
The history of life on Earth recorded as a year. Each day
represents approximately 10 million years. The recorded
history of humans is less than 1 minute.
Pre-Cambrian
Palaeozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
7
14
21
28
S
1
8
15
22
29
M
2
9
16
23
30
T
3
10
17
24
31
W
4
11
18
25
T
5
12
19
26
F
6
13
20
27
S
JANUARY
4
11
18
25
S
5
12
19
26
M
6
13
20
27
T
7
14
21
28
W
1
8
15
22
T
2
9
16
23
F
3
10
17
24
S
FEBRUARY
4
11
18
25
S
5
12
19
26
M
6
13
20
27
T
7
14
21
28 29 30 31
W
1
8
15
22
T
2
9
16
23
F
3
10
17
24
S
MARCH
8
15
22
29
S
1
9
16
23
30
M
2
10
17
24
T
3
11
18
25
W
4
12
19
26
T
5
13
20
27
F
6 7
14
21
28
S
APRIL
6
13
20
27
S
1
7
14
21
28
M
2
8
15
22
29
T
3
9
16
23
30 31
W
4
10
17
24
T
5
11
18
25
F
12
19
26
S
3
10
17
24
S
4
11
18
25
M
5
12
19
26
T
6
13
20
27 28 29 30
W
7
14
21
T
1
8
15
22
F
2
9
16
23
S
MAY
8
15
22
29
S
1
9
16
23
30
M
2
10
17
24
31
T
3
11
18
25
W
4
12
19
26
T
5
13
20
27
F
6 7
14
21
28
S
JUNE
5
12
19
26
S
6
13
20
27
M
7
14
21
28
T
1
8
15
22
29 30 31
W
2
9
16
23
T
3
10
17
24
F
4
11
18
25
S
JULY AUGUST
2
9
16
23
30
S
3
10
17
24
M
4
11
18
25
T
5
12
19
26 27 28 29
W
6
13
20
T
7
14
21
F
1
8
15
22
S
7
14
21
28
S
1
8
15
22
29
M
2
9
16
23
30
T
3
10
17
24
31
W
4
11
18
25
T
5
12
19
26
F
6
13
20
27
S
SEPTEMBER
4
11
18
25
S
5
12
19
26
M
6
13
20
27
T
7
14
21
28 29 30
W
1
8
15
22
T
2
9
16
23
F
3
10
17
24
S
OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER
2
9
16
23
S
3
10
17
24
30 31
M
4
11
18
25
T
5
12
19
26 27 28 29
W
6
13
20
T
7
14
21
F
1
8
15
22
S
Life begins
First complex cells
First animals First land
organisms
Dinosaurs
extinct
First human-like
ancestral organisms
Fig 3.3.5
Evidence for evolution Evidence for evolution
Homework book 3.3 When am I?
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The impact of a large asteroid, and consequent dust
storms, are thought to have caused the extinction
of the dinosaurs around 65 million years ago.
Other organisms, such as clubmosses and jawfish,
have appeared, been abundant, but now survive in
small numbers only.
Others, like the flowering plants, insects, mammals
and birds were present only in small numbers and
then became abundant.
The number and variety of mammals increased
dramatically after the demise of the dinosaurs.
An incomplete record
The fossil record is, however, far from complete. Only
a small proportion of the plant and animal species
that are thought to have existed are preserved as
fossils. While the fossil history of aquatic organisms
is extensive and detailed, the fossil history of land
animals is far less so. This lack of fossils on land is
not surprising because fossilisation
is a rather rare occurrence. To
become fossils, organisms must
die in conditions where decay
does not occur. The soft tissues
of organisms usually do not form
fossils. Fossilisation is more likely
in seas, lakes, swamps and caves,
but unlikely on land. Geological
processes, and human activity, are
constantly moving and destroying
the sedimentary rocks that
contain fossils.
Fossil evidence shows
an excellent record for the
evolutionary development of
some organisms such as the
horse.
Fig 3.3.7 A living fossil. Coelacanths, the ancestors
of which are thought to have given rise to
amphibians, have remained unchanged for
400 million years.
Introducing
beaver-otter-platypus
The fossil record is continually
amended as new and surprising fossils
are found. Most scientists believed
that the mammals of the Mesozoic era
were small and shrew-like and did not
spread until after the extinction of the
dinosaurs, around 65 million years ago.
A fossil discovered in China in 2004,
however, indicates that mammals may
have been bigger and may have spread
across Earth much earlier. The
50-centimetre-long skeleton is
about 164 million years old and is
of a mammal that had a beaver-like
broad, scaly tail, otter-like teeth and a
platypus-like lifestyle, dog paddling in
the waters and burrowing tunnels on
the shore. Links are often missing from
the evolutionary story. This doesnt
mean they do not exist; it may simply
mean they have not yet been found.
An eye problem
Major adaptations such
as the lens in the eye
of vertebrates present a
problem. The eye would
be of use only when fully
developed. The eye lens
and retina must coexist to
be of any use. It is hard
to see any sequence of
evolutionary development
in which each one is
separately of adaptive
value. How then did such
an intricate organ come
into existence?
grazing horses
browsing horses
3
4
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
2
Recent
Pleistocene
from 1 mya
Pliocene
from
10 mya
Miocene
from
30 mya
Oligocene
from
40 mya
Eocene
from
60 mya
enamel
crown
cement
Structure of
forefeet
Structure of
molar teeth
Pliohippus
Merychippus
Mesohippus
Hyracotherium
(Eohippus)
1.6 m
1.0 m
1.0 m
0.6 m
0.4 m
Equus
Fig 3.3.8 The evolutionary history of the horse, showing reconstructions of the fossil species.
Many branches have left no modern descendants. (mya = million years ago)
Homework book 3.4 Evolution of the horse
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Transitional forms
For major groups of organisms, transitional forms
have been found in the evolutionary pathway. Modern
vertebrates, for example, appear to have evolved first
as jawless fish, then bony fish, then amphibians,
reptiles, birds and finally mammals. Transitional
forms provide the links between them all, including
the air-breathing crossopterygian fish, and the bird-
like reptile, Archaeopteryx.
the transitional forms may have developed in a
population and an area too small or inhospitable
for fossils to develop. This is possible since
speciation is most likely to occur in a small,
isolated population with a changing environment.
Evidence from other studies
Anatomical studies
The front flipper of a seal, a cats paw, a horses front
leg, a bats wing and your own hand all look different
and perform different functions. Despite this, they all
consist of the same number of bones, muscles, nerves
and blood vessels arranged in a similar basic pattern.
All vertebrates have what is known as a pentadactyl
limb structure (a limb with five digits). Each limb,
however, has been adapted to meet a specific need
in that animals environment. The length and size of
individual bones can vary or the number of fingers
or toes may be reduced. The fingers in the wing of
a bat are longer, which allows them to be opened to
make the wing. The horse has progressively lost its
toes until it now walks on its third toe which has
become its hoof. The basic pentadactyl limb can be
traced back to the fins of certain fish from which the
first amphibians are thought to have evolved. These
fundamentally similar structures are called
homologous structures; animals that share
these structures may have evolved from a
common ancestor.
Fig 3.3.9
Transitional fossil forms in the evolution
of vertebrates. An air-breathing fish
(400 million years ago) (top).
Archaeopteryx, a small dinosaur with feathers
(170 million years ago) (bottom).
Fig 3.3.10 The mudskipper is an amphibious fish found in
Africa, Asia and Australia that has adaptations
that allow it to live both in water and in mud. Is
this fish evidence of how fish first came onto
the land?
For many groups of organisms there are large gaps
in the fossil record because no transitional forms have
been found. This cannot be taken as proof that the
fossils of transitional forms do not exist, however. It is
possible that:
fossils may be out there undiscovered
fossils may have been found but have not been
recognised as important
Prac 2
p. 114
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Embryonic development
The development of embryos
provides further evidence of
evolution. One of Darwins
contemporaries, German
biologist Ernst Haeckel,
proposed development
of an embryo from one
stage to another showed
its entire evolutionary
history. Although there
are definite similarities
between the embryos of
each species, Haeckels
drawings exaggerated them.
The relationship between
evolution and embryonic
development is more
complex than once thought.
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
1
2
3
3 3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
bat
(flying)
monkey
(grasping)
pig (walking)
horse
(running)
anteater
(tearing)
whale
(swimming)
Fig 3.3.11 Homologous structuresall limbs have
the same basic structure but have adapted
for different uses.
Humans with gills!
The early stages of all
vertebrate embryos are very
similar. The early human
embryo resembles a fish
embryo with gill slits, a tail
and a fish-like heart and
kidney. The later human
embryo has a reptile-like
heart and kidney. Later
again, the 7-month embryo
is covered with hair and
has the body proportions
of a baby ape. These
developmental stages
are thought to reflect
evolutionary history, and
indicate common ancestry.
PIiohippus
1O million years aqo
Merychippus
15 million years aqo
Mesohippus
Equus
(modern horse)
Eohippus
Fig 3.3.12 Evolution has caused some toes on the
horse and pig to shorten until they eventually
disappeared. Other toes formed a hoof.
Fig 3.3.13 The pentadactyl limb of an ancient monkey is
clear in this fossil.
Useless structures
A number of structures, such as your appendix and the muscles
near your ears, have no apparent function. They are called vestigial
organs. It is thought that they had some function in our ancestors,
but that evolution has reduced these structures so much that they are
no longer functional. There is no advantage or disadvantage to these
structures and so you still have them today.
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shark lizard chicken chimpanzee human
Fig 3.3.14 Comparison between the embryos of five chordates. What similarities can you see?
Distribution of plants
and animals
Biogeography is the study of the
distribution of plants and animals,
both now and in the past. As
Darwin saw in the Galapagos
Islands, the organisms found on
oceanic islands resemble those
living on the nearest mainland yet
include species found nowhere
else. As oceanic islands have never
been attached to the mainland,
their inhabitants are thought
to have somehow arrived from
the mainland, to then evolve in
isolation. This could happen in
two ways: isolation followed by
parallel or divergent evolution and
migration followed by divergent
evolution.
Isolation followed by parallel or divergent
evolution
Modern day monotremes (the platypus and the
echidna) are found only in New Guinea and Australia.
Fossils have been found only in Australia, not in Asia.
This suggests that monotremes probably evolved and
diversified in Australia. Many groups of organisms
found in Australia have similar species elsewhere in
the southern hemisphere. An example is the group of
flightless birds known as the ratites. These occur in:
New Guinea (the cassowary)
Australia (the emu and cassowary)
New Zealand (the kiwi)
South America (the rhea)
Africa (the ostrich).
Studies of DNA show the emu to be most closely
related to the cassowary, with the kiwi a second
cousin. The rhea and ostrich are more distantly
related.
A bird with teeth?
Birds do not have teeth and
have not had them for the
last 60 million years. In an
experiment, tissue from the
mouth of a mouse embryo
was placed near the
mouth tissue of a chicken
embryo. After incubation,
the chicken began to grow
teeth! Not like mouse teeth,
but like those of the oldest
known feathered fossil.
Modern birds obviously
still have genes coding
for making teeth. All
they appear to lack is the
mechanism to switch on
these genes.
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One hundred and thirty-five million years ago,
Africa, India, South America, Antarctica, Australia
and New Zealand were all part of one southern
supercontinent, Gondwana. Around 80 million years
ago, this large southern continent started to move.
First Africa separated from South America. India
drifted northwards, and Australia and part of New
Zealand separated from Antarctica. The ancestral
ratites evolved in isolation in each of the separated
southern continents. The order
of separation of the continents
suggests the same degree of
relatedness as the genetics of
the different birds.
Migration followed by
divergent evolution
The fossil record of the camel
family is relatively complete.
Distribution of fossils suggests
that the first camels developed
in North America. Some of
these migrated to Asia across
an ancient land bridge and
then into Africa. Others
migrated to South America.
Once isolated, the ancestral
camels evolved, giving rise to
the llama in South America,
the dromedary camel in Africa,
and the bactrian camel in Asia.
How can the southern distribution of the flightless birds known as ratites be explained?
ostrich
cassowary
kiwi
emu
rhea
Africa
Australia
New Zealand
South
America
Papua New
Guinea
Fig 3.3.15
Genetic evidence
The structure of DNA and the genetic code provides
more evidence for evolution. The code is universal.
Apart from some viruses, all organisms use the same
basic code. This supports the idea that all living
things are related and have evolved from common
ancestors. Comparisons of DNA are used to provide
evidence of how closely different species are related.
For example, the genetic make-up of a chimpanzee
Past distribution
Probable point of
origin
Current distribution
dromedary
bactrian
llama
Africa
Europe
Asia
Australia
North
America
South
America
Fig 3.3.16 The distribution of members of the camel family can be explained
by migration and then divergent evolution.
Human mice
The genetic makeup of
mice is very similar to
humans. This makes mice
one of the best animals
to use for testing medical
techniques before applying
them to humans. The
results shown in tests
with mice are very similar
to results gained with
humans.
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is 98.5 per cent identical to that of a human. Gorilla
DNA matches human DNA except for the last 2.6 per
cent. The genetic make-up of other primates is also
similar to humans.
Gene duplication
Scientists are examining the idea of gene duplication,
where an organism may have an extra gene for a
particular characteristic. For example, an essential
difference between reptiles and mammals is that
mammals produce milk. One protein in mammalian
milk is very similar to a protein (protein X) present
in reptile eggs, and in some mammalian fluids such
as tears. Mammals produce both the milk protein and
protein X. It is possible that an error in the splitting
of a cell produced an organism with two genes for
production of protein X. While one gene encouraged
the normal production of protein X, the extra gene
mutated and encouraged milk production.
Biochemistry
The biochemistry of different organisms is very
similar. All animals and plants have similar:
chemicals (the energy-carrying molecule ATP,
for example)
organelles (functional parts) in their cells
(mitochondria, for example)
chemical reactions, (respiration, for example).
Biochemical evidence for evolution comes from
variations in the same protein in different organisms.
Proteins are large molecules made up of small units
called amino acids. The longer ago two species had
a common ancestor, the more likely it is for gene
mutations to have occurred to produce small changes
in the sequences of amino acids in protein structure.
Studies have shown that the sequence of 340
amino acids in haemoglobin (the oxygen carrier in
your blood) is identical for humans and chimpanzees.
Gorillas are different in two amino acids, and
monkeys are different by twelve. Other proteins show
similar results. This supports the idea of evolution
due to mutation and natural selection.
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Fossil record
1 What is palaeontology?
2 List four different types of fossils.
3 Name three gases thought to be present in the early
Earths atmosphere.
4 Explain how scientists tried to replicate the organic
soup of early Earth.
Using the fossil record
5 Match the geological eras to their times.
Era Time (millions of years ago)
Cenozoic 24865
Pre-Cambrian 570248
Mesozoic 65present
Palaeozoic 4500570
6 Match the events to their proposed times of occurrence.
Event Time (millions of years ago)
Life on Earth begins 0.2
First land organisms appear 4500
Humans first appear 1500
Complex cellular structures appear 3500
Dinosaurs become extinct 600
Earth forms 65
First animals appear 400
>>
A changing record
7 List five dramatic changes that have occurred in the
fossil record.
8 Why are coelacanths considered to be living fossils?
An incomplete record
9 Give two reasons why fossils are relatively rare.
10 Identify two transitional forms and explain why they are
important.
11 Give an example of an animal that has an excellent
record of its evolution.
Evidence from other studies
12 What do homologous structures indicate?
13 Give an example of a homologous structure.
14 What are vestigial organs and how does evolution
explain them?
15 How can the worldwide distribution of members of the
camel family be explained?
16 Based on DNA studies, to which organism:
a are humans thought to be most closely related
b might humans be least closely related?
Explain.
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Distribution of the family Proteaceae
Proteaceae
distribution
Fig 3.3.17
21 The map in Figure 3.3.17 shows the distribution of
members of the family Proteaceae, a group of plants
including banksias and proteas. Species of the genus
Banksia are found only in Australia and New Guinea.
Species of the genus Protea are native only to
South Africa.
a Suggest why the family Proteaceae has the southern
distribution shown.
b Why are the two genera (Banksia and Protea) found
on different continents?
17 List three pieces of evidence from biochemical studies
that support the theory of evolution.
Thinking questions
18 A shark and a dolphin have analogous structures while
an ape and a human have homologous structures.
Explain the difference between the two types of
structures.
19 Suggest why transitional forms are sometimes called
missing links in the story of evolution.
Analysis questions
20 Refer to the calendar in Figure 3.3.5.
a Name the four eras in the geological
timescale.
b How many days does each era
represent on the calendar?
c Calculate the percentage of geological
time that each era represents.
d What percentage does the one minute
of human experience on the calendar
represent?
Distribution of the family Proteaceae
Proteaceae
distribution
Fig 3.3.17
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Complete activities on the evolution of
the horse by connecting to the Science
Dimensions 4 Companion Website at
Click on the Amazing Feets link to learn about the evolution
of the horse.
Present your work as a series of diagrams to illustrate the
evolution of horses feet.
Researching evidence for evolution
Internet, etc.) to:
research how scientific theories are proved or disproved.
You might start with the ideas of Karl Popper and
Thomas Kuhn
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examine the evidence for ancient now-extinct forms
of marsupials in Australia and current marsupials
evolved from them. Account for the fact that marsupials
are widespread in Australia but almost non-existent
elsewhere
find out about ear bones. The ear bones of mammals
seem to have evolved from the jaw bones of reptiles.
Fossils have been found that document the steps.
Find what these fossils are and how they trace the
development of the ear bones
research gene frequencies, how they change as a result
of natural selection and the idea of genetic drift. Gather
information on an inherited characteristic and analyse
your information using the HardyWeinberg principle.
a timeline
a poster
a written document.
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Prac 1
Unit 3.3
Studying fossils
You will need
Access to a fossils kit
What to do
1 Select a fossil and draw it as accurately as you can.
2 Underneath your drawing, write its name, the period and
era it comes from and a brief description of what it is
(animal, plant, fern, etc.).
3 Identify what type of fossil it is (bone, shell, mould or
cast, footprint, carbonised, etc.).
4 Repeat for the other specimens.
Question
Construct a timeline of the fossils you investigated.
Using your prepared bones, design a fossil. For example,
you might bury some bones in rock using plaster mix and
an ice-cream container. Construct the set of bones into a
logical creature.
Present your reconstruction as a model together with a set
of answers to the following questions:
1 Can the bones can be unearthed without breaking?
2 Can a skeleton be reconstructed from the set of bones?
3 Does your final skeleton bear a resemblance to the
original animal?
4 Compare your activities with the work of
palaeontologists.
at work SCIENCE
>>
Constructing
Fossils
Design an activity or series of activities to investigate fossils.
Bones are a good way to begin. To prepare bones:
1 Thoroughly cook a chicken or a rabbit. (A pressure
cooker is handy for this.)
2 Remove the meat from the bones.
3 Soak the bones overnight in detergent to help remove
any remaining meat pieces.
4 Bleach the bones by soaking overnight in a bleaching
liquid.
5 Dry the bones in the sun.
Prac 2
Unit 3.3
Studying skeletons
You will need
Access to a variety of skeletons, skulls or clean
bones (such as human, cat, rabbit and sheep)
What to do
1 Select a skeleton, skull or bone and accurately draw it.
2 Measure or estimate its dimensions.
3 Include the following on your diagram:
whether the eyes point forwards (as in a cat) or
side-ways (as in a rabbit)
the type of teeth it has (incisors, canine, molars, etc.)
whether it has claws or not.
4 Repeat for the other specimens.
Questions
1 Carnivores generally have front-facing eyes and
herbivores side-facing eyes. Suggest why.
2 Suggest what type of teeth would benefit a carnivore
and what would benefit a herbivore.
3 What would you expect the foot of a carnivore to
be like?
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Fossils support the theory that humans evolved
from a common beginning just like all the other
animals on Earth. Not everyone agrees with this
theory. There is ongoing debate among scientists
about how humans evolved. An even more fierce
debate continues between scientists and those who
believe that humans have not evolved but were
created by a god or gods.
Primates
Humans belong to the order Primates and have the same
features as others in the primate group. Primates have:
forward-facing eyes that allow binocular vision
pentadactyl digits (five fingers or toes on each limb)
four upper and four lower incisor teeth
opposable thumbs (for grasping things)
nails (not claws) on the fingers and toes
large brains for their body size
a flexible skeleton, with arms that rotate in the
shoulder socket to allow them to reach behind their
body.
Fig 3.4.1 Two primates
Evolution of humans
The most recently evolved group of
primates is called the hominoids.
The hominoids include the lesser
apes (gibbons), great apes (gorillas,
chimpanzees and orang-utans)
and humans. The earliest humans
almost certainly arose from the
same common ancestor as the other
hominoids. Although they have
similar ancestors, apes and humans
are very distantly related, taking
different evolutionary pathways
millions of years ago.
Relatively few human fossils
have been found, and the human
evolutionary process is not definitely known. There is
no accurate record of when modern humans emerged,
and the exact relationships linking the few existing
fossil remains to todays humans are controversial.
Human fact file
As Homo sapiens, modern humans also:
walk upright (are bipedal)
have fewer and smaller teeth than the apes
have a flattened face
have a very large skull capacity, and a large brain,
about three times larger than apes
make and use tools
use various verbal and visual languages to
communicate
are self-aware.
Fossil evidence suggests that primates arose from
tree-dwelling, shrew-like insectivores around 50
million years ago. This group soon split into several
divergent lines of evolution, giving rise to the modern
day primates. These are the prosimians (pre-monkeys,
similar to lemurs), New World monkeys, Old World
monkeys and hominoids.
Old is new and
new is old!
Figure 3.4.2 might be a
little confusing since it has
the New World monkeys
being older than the Old
World monkeys! Here,
Old World refers to those
parts of the world long
known to the Europeans;
that is, Europe, parts of
Africa and parts of Asia.
New World refers to those
parts discovered later by
Europeans (predominantly
North and South America).
UNIT
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Our distant relatives
The picture we have of the common ancestor of
modern apes and humans is largely based on the
fossils of Dryopithecus, an ape-like animal, which
first appeared 25 million years ago. Ramapithecus,
another ape-like animal, appeared 14 to 16 million
years ago, lasting another 6 million years. Some
believe Ramapithecus to be the ancestors of the Asian
orang-utan, while others see a relationship to other
apes and humans. There are significant gaps in the
fossil records of 5 to 8 million years ago.
Southern ape
Although apes and humans had similar ancestors in
the past, the Homo line diverged from the apes. The
first true human-like fossils belong to the genus
0
2
4
6
8
Prosimians
e.g. lemurs
New World
monkeys
Old World
monkeys
Apes Humans
Ancestral tree-dwelling
shrew-like insectivores
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

y
e
a
r
s

a
g
o
Fig 3.4.2 A possible evolutionary tree for primates
Dryopithecus and Ramapithecuspossible
ancestors of modern apes and humans
Dryopithecus
(appeared approximately
25 million years ago)
Ramapithecus
(appeared approximately
15 million years ago)
Fig 3.4.3
Australopithecus (meaning southern ape, after the
first fossils found in South Africa).The oldest known
fossils, Australopithecus afarensis (A. afarensis), are
around 4 to 5 million years old.
A. afarensis is most likely to have evolved into
a number of new species, including A. africanus,
A. robustus and A. boisei. These species were bipedal
(walked on two legs) and had a brain size of 400 cm
3
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less than one-third that of modern
humans (approximately 1450 cm
3
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All fossils of Australopithecus
have been found in Africa. One of
the most famous is a skeleton of
a female named Lucy, which is
40 per cent complete.
The Beatles
Lucy was discovered in
1974 and was named after
The Beatles hit song Lucy
in the Sky with Diamonds.
Lucy, a 40-per-cent-
intact skeleton of
Australopithecus afarensis Fig 3.4.4
Human evolution Human evolution
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Recent finds indicate that some australopithecines
lived alongside the early members of the genus Homo
(the genus to which modern humans belong). This
suggests that A. afarensi is the ancestor of both the
Homo and australopithecine lines.
More recent ancestors
The first clear representation of the Homo line is Homo
habilis (handy man). Fossils aged 1.5 to 2 million
years old found in East Africa reveal major changes
in anatomy (a brain 50 per cent larger) and behaviour
(they used tools) from Australopithecus afarensis.
Fig 3.4.5 An artists impression of Australopithecus
afarensis
Australopithecus
afarensis
Australopithecus
africanus
Australopithecus
boisei and
Australopithecus
robustus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
Homo neanderthalensis
Millions
of years
Extinction
Extinction
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Fig 3.4.6 A possible family tree for humans
Human fact file
Australopithecus:
occasionally walked, but spent considerable time
climbing in trees
ate fruit, seeds, insects and roots
is unlikely to have used tools more advanced than
a stick.
Human fact file
Homo habilis:
had a brain 50 per cent larger than Australopithecus
probably scavenged meat from kills by other animals
was the first to make stone tools.
Homo erectus (upright man) came
next. Although fossils have been
found in Europe, China and Africa,
Homo erectus is often called Java
man, after the initial discovery site.
The oldest are 1.5 million years old.
Average brain size was 1000 cm
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Human fact file
Homo erectus:
lived in caves
used fire
ate more meat than previous humans
possibly made rafts
may have communicated using a few
words
cared for each other when ill.
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The evolution of Homo
erectus to Homo sapiens
(intelligent man) is the subject
of considerable debate. Some
maintain that Homo erectus
evolved worldwide to Homo
sapiens, but retained local
features. This gave rise to
different forms in different areas,
such as Asia and Africa. Others
maintain that Homo sapiens
evolved in Africa and spread from
there some 200 000 years ago. This
would mean that all present day
variation in humans has arisen
only in the last 200 000 years.
Other fossil humans
There are other species of the Homo
line that have been identified.
(Neanderthal man) is thought to have
lived approximately 35 000 to 100 000
years ago. Neanderthals are thought to
have become extinct due to a change
in climate or through competition
with other human species in Europe.
The common ancestor of humans
and Neanderthals probably lived in
Europe around 600 000 years ago.
Anatomical changes
Whatever the exact pathways
were in the evolution from
ape-like ancestor to modern
human or Homo sapiens, some
changes are clear:
the various forms walked
more upright than their
ancestors
they developed smaller teeth,
reduced eyebrow ridges,
shorter arms, flatter feet and
non-opposable big toes
they developed flatter faces
and a progressively larger
brain size.
The seven
daughters of Eve
Mitochondrial DNA is
a peculiar form of DNA
that is passed directly
from mother to child. It
can therefore be used to
trace a chain of female
ancestry. Using this
method, a geneticist at
Oxford University, Brian
Sykes, has proposed that
90 per cent of Europeans
can trace their maternal
ancestry to one of only
seven women. The most
distant of these seven
lived 45 000 years ago
and the most recent
10 000 years ago.
Sykes supports the idea
of a relatively recent
expansion of Homo
sapiens from its African
origin.
Fig 3.4.7 Fossil human skulls. The three skulls from
bottom left to top centre are Australopithecus
africanus, Homo habilis and Homo erectus. The
black skull in the upper right is from a modern
human, Homo sapien, around 92 000 years old.
The pale skull at the front is from a Cro-Magnon
human about 22 000 years old. Note the changes
in face shape and brain capacity.
A convincing hoax
The skull of Piltdown man
was discovered in a grave
pit in southern England in
1912. It had an ape-like jaw,
with a large, modern-looking
cranium. The scientific
world was excited by the
find, particularly the English,
who thought that first man
was one of them. It was not
until 1955 that the skull was
revealed as a forgerya
human skull joined to an
orang-utans jaw and treated
to give an aged look.
Human fact file
Homo neanderthalensis:
were cave dwellers
used tools such as blades and
spears
used fire
buried their dead, indicating
some religious beliefs
may have communicated using
sentences
lived until about 40 years old.
Cro-Magnons lived about 10 000 to 40 000 years
ago in Europe and were nomadic hunter-gatherers.
They were anatomically similar to modern human, but
more robust. The exact reasons for their extinction are
not known.
Human fact file
Cro-Magnons:
used tools such as rope and antler or bone fishhooks
and net-sinkers
developed art, decorating themselves with necklaces
and precious stones
crafted sculpture and cave paintings
traded with others using precious stones
buried their dead along with goods for the afterlife
lived until about 60 years old.
How do we know
all this?
Much of the information
about Homo erectus came
from the skeleton of a boy
called the Turkana boy.
He had a shorter intestine
and smaller abdomen than
earlier humans, indicating
he ate more meat than
them. This also implied the
use of weapons to hunt and
fire to cook. Another Homo
erectus skeleton showed
she was crippled but
survived for many months
after. This suggests that
someone looked after her.
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Fig 3.4.8 Human form during stages
of evolution
Cultural evolution
Humans have changed in many non-physical
ways. We have learned how to use tools, and have
developed speech, forms of writing, artistic creativity,
reasoning powers and a sense of right and wrong. It is
these changes that most distinguish modern humans
from their ancestors. Humans have highly complex
social structures and an accumulation of learning and
knowledge. This stored experience is passed from
generation to generation, and affects our survival.
This is cultural evolution.
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proconsul
(hypothetical
African ape)
Australopithecus
afarensis
Homo
habilis
Homo
erectus
Homo
neanderthalensis
Modern
Homo sapiens
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It is estimated that of all the animal species that
have ever existed, only 1 per cent are alive now.
The ultimate fate of most species appears to be
extinction. Homo habilis lasted for around 1 million
years, Homo erectus around 1.5 million. Modern
humans have existed for about 200 000 years. With
cultural evolution, humans continue to acquire
knowledge, enabling us to exert more control over
Fig 3.4.10 Researchers Sevan Ficici and Richard Watson
and their evolving Tupperbotsinfrared
sensing robots that have evolved to move
towards IR light without being programmed
to do so.
Fig 3.4.11 Cultural evolution: The knowledge of fire
is passed from one generation to the next
through practice and observation.
Homework book 3.5 The Hobbit
Cultural evolutionstored experience is
passed from generation to generation,
sometimes with difficulty.
Fig 3.4.9
Fire starter
Fire is probably the most important tool that humans have
learnt to control and use. Aborigines in Australia traditionally
used fire to hunt and manage the land. The knowledge of
using fire, and the skill of starting a fire, is passed from one
generation to the next. This is an example of cultural evolution.
our environment than any other species ever has, but
we have probably done more damage also. What does
this mean for the future of Homo sapiens?
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Primates
1 List the characteristics of primates.
2 What is the importance of a 50-million-year-old
shrew-like insectivore to us?
3 Various features distinguish humans from the other
primates. Give two examples each of distinguishing
features that are:
a physical
b non-physical.
Evolution of humans
4 Give five examples of hominoids.
5 What distinguishes hominoids from the rest of the
primates?
6 Identify three physical changes marking the evolution
of humans from an ape-like ancestor.
7 Copy and complete the following table
Ape- or human-like? Alternative name Years of existence What they did/could do
Dryopithecus
Ramapithecus
Australopithecus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
Cro-Magnon

16 Place the skulls shown in Figure 3.4.12 in the order of
likely evolution. Explain your order.
13 What advantages do the following give
a primitive hominoid?
a the ability to sharpen sticks
b the ability to throw rocks
c social groupings
d caring for their sick and wounded
e the ability to trade
f the ability to communicate more than a few words.
14 Suggest how the gene pool might alter if medical
treatments for genetic diseases were successful in
treating them.
Analysis questions
15 Place the following primates in correct order of evolution.
Old World monkeys apes
humans prosimians
New World monkeys
Cultural evolution
8 What is meant by cultural evolution?
9 Give two examples of cultural evolution in action.
Thinking questions
10 a What is bipedalism?
b What advantages does bipedalism give
to an organism?
c Suggest a name like bipedalism that
could describe the movement of a dog.
11 Larger brain sizes allowed early human-like
forms to develop rapidly. What is the
advantage of a larger brain?
12 Cultural evolution might be considered
Lamarckian evolution. Explain how.
>>
A B C
Fig 3.4.12
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at work
Surfing
Researching anthropologists
Internet, etc.) to find details about:
the work of the Leakey family in searching for hominoid
fossils in Africa. Write a short biography summarising
their discoveries
why anthropologists studying a fossil to determine if it
is ape or human take particular interest in the teeth and
jaw and any skeletal modifications (such as in the pelvis)
that might suggest bipedalism. Write a short report
summarising your findings.
Present your findings in the ways indicated.
Researching ancient humans
Internet, etc.) to find out more about one of the ancient
humans such as the Neanderthals or the recently discovered
Hobbit of Indonesia. Find what evidence exists about them,
how they ate, if they were nomadic or had homes, their art,
their society and their culture.
a Flash cartoon
a cartoon strip
a model
a role play.
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SCIENCE
Reviewing
Planet of the Apes
Planet of the Apes is a film set in the future in which an
astronaut is lost in deep space before crashing on a planet
that is inhabited by apes and humans. Watch the recent
version of the movie and prepare a film review about it. In
your review you must:
give details about its length, leading actors, director,
producer, studio and year of production
describe the structure of the society on the planet
describe the discrimination on the planet
suggest why discrimination was fostered on the planet
describe the information towards the end that explains
what triggered the abnormal evolution of the apes
describe what happened in the end
assess whether such extreme evolution of the apes
is possible
assess how accurate the science is in the film
suggest improvements to the film to make it more
accurate.
Present your review in one of the following ways:
an interview with the director, leading actor, chief of
special effects or the scientist advising the director
a segment for a TV program such as ET, At the Movies
or The Movie Show
a single-page spread for an entertainment magazine
or for a movie guide such as The Age Green Guide or
TV Week.
Which species:
a represents us
b is on the human line of evolution
c is genetically most different to us
d is likely to have lived at the same time
e had the largest brain
f had the smallest brain?
17 Refer to the sketches of Dryopithecus and
Ramapithecus in Figure 3.4.3.
a Describe the differences in their appearance.
b Suggest reasons for the changes between
the two.
18 Refer to the human family tree in Figure 3.4.6.
>>>
123
at work SCIENCE
Putting flesh on old bones: Archaeology
in Australia today
The landscape we know in Australia today was very
different during the last ice age, from about 100 000
to 10 000 years ago. How does science discover and
tell us just how the land has changed during ice age
events?
We would expect more ice on the mountains of
south-eastern Australia and in Tasmania during an
ice age. But what happened to the dry inland areas at
this time? How did they change? Were people actually
living there during such times?
In 1967, geologist Jim Bowler was studying ancient
inland lake basins in western New South Wales.
Though these basins are now completely dry, in the
past they acted as giant rain gauges, filling when
the climate was wet, and drying and forming dunes
during dry phases.
In 1969, while mapping evidence of ancient
shorelines in the dry basins of western New South
Wales, Bowler discovered some burnt human bones
buried in the beach sands of an ancient lake. This
discovery sparked a major archaeological program.
Bowler named this previously unknown lake as
Goulburn
Sydney
Canberra
Melbourne
B
o
g
a
n

R

Albury
Echuca
Wagga Wagga
Griffith Griffith
M
u
rray River
L
a
c
h
la
n
R
iver

Mildura
D
a
r
l
i
n
g

R
i
v
e
r

Katoomba
Bathurst
Murrumbidg
e
e

R
iv
e
r

Y
anco C
r
Lake Mungo
Willandra Billabong
Fig 3.4.13 Lake Mungo is located in western
New South Wales.
Lake Mungo. Lake Mungo is one of a series of lake
basins formed by a channel of the ancient Lachlan
River, known as the Willandra Creek. The bones
proved to be the cremated remains of a young woman,
now known as Mungo Lady.
Four years later and just 400 metres away on the
same beach sands where Mungo Lady was found,
Bowler noticed the tip of a cranium being uncovered
by natural erosion. Excavation by archaeologists
revealed this to be the fully articulated skeleton of a
human male, now known as Mungo Man.
How old are Mungo Lady and
Mungo Man?
The Mungo discoveries changed our understanding
of when the earliest Australians arrived, and of the
changing landscape in which they lived. Before the
Mungo discoveries, the oldest-known evidence of
human occupation in Australia was from about 20 000
years ago. Suddenly at Lake Mungo the time for
earliest occupation was now placed much longer ago.
Fig 3.4.14
Mungo Lady and Mungo Man were discovered
400 metres apart on the same beach sands of
ancient Lake Mungo.
Mungo Lady
Mungo Man
124
at work SCIENCE
Mungo Lady was first thought to have been buried
about 26 000 years ago, and Mungo man about 30 000
years ago. Following additional work on the geology
of beach and dune sands, Bowler later revised Mungo
Mans burial age to near 44 000 years ago.
How does science actually provide burial ages?
Grave sites can be dated by two different methods:
by dating the actual bones or human remains
by dating the age of the layers below and above
the grave.
Dating is a complex business and often provides
only approximate answers. Because some doubt
remained about the age of Mungo Man, a group
of scientists at the Australian National University
attempted to date the bones. Their results ranged from
50 000 to 70 000 years, and from this they estimated
the most probable age as near 62 000 years.
As this disagreed markedly with earlier estimates,
a team from four universities used a second dating
methoddating the age of the sand layers below
and above the grave. The results provided firm
evidence that both the Mungo Man and Mungo Lady
burials had occurred between 40 000 and 44 000
years ago.
An ancient people in a now
dry land
During the recent drought, landholders even on large
properties in this now dry region of western New
South Wales had great difficulty making a living
from the parched, dry landscape. It was too dry for
wheat and there was not enough water for sheep.
The occupants experienced extreme financial and
psychological stress.
By comparison, the occupants of that same
land 40 000 to 50 000 years earlier had enjoyed an
abundance of water and food, including fish and
freshwater mussels. Animals were abundant and
stone tools readily available. People lived and died on
sandy lakeshore beaches. The environment was almost
certainly able to sustain a larger population per square
kilometre than it supports today.
But the period of abundant water was not
permanent. The ice age, which had entered its early
phase of cooling 80 000 years ago, involved gradual
further cooling of the Earth as the ice caps expanded
in the northern hemisphere, particularly in North
America and Scandinavia. As temperatures dropped,
evaporation from the oceans decreased. Less water
was available for atmospheric transport, and so less
rainfall was available on the continents. In this way,
cold climates became drier.
By 40 000 years ago, the once-abundant water
had begun to diminish. Some basins across Australia
Fig 3.4.15 Mungo Man being unearthed approximately
44 000 years after being buried
125
dried completely and the dune fields
expanded. People gathered close to
drying water bodies, living on the
remaining beaches and burying their
dead there. At about this time, large
numbers of animals disappeared
completely from the land. This
included giant kangaroos, the giant
lizard (Magalanea), the marsupial
lion (Thylacaleo) and many other
megafauna.
Many people believe this may
have been due to excessive hunting
by Aboriginal people. Others think
it may have been due to climate
change. It may have been aspects of
both, but certainly something of major
importance happened to the Australian
large animal populations at about that
time.
For the next 20 000 years the
climate oscillated between wet and
dry. By 20 000 years ago, in the coldest
part of the ice age, the Willandra
basins had dried completely. Under
these conditions, Bass Strait was dry
and dunes extended even as far as
north-east Tasmania. People adapted,
learning to live in the cold, harsh, dry
conditions.
Much of this story of landscape
change and human occupation has
emerged from Lake Mungothis is
such an important site that it was
declared a national park in 1979. In
1981 it was listed as one of Australias
first World Heritage areas, known as
Willandra Lakes World Heritage area.
The significance of the Lake
Mungo area
Lake Mungo has national and international
significance, as it provides us with a new
understanding of two important aspects of Australia:
how the Australian landscape evolved
during dry ice age conditions
the antiquity and cultural patterns of the earliest
inhabitants of this land.
Gravel beach
Soil formed in
earliest dunes
Earliest dune sands
in excavations
Lower Mungo quartz sand dune
Mungo man burial
Carbonate soil formed
over burial site
Golgol
Golgol
to Joulni
Joulni
Lake Mungo
6040 000 years ago
About 3225 000 years ago
2018 000 years ago
About 40 000 years ago
Dust
Dust
Final dune layer
N S
Fig 3.4.16 Australias landscape at Lake Mungo has changed
dramatically over the past 40 000 years. People had to
adapt to the changing conditions in order to survive.
A
B
C
D
E
A Northsouth diagram through Lake Mungo shoreline near the Mungo Man
burial site. Lake flooding extends north and south of the dune ridge.
B Shoreline enlargement shows vegetated beach and dune sands on
margin of freshwater lake with fish and shellfish used as human food
resources. Mungo Man was buried here as the lake began to dry near 44 000
years ago.
C Dry lake generates dust clouds sweeping across dry land adding to the
growth of Lake Mungo dune.
D Water returned briefly to the lake system approaching the time of maximum
glaciation in the upland catchments.
E Cold dry period of maximum glacial phase. Clouds of dust and salt were
swept from the dry lake floor.
We now know that, like Lake Mungo, every part of
Australia was affected by ice age conditions, which
were sometimes wetter, sometimes drier than today.
We now have a picture of people doing battle with
droughts and floods, just like us, only some 40 000
years ago.
126
at work SCIENCE
The discoveries at Lake Mungo took on new
significance in the early 1970s during the early battle
for Aboriginal land rights. The Aboriginal peoples
claim that they have been here for more than 40 000
years was enshrined in their banners of protest, and
was supported by science. Their claim later gained
political recognition.
Cultural battles
The contributions of science to Aboriginal people
have not always been so positive. For many years
through the early twentieth century, human biologists
collected large numbers of Aboriginal skeletons, trying
to prove that the dark-skinned races were inferior to
whites. They did this by measuring brain size from
human skulls. Hundreds of graves were robbed,
and the bones collected and sent to universities and
museums around the world. In this way science was
used as a partner in committing a great injustice
against the Aboriginal peoplereverence for the
dead had been forgotten and the feelings of living
descendants had been completely disregarded.
Following the discoveries of Mungo Lady and
Mungo Man, the Aboriginal people of the region
protested that science, by once again disturbing their
dead, was committing a great offence against their
cultural traditions. At the same time, some Aboriginal
people acknowledged the value of documenting their
own history, as this proved to the world their long-
established rights of occupancy.
Scientists and Aboriginal communities at Mungo
devised a way of working together. In 1992, on
the sands at Mungo where Mungo Lady had been
buried so long ago, her remains were ceremonially
handed back to the tribal community. Politicians also
introduced laws that recognised Aboriginal ownership
of all artefacts of Indigenous cultural heritage, and
Fig 3.4.18
Handing back the remains of Mungo Lady to the
tribal community was a step towards ongoing
collaboration between Aboriginal communities
and scientists.
Fig 3.4.17
Lake Mungo today is affected by droughts.
Dunes and erosion can be seen clearly.
127
such ownership remains with the traditional owners
of the appropriate region. Today it is illegal to
remove or interfere with any object of archaeological
significance, including stone tools, shell middens,
ancient fire places and, of course, human remains.
This has resulted in a new relationship between
Aboriginal people and the scientific community. At
Lake Mungo and other places, members of Indigenous
communities must approve any scientific investigation
of their past. Entire tribal communities now work
side by side with scientists in ongoing investigations,
exploring and expanding our understanding of
Australias past, with its important implications
for the dignity and cultural status of the original
occupants of this land.
Fig 3.4.19 Jim Bowler on the Lake Mungo dunes
[
Student activities
]
Researching local Aboriginal history
Internet, etc.) to find out the history of the area in which
you live. Who are the traditional owners of the area in which
you live and what, if any, archaeological research has been
carried out?
Present your work as an information brochure for your
local area
Researching the first Australians
Internet, etc.) to research the many theories about how
people first came to occupy Australia, where they came from
and how they got here.
Present your work as an interactive presentation including
a labelled map showing likely patterns of occupation by the
first Australians.
Researching Lake Mungo National Park
Internet, etc.) to investigate Lake Mungo National Park as a
tourist destination. Describe the attractions that make it an
interesting tourist destination. Include information about the
discovery of Aboriginal remains at the site and why they are
important both scientifically and culturally.
a tourist information brochure for Lake Mungo
a tourist campaign for the area
a website that includes a directory linking relevant sites.
Revision questions
1 Outline some of the methods that can be used to
explore ice age Australia.
2 Propose reasons why information from long-distant
history is important today.
3 Compare life in the outback today with the life of the
people of Lake Mungo 40 000 years ago.
Surfing
Companion Website
Special thanks go to Jim Bowler for writing this
feature. Jims dedication to understanding Australias past,
present and future has also led him to produce an interactive
CD that covers geology, archaeology and scientific history,
including:
Australias natural history and evolution
swings in Australias ice age climate and environment
how ice age Australians lived
early humanland relationships essential to
understanding the present
more about the tensions between science and
Indigenous traditions.
To obtain a copy of this CD, go to the Science Dimensions 4
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/
secondary, select Chapter 7 and click on the Web
Destinations button.
128
>>>
Chapter review
11 Name two probable ancestors of Homo sapiens.
[
Thinking questions
]
12 Two scientists who have contributed to our
understanding of evolution are Lamarck and Darwin.
Which of these scientists do you associate with each of
the following ideas?
a evolution by inheritance of acquired characteristics
b adaptive radiation of the finches of the Galapagos
Islands
c evolution by natural selection
d organisms being guided through their struggle for
existence by a creative force
13 a How would Lamarck account for the evolution of an
elephants trunk?
b How Darwin would account for it?
c Identify one similarity between the theories of
Lamarck and Darwin.
[
Summary questions
]
1 A whale has many adaptations suiting it to its marine
environment.
a Define the term adaptation.
b List four of a whales adaptations.
2 Natural selection is the process whereby the
environment selects favourable characteristics.
a What is meant by favourable characteristics?
b What is the main result of natural selection operating
on a species?
3 What comes first, reproductive or geographic isolation?
4 Explain how two animals of the same species might
eventually be unable to mate with each other.
5 What is the main problem of Lamarcks theory of
evolution?
6 Why was Darwins theory of evolution so controversial?
7 a What are homologous structures?
b What type of evolution gives rise to homologous
structures?
c What are analogous structures?
d What type of evolution gives rise to analogous
structures?
8 How does natural variation occur within species?
9 Give two ways in which the knowledge of genetics has
improved our understanding of Darwins theory.
10 Identify three differences between humans and other
primates.
Fig 3.5.2
14 Place the following statements in a sequence so that
they explain the process of natural selection.
a Rabbits with a gene for cold resistance survive, while
other rabbits die.
b Over several generations, the number of rabbits with
cold resistance increases.
c Members of a rabbit population show variation in
their resistance to cold.
Fig 3.5.1 a Human b Primate
a b
129
g Modern humans evolved from modern apes.
h Most of Darwins ideas regarding evolution are now
thought to be incorrect.
[
Analysis questions
]
22 Match the names of the fossils to their classifications
and approximate times of appearance.
Fossil name Classification Time of
appearance
(years ago)
Upright man Homo
neanderthalensis
40 000
Cro-Magnon Homo habilis 1.5 million
Handy man Homo erectus 5 million
Neanderthal man Australopithecus 100 000
Lucy Homo sapiens 2 million
23 Suppose the approximate 3600 million year history of
life on Earth was condensed into a 24-hour day. Each
hour would represent approximately 150 million years.
Match each of the events with their proposed time of
occurrence.
Event Time
Complex cells first appear. 9.20 p.m.
Australopithecines first appear. 2.00 p.m.
Reptiles become extinct. 8.12 p.m.
The Palaeozoic era begins. 11.58 p.m.
Land organisms first appear. 11.34 p.m.
d Offspring of the surviving rabbits inherit the gene for
cold resistance.
e The rabbits habitat becomes colder due to a major
climate change.
15 Although chemical reactions are thought to have formed
the first living things on Earth, it is not possible for these
reactions to occur today. Explain why.
16 Suggest three possible reasons for the apparent gaps in
the fossil record of life on Earth.
17 a What are two similarities between an early human
embryo and a fish embryo?
b How could these similarities have come about?
18 Match each term with the best description:
Term Description
Parallel
evolution
results in structurally similar, but
unrelated organisms
Convergent
evolution
evolution that results in adaptive
radiation
Divergent
evolution
produces structurally similar, closely
related organisms that live in different
places
19 How does the theory of evolution account for the
following observations?
a The scales on a birds legs are similar to the scales
on a reptiles body.
b The ocelot (a placental cat found in South America)
and Australias marsupial cat are not genetically
similar, but have many similar features.
c Many plant-eating mammals have a large, useful
appendix. Humans have a small, useless appendix.
20 Describe two changes that are thought to have occurred
in the evolution of:
a Australopithecus afarensis to Homo habilis
b Homo habilis to Homo erectus
c Cro-Magnon to modern humans.
21 Copy the following statements, correcting any incorrect
statements to make them true:
a Adaptations are inherited characteristics.
b Speciation usually involves reproductive isolation
followed by geographic isolation of a population.
c Charles Darwin was the first to think of the idea of
evolution.
d DNA testing shows that the closest species to
humans is the chimpanzee.
e The fossil record shows clearly that all organisms
have evolved slowly and gradually.
f A bats wing, a seals flipper and a human arm are all
homologous structures.
Homework book 3.6 Evolution crossword 2
Genetics
4
Standards:
Students:
that may initially be tentative and limited, an example
being genetic inheritance
explore the role of DNA and genes in determining
patterns of inheritance
use the example of cell division (mitosis and meiosis)
make links across related areas of science, such as
biotechnology
prepare investigation reports, using symbols and
diagrams extensively
develop an understanding of the constancy of the big
ideas of science
debate science-related issues that are reported in the
popular media, particularly those that embrace a clear
ethical dimension
explore how science concepts, language and perspectives
can be misunderstood and misrepresented
consider issues significant to themselves and to the
broader society, such as stem cell research, the history
and philosophy of science, ethics and science research.
Students:
explain the role of DNA and genes in cell division and
genetic inheritance.
1 True or false? Blue-eyed parents can produce brown-eyed
children.
2 What sex are sperm?
3 Why are there approximately the same number of boys
and girls born?
4 Why is colour blindness very rare in girls but more
common in boys?
5 What is a clone?
6 What is GM food?
7 Could a dinosaur fossil be used to create a live dinosaur?
8 How can genetics be used by forensic scientists to
prove guilt?
9 Jeans for Genes Day is held each August to raise money
for gene research. Why is gene research important?
L
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Learning focus
131
UNIT
UNIT
4
.
1
4
.
1
What influences you?
Two influences make you what you are at this
moment: heredity and environment. Heredity is the
set of characteristics that you inherited from your
parents. Environment is the set of factors that have
acted on you throughout your life. Sometimes it is
difficult to determine where the influences of heredity
end and environmental influences begin. Genetics is
the study of heredity and attempts to provide some
answers to this question.
Mendel: The father of genetics
The story of genetics begins in a monastery in Austria
in 1856. Here a monk, Gregor Mendel, taught science.
In his spare time he carried out experiments to study
how characteristics are inherited. He was not the first
to try this, but he was the most successful, and so is
known as the father of genetics.
Mendel grew garden peas and studied the
characteristics of garden peas that occurred in two
specific forms, called traits. The traits that Mendel
examined included:
seeds that were round or wrinkled
seeds that were yellow or green
pods that were smooth or constricted
pods that were green or yellow
stems that were long or short.
True-breeding plants are those that consistently
produce offspring the same as the parents for a
particular trait. For example, yellow-pod plants
that always produce more yellow-pod plants would
be considered to be true-breeding. Mendel cross-
pollinated true-breeding plants with contrasting
traits. For example, he took the pollen from a plant
with round seeds and placed it on the flower of a
plant with wrinkled seeds. He found
that all the offspring (called the F
1

generation) were like one of their
parents. When these offspring were
cross-pollinated among themselves,
their offspring (the F
2
generation),
showed both traits. Some of
Mendels results are shown in
Figure 4.1.2.
Dominant and recessive
Mendel studied 28 000 pea plants,
consistently obtaining similar
results. He found and named two
traits:
dominant traitthis is the trait
that appeared in the F
1
generation
recessive traitthis is the trait that was masked
in the F
1
generation and reappeared in the F
2

generation.
Fig 4.1.1 Gregor Mendelthe father of genetics
Bees or peas?
Before starting work with
his peas, Mendel tried to
breed a hard-working but
easily managed honey
bee. He tried crossing an
industrious German bee
with a gentle Italian bee.
The result was a bee that
was neither hard working
nor gentle! He moved his
attention to peas, which
were much easier to
handle.
At some time in your life you have probably been
told that you look like one of your blood relatives,
perhaps even that you have your fathers nose, your
mothers eyes or your grandfathers ears. Although
each one of us is unique, all of us resemble our
parents and grandparents in some way.
132
>>>
Based on his observations, Mendel concluded that
pea plants possess two hereditary factors for each
characteristic. These factors separate from each other
and pass into gametes. Gametes are the reproductive
cells, called ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males,
that combine to form the first cell of a new organism.
Each new organism receives one hereditary factor
from each parent. The factors do not blend with each
other, but act as independent units.
Mendel published his work in 1866, but it
was poorly understood and largely ignored by the
scientific world. It was not until 1900 that his work
was rediscovered and its importance appreciated.
Three scientists (H. de Vries in Holland, C. Correns in
Germany and E. van Tschermak-Seysenegg in Austria)
working independently reached the same conclusions
Mendel had thirty-four years earlier.
Genes
Today, Mendels factors are known as genes. A
gene is a hereditary unit that controls a particular
characteristic. Many thousands of genes are located
in each of the cells of your body. Together, your
genes can be thought of as a set of
instructions or a genetic program that
determines your eye colour, body
size, skin type and the many other
characteristics that make you what you
are. Each gene is made of a chemical
called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Chromosomes
Genes are located on structures
called chromosomes. These are found
in the nucleus of your body cells.
Chromosomes are long, coiled thread-
like structures made of DNA and
protein. Each chromosome has many
thousands of genes along its length.
Each species of organism has a
fixed number of chromosomes in their
cell nuclei.
Results of Mendels cross-breeding experiments
Parental cross

F
1
generation F
2
generation
Probability
ratio
round round wrinkled
5474 round
1850 wrinkled
3:1
yellow
yellow
yellow green
green green
6022 yellow
2001 green
3:1
3:1
3:1
smooth smooth
882 smooth
constricted
299 constricted
428 green
152 yellow
3:1
long
stem
long
stem
short
stem
787 long
277 short
Fig 4.1.2
Chromosomes are like filing cabinets
Imagine a chromosome to be a filing cabinet in an
office of a builder. Each drawer contains plans that
the builder will need: plans for foundations, walls,
chimneys, roofs and so on. The drawers and the plans
they contain are the equivalent of genes.
protein
genes
DNA
nucleus
cell
chromosome
Fig 4.1.3 Chromosomes are made of protein and
DNA. Each chromosome has many genes
along its length.
Inheritance Inheritance
133
U
N
I
T
U
N
I
T
Organism Total number of
chromosomes
(the number in
a diploid cell)
Number of
homologous
pairs
Number of
chromosomes
in each gamete
(the number in
a haploid cell)
Human 46 23 23
Dog 78 39 39
Chicken 78 39 39
Cow 60 30 30
Potato 48 24 24
Tomato 24 12 12
Fruit fly 8 4 4
Diploid cells
The cells that make up your muscles, nerves, skin,
bone, fat, blood, all your organs and most of your
other cells are diploid cells. Chromosomes in
diploid cells exist in pairs, the members of each
pair being similar in size and shape. One of the pair
was inherited from your father, the other from your
mother, making what is called a homologous pair.
Diploid cells contain a complete set of chromosomes
and therefore a complete set of coded instructions
about how your body is put together.
Haploid cells
Gametes are different to all other cells. They contain
only one of each type of chromosome and are known
as haploid cells. By themselves, an egg or a sperm cell
contains only half the chromosomes needed to make a
new organism. A new cell called a zygote forms when
a sperm cell fertilises an egg cell. A zygote has the full
quota of chromosomes and therefore has the ability to
develop into a new organism.
A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of two
human chromosomes. There are 46 chromosomes,
arranged in 23 pairs, in diploid cells. Fig 4.1.4
Cell reproduction
The chromosomes in your cells are a copy of those
that were present in that first complete cell, the
zygote, from which you grew. There are two ways
cells reproduce and copy themselves. Ordinary body
cells, such as brain cells and muscle cells, reproduce
by mitosis. Sex cells (sperm and ova) copy by meiosis.
Mitosis
Diploid cells reproduce by duplicating their
chromosomes. When each cell divides, the resulting
daughter cells each receive a copy of the parent cell
chromosomes. This type of cell division is
called mitosis. Mitosis is a series of steps that
ensures that each daughter cell is an exact
copy of the parent cell.
Mitosiscell division to produce
new cells identical to the parent cell
Membranes form to produce
two daughter cells.
a skin cell
two skin cells
Two pairs of
chromosomes
are visible.
Chromosomes are
doubled but attached
at a point called
the centromere.
Chromosomes line
up along the equator
of the cell.
Chromosomes separate
and move to the ends
of the cell.
Fig 4.1.5
Prac 1
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134
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Meiosis
A different type of cell division, called meiosis, occurs in
the cells in the ovaries and testes that produce eggs (more
properly called ova) and sperm. Each gamete contains
only one of each type of chromosome. When sperm meets
egg (more properly called an ovum), the resulting cell
will have the correct number of chromosomes. During
meiosis, the chromosomes are duplicated, as for mitosis.
This is followed by two further divisions.
In the first division, the individual chromosomes
of each homologous pair separate to form two cells,
each containing only one copy of each kind of
chromosome.
In the second division, the
duplicated chromosomes
separate to produce a total
of four daughter cells.
Membranes form
to produce four
daughter cells.
an ovary cell

four
egg
cells
(ova)
Two pairs of
chromosomes
are visible.

Chromosomes
are doubled but
attached at a
point called the
centromere.

Homologous
chromosomes
line up along
the equator
of the cell.

One of each
pair of
chromosomes
moves to the
ends of the cell.
Chromosomes
line up along
the equator
of each cell.
Chromosomes
separate and
move to the ends
of each cell.
Fig 4.1.7 Meiosiscell division to produce gametes with half the chromosome number of the parent cell
Four types of daughter
cells are possible due
to the random way
in which pairs separate
during meiosis.
Homologous pair
of chromosomes
one inherited
from each parent
Cell
divides
by
meiosis.
Fig 4.1.8 During meiosis,
homologous chromosomes
separate randomly to
produce different types
of gametes.
Fig 4.1.6 A cell undergoing mitosis: the chromosomes are
clearly separating into two sides. Each set will
go into a new cell.
Prac 2
p. 139
You acquire half your chromosomes (and therefore
half your genes) from each of your parents via their
sperm and ovum. It is wrong, however, to think that
this means that you simply have half your fathers
characteristics and half your mothers characteristics.
A closer look at genes and how they interact is needed
to understand why.
Homework book 4.1 Cell division
Will there ever be
another me?
Homologous pairs contain
two chromosomes, one
from your mother and one
from your father. During
the first stage of meiosis,
the pairs randomly
separate. Hence a cell
with only two pairs of
chromosomes will produce
four different possible
gamete types (shown in
Figure 4.1.8). For three
pairs of chromosomes,
eight gamete types are
possible. This in turn
means that there are sixty-
four possible combinations
when two gametes join.
Humans have twenty-three
pairs of chromosomes.
The number of possible
combinations of
chromosomes in offspring
of the same two parents
is 70 million million. It is
therefore extremely unlikely
then that there will ever be
another you!
135
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allele, while gg would be yellow. Hence there are two
different possible phenotypes, green (GG and Gg) and
yellow (gg).
With these definitions, Mendels
observations can be explained in terms of
genes. Figure 4.1.10 shows the inheritance of
pod colour in Mendels pea plants.
Fertilisation of an egg by a sperm causes
the new organism to inherit chromosomes
from each of its parents.
Cells in the
testes divide
by meiosis.
mothers cell
Cells in
ovary divide
by meiosis.
egg cell
(ovum)
diploid cells
with two
pairs of
chromosomes
haploid cells
with two
chromosomes
Gametes join.
first cell of new organism
sperm cell
fathers cell
Fig 4.1.9
G G
G g
g g
G G g g
g g g
First cross
parent cells
Meiosis
produces
gametes.
Fertilisation
produces a
zygote.
F
1
generation
homozygous
green pods (GG)
homozygous
yellow pods (gg)
(all heterozygous green pods)
Second cross
heterozygous
green pods (Gg)
heterozygous
green pods (Gg)
parent cells
Meiosis
produces
gametes.
Fertilisation
produces a
zygote (four
possibilities).
(homozygous
green pods)
(heterozygous
green pods)
(homozygous
yellow pods)
Gg Gg Gg Gg
G g
G
GG gG gg Gg
G G g G
G
g
G g G g
g g g
F
2
generation
Fig 4.1.10 Inheritance of pod colour in Mendels peas
Simple inheritance
The gene that controls pod colour in pea plants comes
in two forms: one codes for green pods, the other for
yellow pods. Different forms of the same gene are
called alleles. In his experiments, Mendel observed
that green pods were dominant, suggesting that:
the allele for green pods is a dominant gene. The
allele for green pods can be represented as G.
A capital letter is used to indicate dominance
the allele for yellow pods is a recessive gene. The
allele for yellow pods can be shown as g.
Genotype
Each pea plant contains two genes for pod colour, one
received from the female, the other from the male.
The different combinations of the parents genes are
known as the genotype of the plant. For pea pods, the
possible genotypes are:
GG (called homozygous since both alleles are the
same)
Gg (called heterozygous since both alleles are
different)
gg (also called homozygous).
Phenotype
The appearance produced by a genotype is called
the phenotype of the organism. The genotypes GG
and Gg would both be green because G is a dominant
Prac 3
p. 140
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Punnett squares
A much simpler way to represent the inheritance shown
in Figure 4.1.10 is to use a Punnett square. Figure 4.1.11
shows the Punnett square for Mendels pea pods.
75 per cent of offspring can be expected to be black
(either BB or Bb)
25 per cent can be expected to be brown (bb).
These results show the typical 3:1
(75 per cent : 25 per cent) ratio that was
first seen in Mendels experiments.
Other types of inheritance
The inheritance of some characteristics can be
explained simply by dominant and recessive alleles.
In other cases the effects of the two genes may blend
in some way.
Codominance
In codominance, the phenotype of the heterozygous
organism is a combination of the phenotypes of
the homozygous organisms. Consider the case
of shorthorn cattle. Three genotypes and three
phenotypes occur, as shown in Figure 4.1.13.
P
1
P
2
B b
B BB bB
b Bb
Bb
Bb
bb
heterozygous black
heterozygous black
Fig 4.1.12 Punnett squares to show inheritance of
coat colour in rats from a cross of two
heterozygous black rats
Phenotypes and genotypes in shorthorn
cattle. Inheritance of coat colour in shorthorn
cattle is an example of codominance.
pure red
(RR)
pure white
(WW)
roan
(RW)
Fig 4.1.13
Punnett squares show the inheritance
of pod colour in Mendels peas.
First cross
parents 1 and 2
P
1
P
2
possible gametes from parent 2
(homozygous yellow pods)
Squares show possible
zygotes formed by
union of gametes
during fertilisation
(all heterozygous
green pods).
Second cross
GG, gG, Gggreen pods
Probability of 3/4 (75%)
ggyellow pods
Probability of 1/4 (25%)
G
g
Gg
g
Gg
G
Gg
Gg
P
1
P
2
G g
G GG gG
g Gg gg
Fig 4.1.11
Punnett squares can be used to predict the
results of reproduction (crossing) between different
organisms. In rats, the gene that codes for coat colour
occurs as two alleles. The gene for black coat (B)
is dominant over the gene for brown coat (b). The
coat colours of potential offspring can be predicted
using a Punnett square. Consider the cross of two
heterozygous black rats (Bb) shown in Figure 4.1.12:
Punnett squares can be used predict the results of
crosses between these three types of cattle. Crossing a
red homozygous bull with a white homozygous cow
will produce offspring that are all heterozygous roan.
Crossing two roan cattle will produce:
heterozygous roan offspring (50 per cent)
homozygous red offspring (25 per cent)
homozygous white offspring (25 per cent).
Homework book 4.2 Heterozygous and homozygous
137
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Incomplete dominance
Sometimes the heterozygous offspring may have
a phenotype between the phenotypes of the two
homozygous organisms. In snapdragon flowers, allele
R produces red flowers and allele W produces white
flowers. The genotype RW produces pink flowers.
Although this blending of colours is sometimes called
incomplete dominance, many geneticists consider it to
be another case of codominance.
Complex inheritance
The study of inheritance would be relatively simple
if every characteristic was controlled by a single
gene. Many characteristics are controlled instead by a
number of gene pairs. This results in more variation
in the characteristic than can be explained by Punnett
squares. Examples include your height and skin
colour.
homozygous
white (WW)
homozygous
red (RR)
P
1

P
2

W W
R WR WR
R RW RW
heterozygous
roan (RW)

heterozygous
roan (RW)

P
1

P
2

R W
R RR WR
W RW WW
Fig 4.1.14 Punnett squares to show inheritance of
colour in shorthorn cattle
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
What influences you?
1 What two influences make you what
you are? Give an example of each of these influences.
2 Identify three ways in which you resemble:
a your mother
b your father.
3 What is genetics?
Mendel: The father of genetics
4 What is meant by a true-breeding plant?
5 List the traits that Mendel observed in pea plants and
identify them as dominant or recessive.
Genes
6 What is a gene?
7 What is DNA and where do you find it?
Chromosomes
8 Explain the difference between diploid and haploid cells.
9 Describe the relationship between genes and chromosomes.
10 What is meant by a homologous pair?
11 A sperm or ovum cannot normally produce a new
organism by itself. Why?
12 Identify how many chromosomes are contained in a
human:
a muscle cell c red blood cell
b sperm cell d ovum.
Cell reproduction
13 What are mitosis and meiosis and where does each
occur?
Simple inheritance
14 Match each term with its correct definition:
Terms Definition
alleles the physical appearance of an
organism for a particular characteristic
phenotype an organism with different genes for a
particular characteristic
genotype alternate forms of the same gene
homozygous the genes for a particular
characteristic present in an organism
heterozygous an organism with the same genes for
a particular characteristic
Other types of inheritance
15 Construct a Punnett square showing the effect of
codominance on the breeding of red, white and
roan cattle.
Thinking questions
16 Use examples to show how two organisms can have
the same phenotype but different genotype.
17 Classify the following as examples of complete
dominance or codominance.
a In snapdragons, red flowers crossed with white
flowers produce pink flowers.
>>
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about Mendel and
his work by connecting to the Science
Researching genetics
the contribution of each of the following scientists to the
understanding of genetics:
T. H. Morgan, H. de Vries, W. L. Johannsen,
W. S. Sutton
4
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SCIENCE
20 In cats, short hair (H) is dominant over long hair (h). Two
cats heterozygous for hair length are crossed. Use a
Punnett square to predict the:
a genotype of the heterozygous cats
b possible genotypes of the offspring
c possible phenotypes of the offspring
d probable percentages of each phenotype.
21 In hogs, the gene that produces a white belt around
the animal (W) is dominant over the gene for all-over
uniform colour (w). A hog heterozygous for colour is
crossed with a hog homozygous for uniform colour. Use
a Punnett square to predict the:
a possible genotypes of the offspring
b percentage expected of each genotype
c percentage of offspring that would be expected to
have a uniform colour.
22 In Andalusian fowls, black plumage (B) is codominant
with white plumage (W). Heterozygous Andalusian fowls
have blue plumage.
a State the genotypes of black, white and blue
Andalusian fowls.
b Predict the chances of each phenotype occurring in
the offspring when two blue fowls are crossed.
c A poultry farmer wishes to establish a true-breeding
strain of blue Andalusian fowl. Explain why this is not
possible.
23 Assume the genotype of Mendels pure-breeding long-
stem plants is LL and the genotype for short-stem
plants is ll. Long stem is dominant over short stem.
a Use a Punnett square to predict the ratio of long- and
short-stem offspring in the F
2
generation.
b Compare your prediction with Mendels observations
shown in Figure 4.1.2.
24 Calculate how many different types of gametes could
be produced by an individual with the genotype XxYyZz.
To start you off, two possible gametes are XyZ and xyZ.
b In fruit flies, when red-eyed males are crossed with
white-eyed females, all the offspring are red-eyed.
c When a green watermelon is crossed with a striped
watermelon, half the offspring are green, the other
half are striped.
18 Match the description to the symbol that best
represents it:
a dominant allele gg
a recessive allele green pea pods
the genotype of a heterozygous
organism
G
the genotype of a homozygous
organism
Gg
a phenotype g
Analysis questions
19 In fruit flies, there are two alleles that control eye colour,
the allele for red eyes (R) being dominant over the allele
for white eyes (r). Figure 4.1.15 shows the Punnett
square showing the likely breeding of two fruit flies.
Punnett square to
show inheritance
of eye colour in
fruit fly
P
1
P
2
R r
r Rr rr
r rR rr
Fig 4.1.15
>>
Use the Punnett square to
predict:
a the eye colour of parent 1
b the eye colour of parent 2
c which parent is
homozygous for eye
colour
d the percentage of
offspring expected to
have white eyes
e the percentage of
offspring expected to
be heterozygous for eye
colour.
139
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Observing mitosis
You will need
Microscope, prepared microscope slide showing
onion root tips
What to do
1 Set up the microscope ready for viewing the slide.
2 Observe the slide under low power. Near the central part
of the root is a section with cells in various stages of cell
division. Focus on cells in this region.
Prac 1
Unit 4.1
3 Move to high power. Refocus if necessary.
4 Draw five cells in different stages of cell division.
Questions
1 Arrange the five cells you have drawn in the order in
which they would occur during mitosis.
2 The cells are undergoing mitosis and not meiosis. How
do you know?
Modelling meiosis
You will need
Six pieces of pipe cleaner to represent six
chromosomes (one short, one medium and one
long piece of pipe cleaner of colour I; one short,
one medium and one long piece of pipe cleaner
of colour II (colour I represents chromosomes
from your mother, colour II from your father)), large
sheet of paper for sketching cells
Prac 2
Unit 4.1
Modelling meiosis
colour II
(from your father)
colour I
(from your mother)
Fig 4.1.16
What to do
1 Draw a circle to represent a parent cell. Place the
pipe cleaners in the cell to represent three pairs
of homologous chromosomes. Sketch this cell in
your book.
2 Draw two smaller circles to represent daughter cells.
Move the pipe cleaners into these two cells to represent
two gametes formed when the parent cell divides by
meiosis. The gametes should each contain three pipe
cleaners, one of each length.
3 Sketch the gametes in your book.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until you have drawn all possible
gametes.
Questions
1 Predict how many possible gametes can be produced
from a cell with three pairs of chromosomes.
2 During meiosis, there is a random assortment of
chromosomes. Explain what this means.
3 Meiosis is sometimes described as a reduction
division. Suggest what this means.
hybrid organisms such as the mule, formed by cross-
breeding a horse and a donkey. Different species have
different numbers of chromosomes so cross-breeding
between species is unusual
a characteristic that is controlled by two or more
genes. Possible examples include the inheritance of
combs in poultry and the inheritance of purple colours
in sweet pea flowers.
an interview with the scientist
a written analysis of the genes and chromosomes
involved.
at work SCIENCE
>>
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>>>
Prac 3
Unit 4.1
5 Replace the counters and shake the bags.
6 Repeat the selection process until twenty results have
been obtained.
7 Record the totals for each genotype.
8 Continue until one hundred results have been obtained
(or combine results from several groups).
Questions
1 Explain what heterozygous means when describing
genotypes.
2 Predict the three genotypes that you would expect
to see in this prac and their expected chance of
appearance.
3 Explain why you are more likely to see the expected
pattern after one hundred selections than for just ten
selections.
4 How would the sixty counters need to be arranged in
bags to represent each of the following crosses?
a homozygous homozygous
b homozygous heterozygous
Modelling inheritance
You will need
Sixty counters or beads or buttons (thirty each of
two different colours), two paper bags
What to do
1 Place fifteen counters of each colour in each bag.
2 Draw up a table for recording your results, using two
letters to represent the colours of the counters; for
example, R for red, G for green.
RG RR GG
3 Take one counter from each bag (without looking in the
bags).
4 The counter from one bag represents the gene from a
sperm, the counter from the other bag the gene from an
egg cell. Record the genotype of the offspring resulting
from your first selection of counters by placing a tick in
the appropriate column of the results table.
141
Although you collected your genes from your
mother and your father, you probably look
different to them and any of your brothers
and sisters. You might more closely resemble
your grandparents or even an uncle or an aunt.
Human inheritance follows similar patterns to
those shown in peas, rats and cows.
Fig 4.2.1 Why dont you look exactly like your parents,
brothers and sisters?
heterozygous female (Aa)
heterozygous male (Aa)
A
P
1

P
2

a
A AA aA
a Aa aa
Fig 4.2.2 Punnett square showing the inheritance of albinism
Characteristic Dominant Recessive
tongue rolling able to roll tongue
unable to roll
tongue
right- or
left-handed
right-handed left-handed
hairline
widows peak
present
straight hairline
ear lobe attached
or free
attached free
albinism
normal pigment
production
no pigment
Simple human inheritance
In humans, some characteristics are under the control
of a single gene. Some of these characteristics are
fairly trivial ones, such as the ability to roll your
tongue. Others, such as right- or left-handedness,
affect your everyday life. Some produce
severe conditions such as albinism.
Some characteristics controlled by
a single gene in humans are listed in
the table.
Prac 1
p. 148
Albinism is the inability to make the pigment
melanin that normally colours your skin. An albino
has white hair and pink eyes. Normal colour (A)
is dominant, while lack of colour (a) is recessive.
Suppose two people who are heterozygous for
albinism produce offspring. Using the Punnett square
method, the chances that their offspring will be an
albino are one in four (25 per cent).
UNIT
UNIT
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Blood type
In the ABO grouping system, type A blood contains
antigen A, type B blood contains antigen B, type AB
blood contains both, while type O blood contains
neither antigen A or B. The most common type of
blood is type O. This ABO system of blood types
involves three different alleles, identified as I
A
, I
B

and I
O
.
I
A
and I
B
are codominant.
I
O
is recessive to both I
A
and I
B
.
Possible genotypes and phenotypes are shown in the
table.
Genotypes and phenotypes for the ABO blood grouping
Blood groups
While there are several systems of grouping blood, the
two commonly used are the Rh and ABO groupings.
Rhesus factor
Rhesus is a type of antigen. Blood that contains
the Rhesus antigen is classified as Rhesus positive
(Rh positive). Blood without the Rhesus antigen
is classified as Rhesus negative (Rh negative). The
Rh system is controlled by two alleles. Having
the Rhesus antigen (allele R) is dominant over not
having it (allele r). A person may be
homozygous (RR) or heterozygous
(Rr or rR) Rh positive, or homozygous
(rr) Rh negative. The Punnett square
shows the combinations that could
come about if both parents were
heterozygous Rh positive.
Albinism is a genetic disorder caused
by a single recessive gene. Fig 4.2.3
Being white can be deadly
Albinos appear in almost every plant and animal species.
Albinism in plants is lethal because the plant cannot make food
without the pigment chlorophyll. In animals it is often fatal
because it makes the animal a more obvious target for predators.
Albino animals also have no protection from the Suns ultraviolet
rays and are more likely to get skin and eye cancer.
P1
P2
R r
R RR Rr
r rR rr
Genotype I
A
I
A
I
A
I
O
I
A
I
B
I
B
I
B
I
B
I
O
I
O
I
O
Phenotype
A A AB B B O
(blood group)
The possible blood groups of a child can be
determined if the blood groups of the parents are
known. Alternatively, if the blood groups of mother
and child are known, the possible blood groups of the
father may be determined.
For example, consider the case of a child of blood
group O with a mother of blood group A. The childs
genotype must be I
O
I
O
and the mothers must be I
A
I
A

or I
A
I
O
. The father must therefore have provided an
I
O
gene. This means that his genotype must be either
I
O
I
O
(blood group O), I
A
I
O
(blood group A) or I
B
I
O

(blood group B). Although there is some uncertainty
about the fathers blood group, it can be definitely said
that he does not have an AB blood group.
Other types of human inheritance
While some of your characteristics were inherited in a
relatively simple way, the vast majority were not.
Eye colour
In white-skinned people, eye colour is to some extent
determined by a single gene. Brown eyes (allele B) are
dominant over blue eyes (allele b).
If you have brown eyes, your genotype must be
either BB or Bb.
If you are blue-eyed, it must be bb.
Genetically, green and grey eyes are considered to
be forms of blue, while hazel and black are forms of
brown. While the basic colour is determined by one
Human inheritance Human inheritance
143
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pair of alleles, other genes may
modify their effects. Three gene
pairs are known to influence
human eye colour. The gene on
chromosome 15 has a brown
and a blue allele. A second gene,
located on chromosome 19, has
a blue and a green allele. A third
gene, located on chromosome 15,
is also a brown eye colour gene.
Boy or girl?
A human has forty-six chromosomes
arranged in twenty-three pairs.
Twenty-two of these pairs have
chromosomes of the same size and
shape. For pair number twenty-
three, however, the chromosomes
will either be the same or be quite
different. This set of chromosomes
determines your sex or gender. The
chromosomes for this pair are known
as the X and Y chromosomes. Your
sex depends on which pairing of
these chromosomes you have:
males have the genotype XY
females have the genotype XX.
Young blue eyes
Babies of European descent
are normally born with
blue eyes. It is only later,
after melanin production
increases, that blue
eyes may change into
other colours.
Fig 4.2.4 Eye colour is inherited, with brown eyes
dominant over blue eyes.
Variation
Some characteristics are clearly
defined: pea pods are green or
yellow, you are albino or not,
you are left- or right-handed.
Characteristics such as these
are described as showing
discontinuous variation.
The opposite is continuous
variation. Height and eye colour
show continuous variation
because a range of characteristics may occur.
People are not simply tall or short, but show
a wide range of heights. Tall parents seem
to produce tall children. Height is partly
inherited, but probably under the influence
of several genes. Environmental factors must also
play a part. For example, an undernourished child
may not grow as tall as their genes might have
allowed them to. Likewise, intelligence seems to be
partly inherited under the influence of several genes.
Environmental influences also affect intelligence.
There is a long and ongoing debate about how much
of intelligence is inherited (nature) and how much
develops and therefore depends on the surrounding
circumstances (nurture).
Prac 2
p. 149
Mozzies know!
Queensland researchers
have found mosquitos bite
identical twins exactly the
same number of times. The
number of bites on non-
identical twins varied!
Identical twins have the same genotype.
Do they have the same phenotype?
Fig 4.2.5
Nature or
nurture?
Identical twins are
genetically the same.
Several studies of
intelligence have shown
that the IQ scores of
identical twins correlate
more closely than
those of non-identical
twins, even when they
are raised apart. In one
case, identical twins
raised separately both
developed schizophrenia
within two months of
their sixteenth birthday.
How much is inherited,
and how much is
environmental?
A coloured scanning electron micrograph (SEM)
of an X (bottom) and a Y (top) chromosome
Fig 4.2.6
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Pedigrees
Humans take a long time to
breed and so it is not feasible
to study human inheritance
in the way Mendel did with
his peas. Instead, pedigrees
of families are recorded
and analysed, especially
those families with rare
characteristics. A pedigree
is a pictorial family tree
where individuals who
show a particular disease or
characteristic are marked
on it. A little detective work
follows to find patterns of
inheritance. The symbols
used when drawing pedigrees
are shown in Figure 4.2.8.
Analysing pedigrees
Careful analysis of a pedigree can determine
whether a characteristic is dominant or recessive.
The pedigree in Figure 4.2.9 shows the inheritance
of night blindness. In generation IV, daughter 2 was
not affected, even though both her parents had night
blindness. This suggests that night blindness is a
dominant gene. If it was recessive the parents would
have to be homozygous to show the disease, and
Roughly 50/50
Since there are an equal
number of X- and Y-
carrying sperm, there
should be an equal number
of girls and boys born. In
most parts of the world,
however, there are slightly
more boys than girls born.
Why is not clear, but it may
be that the sperm carrying
the Y chromosome are
lighter, and therefore they
are more likely to reach
the ovum first, to produce
a male. The balance of
males and females in the
population is later restored,
since the mortality rate
for boy babies and men is
slightly higher than for girl
babies and women.
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5
I
II
III
IV
Fig 4.2.9 Genetic disorders are more likely in children
born from parents who are closely blood-
related (such as brothers, sisters and
cousins). What is the relationship here
between the parents in generation III?
X
X X
X
Y
X X X
Y
Y
X
Zygote has genotype XX.
All ova contain an
X chromosome.
Sperm may
contain an
X or a Y
chromosome.
Y-bearing
sperm
MALE
Zygote has genotype XY.
X-bearing
sperm
FEMALE
Fig 4.2.7 Sex determination in humans
While all eggs contain an X chromosome,
sperm can have either an X or a Y
chromosome. In humans, it is the type
of sperm (X or Y) from the father that
determines the sex of the offspring.
Prac 3
p. 149
offspring shown in birth
order from left to right
male
female
male with the
characteristic
non-identical twin girls
identical twin boys
generation I
mating of a female
and a male
generation II
1 2 3
deceased female
Fig 4.2.8 Symbols used when
drawing pedigrees
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all their children would also show night blindness.
The generation III parents must have been
heterozygous, and by chance produced a daughter
who was not affected.
The pedigree in Figure 4.2.10 shows the incidence
of a particular genetic characteristic, perhaps a
genetic disease. In generation II, an unaffected male
and an unaffected female (1) produce a child that is
affected by the characteristic. This indicates that the
characteristic is caused by a recessive gene and that
the generation II parents are both heterozygous.
Haemophilia is a recessive X-linked disease. The
genotypes can be worked out by using:
X
H
for a normal gene on an X chromosome
X
h
for the recessive gene for haemophilia on an
X chromosome.
Most males have the genotype X
H
Y and do not
have haemophilia. Males that have the disease
will have the genotype X
h
Y. Females can carry
the recessive gene, but not have the disease. Their
genotype would be X
H
X
h
. Although they carry the
haemophilia gene, it is hidden by the dominant gene.
Females who have a hidden gene for a disease are
called carriers of the disease. Females 2 and 3 in
generation II of Figure 4.2.12 are carriers (X
H
X
h
),
having inherited an X
h
gene from their father. In
generation II, male 1 must have inherited
an X
h
gene from his mother, and a Y
from his father. Female 1 in generation I
must therefore have the genotype X
H
X
h
.
Pedigree showing the inheritance of a genetic
disease. It is recessive or dominant?
1 2 3
I
II
III
Fig 4.2.10
Fig 4.2.11 Extended bruising under the skin of a baby
suffering from the sex-linked bleeders
disease haemophilia
1
1 2
2 3
I
II
III
Fig 4.2.12 A pedigree showing the inheritance of
haemophilia. Haemophilia is a sex-linked
genetic disease.
Sex-linked inheritance
The Y chromosome is small and carries very few
genes. The X chromosome is longer and has many
genes on it. In males (XY) many of the genes on the
X chromosomes do not have a matching allele on the
Y chromosome. A single gene on the X chromosome,
regardless of whether it is recessive or dominant, will
therefore control the phenotype of the male. Over fifty
diseases and conditions are caused by recessive genes
on the X chromosome. They are called sex-linked or
X-linked conditions and include colour blindness,
some forms of haemophilia and one form of muscular
dystrophy. These conditions are far more common in
males than females. For example, 8 per cent of males
are colour blind compared with only 1 per cent of
females.
The disease haemophilia is sometimes called
the bleeders disease and is almost always fatal if
untreated. People (mostly boys) with this disease
have a defective gene and as a result lack a particular
blood-clotting chemical. Without this chemical,
simple cuts bleed uncontrollably. Likewise bruises
(caused by ruptured blood vessels underneath the
skin) spread uncontrollably.
Homework book 4.3 Pedigree analysis
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A royal disease
The gene for haemophilia has affected history. From her birth in 1819,
Queen Victoria was an unknowing carrier. She gave birth to four boys
and five girls, one son being haemophiliac. Two carrier daughters went
on to have haemophiliac sons and, through marriage, introduced the
gene into the Russian and Spanish royal families. The illness of one of
the Russian heirs, Alexis, set off a chain of events that contributed to the
Russian revolution in 1917. The Tsarina, mother of Alexis, thought that
a monk named Rasputin had magical powers that could cure Alexiss
haemophilia. Because of this, she allowed Rasputin to influence Russias
foreign and domestic policies, leading in part to the revolution.
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Questions
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Revision
Simple human inheritance
1 List seven human characteristics inherited through a
single gene.
2 a If two albino people partner and produce a child,
what are the chances the child will be albino?
b If an albino person partners a person heterozygous
for albinism, what are the chances of their children
being albino?
3 Cystic fibrosis is a disease carried by a single recessive
gene. Two unaffected parents have a child who suffers
from the disease. Construct a Punnett square to find
the chances that they will produce a child without the
disease.
Blood groups
4 What are the genotypes of the blood types:
a Rh positive
b Rh negative?
5 What blood groups do the following genotypes
represent?
a I
A
I
A
d I
B
I
B
b I
A
I
O
e I
B
I
O
c I
A
I
B
f I
O
I
O
Other types of human inheritance
6 What colour eyes are genetically considered blue and
what are considered brown?
7 Give an example of a genetic characteristic that shows:
a continuous variation
b discontinuous variation.
8 Identify two influences on intelligence.
Boy or girl?
9 Write the genotype of:
a a male
b a female.
10 Explain why the human population is approximately
50 per cent male and 50 per cent female.
Pedigrees
11 Copy the table in Figure 4.2.13, matching each
pedigree symbol to its meaning.
Sex-linked inheritance
12 Explain why a carrier of a genetic disease is not
affected by it.
13 How can females function without the Y
chromosome?
14 Explain why males are more likely to be affected by
genetic diseases and disorders than females.
15 X
h
represents the recessive gene that codes for
haemophilia and X
H
is the dominant gene that codes
for no haemophilia. Write the genotypes for:
a a normal male and a normal female
b a female who is a carrier of haemophilia
c a male who has haemophilia.
Thinking questions
16 Is this statement true, false or a little of both? Sperm
are either male or female.
17 Can a male can be a carrier of haemophilia? Explain
your answer.
Symbol Meaning
A
B
C
D
E
mating of a male and female
male with the inherited
characteristic
identical twin boys
female without the inherited
characteristic
deceased male
Fig 4.2.13
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24 Tongue rolling is a dominant trait controlled by a
dominant gene (R) and a recessive gene (r). A pedigree
for tongue rolling is shown in Figure 4.2.14. Suggest the
genotypes of each of these individuals.
a I male (generation I male)
b II 1
c III 1
18 Construct a Punnett square that shows how a
haemophiliac son can be born to healthy parents.
19 A genetic abnormality occurs where a person has the
genotype XXY. Would the person be male or female?
Explain.
Analysis questions
20 An albino female and a non-albino male have two
children. One is non-albino and one is albino. Let A
stand for the dominant gene and a for the recessive
gene. Construct a Punnett square to predict the
genotypes of each of the children.
21 A man with blood group B and a woman with blood
group A produce a child. What are the possible blood
groups of the child?
22 A child has blood group AB. The mother has blood
group A.
a Identify the possible blood group genotypes of the
father.
b Identify the possible blood groups of the father.
23 Colour blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder. The
symbols used to show the relevant genes are X
n
for the
recessive allele on the X chromosome and X
N
for the
normal gene on the X chromosome.
a State the genotypes of a non-colour-blind female, a
colour-blind female, a non-colour-blind male and a
colour-blind male.
b A colour-blind female partners a non-colour-blind
male.
i What are the chances of their daughters being
colour blind?
ii What are the chances of their sons being colour
blind?
2 1
1 2
3 4
2 1 3
I
II
III
IV
Fig 4.2.14
25 Construct a pedigree from the following information.
Jim and Jean are partners. They have four children,
Scott, James, Natasha and Alan. James has a partner,
Kylie. They have two children, Susan and Alison. Susan
has a partner, Paul. They have three children, Anne,
Emma and Colin. James, Natasha, Susan and Anne are
all albino.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Complete the following tasks by connecting to
the Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website
1 Complete the activity on constructing pedigrees. The
activity also shows you how to present the pedigree as
a PowerPoint presentation.
2 Research a human genetic disease such as cystic
fibrosis or muscular dystrophy. Contact the relevant
society for information. Find the symptoms, age of
onset of symptoms, occurrence, progress of the
disease and treatment. Present your findings in one
of the following ways:
a website or pamphlet from the society
as a representative from the relevant society
speaking to a group of parents whose child has just
been diagnosed as having the disease.
Researching pedigrees
Internet, etc.) to collect information about the pedigree of a
champion horse or show dog. Find the factors
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Dominant or recessive?
Prac 1
Unit 4.2
Questions
1 List those forms of the eight characteristics you think
would be dominant.
2 Sometimes the most common form of a characteristic
is not the dominant one. Check back to the table on
page 141 to see if the dominant forms listed there are
also the most common in your class.
and outcomes that were important in determining matings in
the pedigree.
Present your work as a pedigree for your chosen animal.
Researching blood types
Internet, etc.) to research human blood groups, their genetics
and the problems raised by blood transfusions.
a case study on one problem that has occurred with a
transfusion
a chart showing what blood groups can and cannot be
used in patients of different blood groups.
Constructing
Select one of the inherited characteristics on page 141.
Survey as many members of your family as possible
(brothers, sisters, parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts,
etc.) and record which of your chosen characteristic pair
each person has. Construct a pedigree for the chosen
characteristic for your family and mark whether the
characteristic you chose was dominant or recessive.
at work SCIENCE
>>
What to do
1 Tally how many people in your class have
each of the different characteristics shown in
Figure 4.2.15.
2 Determine which form of each characteristic
is most common.
Inherited characteristics
Widows peak or not? Can roll the tongue or not? Which thumb is on the top?
Little finger straight or crooked?
front teeth close together
front teeth with a
definite gap
ear lobe
hangs free
ear lobe
attached
Darwins
point
no Darwins
point

Length of second toe?
Is it longer than your big toe or not?
Fig 4.2.15
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Variation within a population
Prac 2
Unit 4.2
Vegetable babies
Prac 3
Unit 4.2
Vegetable babies are born either male (potato) or
female (onion). The tables below show the sex
chromosomes, the phenotypes, their possible
genotypes and the dominant and recessive alleles
that are responsible for their characteristics.
You will need
Potato, onion, sultanas, fresh peas, slices of carrot and
parsnip, long and short sticks of celery, toothpicks
long
celery
short
celery
sultanas
peas
onion potato
carrot
parsnip
Fig 4.2.16
You will need
Twenty-five people to survey (such as the
students in your class), graph paper
What to do
1 Survey twenty-five people of about the same age. For
each person, record their height (in centimetres), and
the heights of their parents.
2 On the same axes, plot graphs showing the heights
of the twenty-five people surveyed, and the heights of
their parents.
What to do
1 Cut or tear up a piece of paper into sixteen pieces.
2 On eight of them write the sex chromosomes and alleles
for Onion mother, according to the table below. Place
them face down in groups (sex, feet, arm, eye).
Parent Sex
chromosomes
Feet
genotype
Arm
genotype
Eye
genotype
Onion
mother
XX ff AA ee
Potato
father
XY Ff aa Ee
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3 On the other eight write the sex chromosomes and
alleles for Potato father. Place them face down in groups
(sex, feet, arm, eye).
4 Randomly select one sex chromosome from Onion mother
and one sex chromosome from Potato father. Then
randomly select one foot allele, one arm allele and one
eye allele from Onion mother and again from Potato father.
5 Use the table below to determine the sex of your
vegetable baby and its feet, arm and eye phenotypes.
Characteristic Phenotype Genotype Alleles
responsible
Feet Carrot slices FF or Ff or fF F (dominant)
Parsnip slices ff f (recessive)
Arms Short celery stick AA or Aa or aA A (dominant)
Long celery stick aa a (recessive)
Eyes Sultana EE or Ee or eE E (dominant)
Pea ee e (recessive)
6 Construct your vegetable baby, securing its body parts
with toothpicks.
Questions
1 Construct Punnett squares for the characteristics feet,
arms and eyes.
2 Predict the chance of each different phenotype for each
characteristic.
3 In this experiment, what is the probability of having a
baby potato?
4 Construct a table showing how many vegetable babies
in the class had each phenotype.
5 Calculate the percentage actually obtained by the class
of each characteristic.
6 Compare these percentages with those expected.
Comment on your results.
Questions
1 Based on your results, does there appear to be any link
between height and parental heights?
2 Do your results show that height is a continuous variation?
3 Give reasons why your results are probably not
representative of the entire population.
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UNIT
UNIT
Each gene is made of a chemical called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The structure and
arrangement of atoms in this amazing molecule
determine what the gene instructs the cells of
your body to do, and what many of your
characteristics will be.
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Structure of DNA
DNA is a long molecule with two strands twisted
together to make what is called a double helix.
Between each strand are cross-links. Its basic structure
is similar to a ladder that has
been twisted into a spiral.
The ladders uprights are
made of a chain of alternating
sugar and phosphate units.
The ladders rungs are made
of pairs of special molecules
called nitrogen bases. There
are four different nitrogen
bases, represented by the
letters:
A = adenine
T = thymine
C = cytosine
G = guanine.
Because of their chemical
structure, each base can pair only with one other.
The only possible complementary base pairs are:
A pairing with T
C pairing with G.
One upright of the ladder (one strand of DNA)
might have the base sequence of ATTCGTC. The
opposite strand would then have the complementary
sequence, TAAGCAG. The sequence of these nitrogen
bases along the strands of DNA is the basis for all
inherited characteristics.
Khan you get
a free meal?
Shish, a restaurant in
London in the UK, offered
its customers in 2004 free
DNA testing to determine
if they were descended
from the Mongol chief and
warrior Genghis Khan. If
found to be related, you got
a free meal!
A
A
T
A T
T A
A T
T A
T
G C
C G
C G
sugarphosphate chain
base pair
phosphate unit
sugar unit
Fig 4.3.1 DNA structurethe lower part is shown
untwisted to illustrate the pairing of bases.
Fig 4.3.2 James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the
structure of DNA in 1953. This was their first
model of it.
Homework book 4.4 Model DNA
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Copying DNA
When a cell reproduces by mitosis, the DNA is copied
exactly in a process called replication. The strands
are first unzipped. An exact copy is then made by
matching each base with its complementary base.
Once a section is copied, one old and one
new strand are zipped together to produce
the duplicate DNA.
Replication of DNA
2 new
DNA
strands
original
DNA
Fig 4.3.3
Prac 1
p. 156
Genetic code
A segment of DNA with a sequence of up to 1000
bases forms a single gene. The difference between
one gene and another is in its genetic code, which is
established by the order of its bases:
Sets of three bases form base sequences or codons.
Each codon describes the type and sequence of
amino acids.
Cells use amino acids to make protein molecules.
Proteins are long molecules formed by joining
amino acids together like beads on a string.
It is these proteins that determine characteristics
such as eye colour.
The order of the codons on a length of DNA
spells out the order of the amino acids on a length of
protein. There are sixty-four different codons. From
these, twenty different amino acids are coded for.
Different combinations of these twenty amino acids
create thousands of different proteins.
For example, the codon CGG codes for the amino
acid alanine, TTT for lysine, CAA for valine, and so
on. Some codons do not code for amino acids, but
instead code for stop and start instructions.
T
T
C
C
G
G
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
T
T
T
C
C
C
G
T
G
nucleus

Proteins act alone or in complexes
to perform many cellular functions
Genes contain instructions
for making proteins
proteins

DNA

genes
chromosomes
cell
Each cell: 46 human chromosomes
2 metres of DNA
3 billion DNA subunits(A, T, C, G)
Approximately 32 000 genes code for
proteins that perform life functions
Fig 4.3.4 Proteins determine characteristics by controlling cellular functions.
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Determining characteristics
Most proteins are enzymes that control chemical
activities in the cell, affecting its very nature.
Organisms function through hundreds of chemical
reactions catalysed by hundreds of enzymes. In this
way, many characteristics are influenced by many
genes.
Take skin pigments for example. Tyrosine is
normally a colourless amino acid. In the presence of
an enzyme called tyrosinase, however, it is converted
into melanin, a dark-coloured pigment. The enzyme is
not made if the gene for the production of tyrosinase
is missing or defective. Tyrosine is then not converted
to melanin and without melanin there is no pigment.
Albinism results.
Going ape
The genetic code appears to be universal. The
same codon almost always specifies the same
amino acid in all organisms. So, if a fruit fly
and a human both have the codon TTT, then
they both have the same amino acid lysine.
The universal nature of the genetic code
strongly supports the idea that all living things
are related to each other, and have evolved
from common ancestors. Comparisons of
DNA are used to provide evidence of the
relatedness of different species. The genetic
make-up of a chimpanzee is 98.5 per cent
identical to that of a human.
melanin
a dark-coloured pigment

A gene codes for
production of the
enzyme tyrosinase.
Tyrosinase
catalyses
a reaction.

section
of DNA
tyrosine
a colourless amino acid

Fig 4.3.6 From genes to characteristics. If a gene
defect occurs, tyrosinase is not produced.
Therefore melanin is not produced,
resulting in albinism.
Gene expression
Every cell in your body contains the same type and
quantity of DNA with exactly the same code. Even so,
some cells grow into muscles, some into nerves, some
into blood cells and some into organs such as your
lungs. Other cells produce hormones such as insulin
while others do not.
Gene expression is the appearance in the organism
of the characteristic that the gene codes for. Genes
contain information about where and when the gene
is to act. As the body develops, certain genes are
switched on or off. For example, in animals the gene
for haemoglobin production is switched off in nervous
tissue. Scientists are unsure how this happens, but
the switching may be done by chemicals within
the cell.
Sometimes environmental factors will also
switch the gene on or off. One example is pigment
formation in Himalayan rabbits. These rabbits are
normally white with black ears, nose, feet and
tail. They inherit a gene for an enzyme involved
in pigment formation. This enzyme is temperature
sensitive. In cold conditions the pigment is produced
more actively, leading to the black colour seen on
the cold extremities of the rabbits. Thus the gene
expresses itself only at low temperatures. If the
extremities are warmed, no black hair grows. If a
coat section is removed and an icepack added, the
regrowth is black.
protein
strand

alanine

lysine

valine

Amino acids make up a protein.

DNA strand

C G G T T T C A A
3 bases form a codon
Fig 4.3.5 Using the genetic codeeach codon on a DNA
strand codes for an amino acid. Amino acids are
joined together to form a protein strand.
Chemical code for life Chemical code for life
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Mutagens
Mutations occur constantly within a
species, although at a low rate. This rate
is increased by exposure to mutation-
causing agents called mutagens.
X-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet
light are known mutagens that come
from exposure to nuclear radiation or
excessive exposure to medical X-rays
or sunlight. They cause cell mutations
that can go on to become a cancerous
tumour. A range of chemicals such as
benzene are also known mutagens.
Single gene mutations
Mutations may involve only one gene, with a section
of DNA being incorrectly copied. The disease sickle-
cell anaemia is the result of a single gene mutation.
The mutation causes an alteration in one amino acid
in the protein making up the haemoglobin in red
blood cells. This results in distorted haemoglobin, and
red blood cells shaped like a sickle. These distorted
cells can form clumps and clog small arteries. Victims
of the disease usually die young.
Mutations
Accidents sometimes occur in the copying of the
DNA strands during replication. A mutation is any
spontaneous change in a gene or chromosome that
may produce an alteration in the characteristic for
which it codes. Mutations occurring in normal body
cells may affect the organism but will not be inherited.
Mutations will only be inherited if they occur in the
gametes or in the zygote cell which forms when they
join. The rate of mutation is reduced by the action of
enzymes that act to correct copying mistakes.
A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a
mutant fruit fly with only one compound eye
Fig 4.3.8
Fig 4.3.9 Normal disc-shaped red blood cells and distorted
red blood cells that result from a single gene
mutation, causing sickle-cell anaemia
Whole chromosome mutations
Mutations may involve whole chromosomes. Parts
of chromosomes may break off and rejoin, or whole
chromosomes may be lost or added. Sometimes during
meiosis, a pair of homologous chromosomes fails to
separate. The gamete then has an extra chromosome.
The zygote cell created on fertilisation will have
three chromosomes instead of a pair. Many such
changes result in spontaneous natural abortion long
before birth. One that is not always fatal is Tri-21
(Down syndrome), where the individual has an extra
chromosome number twenty-one.
If extremities are warmed
during development, no
black develops.
A
Normally only the
feet, ears, tail and
nose are black.
B
If fur is removed and
an icepack applied,
the regrowth is black.
C
Fig 4.3.7 In Himalayan rabbits, growth of black
hair is controlled by a gene. The gene is
expressed only at low temperatures.
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Good and bad mutations
Mutations are usually harmful. New diseases such
as bird flu or HIVAIDS are usually due to mutation
of an existing, less harmful disease. Other mutations
might make a single bacterium naturally resistant
to an antibiotic. It will then reproduce and may be
difficult to kill, leading to uncontrolled infections.
Sometimes a mutation can prove to be beneficial. The
Granny Smith apple was the result of mutation in an
apple tree in a Sydney backyard. Breeders of various
species make use of mutations to develop new and
improved varieties of organisms such as dogs, cats,
horses, sheep and food crops.
Mutations are responsible for some of the genetic
variation we see today. For example, it is possible that
all humans once had brown eyes until a blue mutant
gene appeared.
Chromosomes of a child with
Tri-21 or Down syndrome Fig 4.3.10
Fig 4.3.11 A Down syndrome child
The Granny Smith is the result of
genetic mutation. Fig 4.3.12
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Structure of DNA
1 Use a diagram to explain how the structure of DNA can
be likened to a twisted ladder.
2 What is a double helix?
3 Identify the three chemicals that make up the structure
of DNA.
4 What do the letters A, T, C and G in a DNA base
sequence stand for?
5 What is meant by complementary bases in the
structure of DNA?
Copying DNA
6 Draw a diagram to show how DNA replicates.
7 How much of your genetic make-up is the same as
that of a chimpanzee?
8 How does DNA support the idea that all creatures
came from a single ancestor?
Genetic code
9 What is a codon?
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10 How does one protein differ from another?
11 Rearrange the following in order from smallest to
largest.
nitrogen base DNA strand
cell codon
Gene expression
12 Explain what is meant by the term gene expression.
13 Explain how Himalayan rabbits can exhibit gene
expression.
Mutations
14 What is a mutation?
15 a Name three mutagens.
b What diseases do mutagens often cause?
16 Give an example of a disease caused by a single gene
mutation.
17 Identify a condition caused by an abnormal number of
chromosomes.
18 Mutations are usually harmful. When might a mutation
be beneficial to a species or an individual?
19 A mutation in your skin cell might cause skin cancer but
will not be passed onto your children. Explain why.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Replicate DNA by connecting to the
On the diagram you construct in the interactive program,
record your results.
Researching mixtures
Internet, etc.) to complete the following:
1 The 1962 Nobel Prize for Medicine was shared by
J. Watson, M. Wilkins and F. Crick for their work in
creating a model of DNA. Write a short biography for
each of these scientists, outlining their contributions
to our understanding of genetics.
2 Research human genetic abnormalities that involve
having the wrong number of chromosomes. Write a
report on the symptoms, occurrence and treatment
of one of these abnormalities.
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SCIENCE
Thinking questions
20 A base sequence in a particular DNA strand is
CGGATAAGCTA.
a Write the complementary base sequence.
b Introduce a single mutation into the copying of this
sequence.
c On a chemical level, what affect does that mutation
have?
21 Why are mutations in a body cell unimportant to the
entire species?
22 Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections.
Explain how the large-scale use of antibiotics has led to
untreatable infections.
Analysis questions
23 Calculate the minimum number of bases required to
code for a protein that has 200 amino acids.
24 Excessive exposure to UV radiation from sunlight
changes your skin. Suggest how.
25 Figure 4.3.10 shows the genes of a person with Down
syndrome.
a On which chromosome is the abnormality?
b Identify the sex of the person.
3 Research gene switching and gene expression.
You could start by considering the work of F. Jacob,
J. Monod and H. Harris. Construct a timeline to
summarise your findings.
4 Investigate mutagens and use one example to
summarise your findings while answering the following
questions. What are they? Can we avoid them? Do
regulations exist to limit our exposure to mutagens?
Constructing
DNA model
Construct a model of DNA. You might use cardboard for the
uprights and coloured paperclips for complementary bases.
You might use construction blocks or polystyrene pieces.
Liquorice, jelly beans and skewers make a very tasty model!
Whichever way you build your model, it must show all the
basic features of DNA, and be able to demonstrate the
process of replication.
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Extracting DNA
Prac 1
Unit 4.3
7 Allow the test tube to cool to room temperature.
8 The DNA is still dissolved in solution. Pour 6 mL of
ice-cold ethanol down the side of the test tube, into
your solution to form a layer. The DNA will precipitate
into the ethanol.
9 Let the mixture stand until it stops bubbling (2 or 3
minutes).
10 The DNA will float in the ethanol. Swirl a glass stirring
rod at the join between the layers to see strands of
DNA.
11 Drag some DNA strands out of the test tube and view
under a microscope.
Extension: Try extracting DNA from another plant such
as strawberries.
You can expect three basic results from your DNA
extraction. The actual result will depend upon how careful
you have been:
No DNA: Something went wrongrevise your method.
Fluffy looking DNA: This means that it has been broken
into lots of small pieces during extraction, usually by
rough stirring.
Thin threads of DNA: Perfect.
You will need
250 mL beaker, 15 mL test tube, test-tube rack,
measuring cylinders (10 mL and 100 mL), meat
tenderiser, non-roasted fresh wheat germ, ice-cold
95 per cent ethanol, thermometer, stirring rod,
dishwashing detergent, water bath, compound
microscope
What to do
1 Add 100 mL of water to a beaker and warm to between
50C and 60C in a water bath.
2 Add one heaped tablespoon (6 g) of wheat germ
and mix very gently. To get good strands of DNA it is
essential to be very gentle while stirring.
3 Add 3 mL of detergent to break down the cell
membranes of the wheat germ. Maintain the
temperature between 50C and 60C and stir for 5
minutes. Be careful not to form froth or scrape the sides
of the beaker.
4 Add one level teaspoon (3 g) of meat tenderiser.
5 Maintain the temperature between 50C and 60C and
stir for 10 minutes.
6 Remove the beaker from the water bath, and transfer
some of your solution from the beaker to fill a third of
the test tube.
A molecular model of DNA shows how the atoms
are arranged in a very complex structure.
Fig 4.3.13
Questions
1 Describe the appearance of
the DNA after extraction.
2 Why were each of the
following chemicals added
during the process?
a detergent
b ethanol
157
For thousands of years, farmers have selectively
bred plants and animals with desirable
characteristics. In effect, the farmers controlled
the inheritance of their crops and herds. Over the
last ten years, scientists have developed far more
precise techniques to select characteristics. Genes
Sometimes variation is produced by deliberately
introducing mutations into a population, then
selecting those individuals with desirable
characteristics. For instance, nectarines are a mutant
form of peach.
Selective breeding
Selective breeding is a common and simple process.
Merino sheep produce more and better quality wool
than the breeds from which they were originally bred.
Australian wheat once was attacked by a fungal rust
disease. Disease resistance, and a higher yield, were
gained when wild rust-resistant relatives of wheat
were crossed with wheat plants that produced more
seed than normal.
Keeping the seeds from only the best plants for
next years crop is a simple example of selective
breeding. Other examples include selecting the right
mix of desirable characteristics to produce tomatoes
that stay ripe longer, dairy cattle that produce more
milk, beef cattle with more meat, pigs with less fat or
rice that produces more seeds.
A square tomato would allow easier
stacking and slicing.
Fig 4.4.1
Fig 4.4.2 Nectarines are a mutant form of peach.
Using gene technology to improve
an organism
Scientists have known how to manipulate genes
since the early 1970s. Genetic engineering and gene
technology manipulate the DNA to change the genes
within an organism.
Why change genes?
Gene technology allows scientists to isolate a specific
gene, alter it, copy it and then reinsert it into a new
position, either in the original organism or in a
completely different organism.
from animals have been placed into plants and genes
from humans have been placed into bacteria. It is
possible now for parents to select the sex of their
child. In the future who knows what may be possible!
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The use of gene technology has helped to develop:
larger harvests
plants with greater disease resistance
crops with improved storage and handling
properties
fruit and vegetables that last longer and taste better.
Organisms that have had their gene sequence altered
are called genetically modified (GM) plants or animals.
For example, genetically modified cotton contains
an inserted gene. This insertion produces a protein
that kills the Heliothis caterpillar (the major pest of
cotton) when it eats the cotton leaves. The inserted
gene comes from a naturally occurring bacterium,
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The modified cotton is
called Bt cotton. Australians currently use a number of
products from genetically modified crops in their foods.
These include canola oil, soy beans in some soy-based
products and potatoes in processed snack foods.
In the future, genetic modification may have other
benefits such as:
producing plants that can reverse the effects of
salinity
creating bio-fuel bacteria that can produce energy
producing bacteria that can clean up oil spills and
process industrial waste
allowing genetic diseases to be eliminated.
Should foods be labelled if they contain
genetically modified ingredients?
Fig 4.4.4
7 Bacterial cells grow
and divide to produce
many copies of the
introduced gene.
1 Plasmids are
removed from
a bacterium.
2 Plasmids are
cut using an
enzyme.
3 DNA is removed
from a human cell.
4 DNA is cut using
an enzyme to isolate
a gene.
5 Human gene is inserted
into the plasmid to form
recombinant DNA.
6 The recombinant DNA
is put into a bacterium.
Fig 4.4.3 Gene technology using recombinant DNA
How gene technology works
Using enzymes
Gene technology uses naturally occurring enzymes that
either cut DNA or join it back together. The enzymes
recognise particular base sequences and cut the DNA
near these sequences. Scientists use different enzymes
to cut and join DNA in much the same way as a film
editor cuts and splices lengths of film to make a movie.
DNA segments may be inserted into bacteria, which
then act like factories to copy the segments.
Using bacteria
Circular pieces of DNA called
plasmids are used to insert DNA into
bacteria. Plasmids occur naturally in
bacterial cells. A plasmid is cut open
using an enzyme, the foreign DNA
inserted, and the plasmid rejoined.
This creates a mixed molecule called
recombinant DNA.
Altered plasmids can then be
put into bacteria, which can then be
cultured to provide multiple copies
of the introduced DNA. The bacteria
will obey the instructions of the
inserted DNA and manufacture the
protein it codes for. Nearly all the
insulin used by diabetics in Australia
is now made in this way. Other
substances produced using this kind
of technology include the human
growth hormone, some antibiotics,
and vaccines against diseases such as
hepatitis B.
Controlling inheritance Controlling inheritance
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Fig 4.4.5 A technician checking a sample of recombinant
DNA hepatitis B vaccine
Transgenics
It is also possible to insert modified genes into plant
and animal cells. In animals, the gene is inserted
into the single-celled zygote from which the animals
cells will develop. In plants, the gene may be shot
into host cells using a miniature gun. The chance of
the inserted gene becoming permanently fixed into
chromosomes is very low. Many cells are therefore
exposed, and the successful ones isolated. The plant
or animal with the new gene is called transgenic.
These fluorescent green transgenic mice have
had a jellyfish gene inserted in them that
codes for GFP, a green fluorescent protein.
Fig 4.4.6
Risk assessment
All new technologies have benefits and risks.
Gene technology is no exception. There are many
issues surrounding the use of gene technology, as
people balance the potential benefits against the
potential risks.
Some arguments against
gene technology
Genetic modification is not natural. Interfering
with a highly evolved and delicate system may
upset it in unpredictable ways.
Genetically modified (GM) plants with in-built
pesticides may kill insects that are not pests.
Pests will, in time, develop resistance to the
in-built pesticides in GM plants.
GM herbicide-resistant plants may transfer
their resistance to other plants, creating
superweeds.
Superweeds may encourage the excessive use
of herbicides.
GM crops will not necessarily solve the
worlds food problems because food shortages
currently have more to do with economics and
politics than with agriculture.
Multinational companies own the rights to
most GM plants. Farmers will need to pay for
their use of modified plants or their seeds.
Some religious groups have specific arguments
against the use of GM foods.
Some arguments for gene
technology
Gene technology is faster and more efficient
than conventional selective breeding
techniques.
Food production will increase due to improved
disease and drought resistance in plants.
Animals will produce meat with less fat, thicker
wool and have increased productivity.
GM foods may be more nutritious, cheaper and
keep better than conventional foods.
GM crops with pest resistance will reduce the
use of harmful chemical pesticides.
GM crops may be produced that tolerate poor
soils and salinity, allowing more areas to be
farmed.
Gene technology can be used to locate
and study genes causing human disease,
and genes that predispose people to other
diseases.
Gene technology can be used to create new,
improved medical treatments, such as the
production of insulin.
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Using gene technology for testing
Prenatal testing
Prenatal testing can identify genetic defects or
diseases before a baby is born. Prenatal testing is
carried out using gene probes. A gene probe is a
small piece of DNA with a base sequence identical to
part of a gene. This means that a probe can stick to a
specific gene. Probes are made that recognise the base
sequences of genes associated with diseases. DNA
samples from embryos can be tested with probes to
determine whether or not a disease like sickle-cell
anaemia or cystic fibrosis is present.
Prenatal testing is usually carried out in the first
eight to twelve weeks of pregnancy. Cells to be tested
are obtained by amniocentesis or chorionic villus
sampling. A needle is inserted into the uterus and
placenta to obtain cells that fall off the foetus during
its normal development. Cells are tested for the type
of sex chromosomes present and counted to identify
chromosome abnormalities such as Down syndrome.
Testing for certain enzymes is also carried out.
These tests give further clues as to the presence
of genetic disorders. If a disease is detected, the
parents undergo counselling to see what action
they can take.
Forensic analysis
Gene probes are also used in DNA fingerprinting in
criminal cases, such as physical or sexual assault,
and to determine the actual parents of children in
disputes. DNA fingerprinting
relies on the fact that you have a
unique sequence of bases in your
DNA. The only exception is if
you are an identical twin. Your
DNA fingerprint can easily be
compared to the DNA fingerprints
obtained from any body fluids
(such as blood and sperm),
fragments of skin or strands of
hair found at a crime scene.
DNA fingerprints can then be
used in court to prove innocence
(no DNA match) or guilt (DNA
match).
Using gene technology for cloning
In 1997, a lamb named Dolly was born in Scotland.
She was genetically identical to her mother and was
the first successful cloning of an adult mammal.
Cloning refers to the production of an organism from a
single cell. Each body cell contains all the information
needed to make a new organism. A clone results when
one of these body cells (in this case a cell from the
udder) is grown to produce a new individual.
In May 2000, Australias first cloned merino sheep
(Matilda) and first cloned calf (Suzi) were born. They
were produced using techniques similar to those used
to produce Dolly. Insects, cats and dogs have all been
cloned since these first efforts and there have been
claims of illegally cloned humans.
Prenatal testing by amniocentesis
7
Test for XY
chromosome.
cells which
fall off the
foetus
amniotic
cavity
a fluid-filled
region
around
the foetus.

2 Fluid is
centrifuged
to separate
cells.
3 Cells are
isolated and
grown in a
culture.
4
Test for genetic
diseases using
gene probes.
5
Test for
enzymes.
6
Test for abnormal
number of
chromosomes.
1 Fluid is removed
through the mothers
abdomen.
wall of
uterus

placenta
Fig 4.4.7
Who owns your genes?
The use of gene technology has paved the way for the patenting, marketing and sale of genetic materials and techniques. Biotechnology firms patent the data of gene sequences, together with a use for that data. For example, a firm might patent a gene it hopes to use to produce
a drug to overcome obesity. There is considerable debate surrounding these patents. Some argue they are necessary to support the costly research needed to produce new drugs. Others argue that patents inhibit research by giving one firm exclusive rights to a gene, and that
monopolies may control genetic remedies.
DNA matching
success
DNA matching has different
success rates depending
on which sample it
comes from:
blood 90 per cent
success
saliva on a cigarette butt
67 per cent
fallen hair 25 per cent
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To clone a sheep, a cell from a donor sheep is
obtained. In the case of Dolly, this cell came from the
udder of a ewe. An egg cell from another sheep is
also obtained. The DNA is removed from the egg cell.
The egg cell and the donor cell are fused to create a
single cell, the first cell of the new sheep. The fused
cell grows as a normal embryo. The embryo is grown
for several days in a glass dish, then implanted into a
host ewe to develop and be born in the usual way.
Therapeutic cloning
In the future, therapeutic cloning could help to repair
injuries by placing new nerve cells into a damaged
spinal cord, growing skin for burns victims, or
growing muscle cells to repair damage after a heart
attack.
Therapeutic cloning involves taking cells from a
person, extracting the DNA, and cloning the cells by
inserting the DNA into an egg. The egg grows and after
a few days the stem cells are removed from the egg.
These stem cells are special as they can grow into any
type of cell in the body, given the right conditions.
The cells can then be placed back into the person
the DNA came from in order to form the exact cells
required to repair the damaged tissue. These cells will
not be rejected since they have the same DNA as the
rest of the cells in that body. Maybe one day scientists
will be able to grow whole organs for transplant
this way.
Matilda is born.
cell from the
donor sheep
egg cell from
another sheep
DNA removed

egg cell without
DNA

two cells
fused
together

Embryo is grown
for several days in
a glass dish.
Embryo is
implanted
into a
host ewe.
Fig 4.4.9 Cloning Matilda
An egg being prepared for cloning. Here DNA is
removed using a fine hollow-glass probe. Fig 4.4.10
Matilda, the first cloned sheep in Australia,
was born in April 2000 but died of unknown
causes in February 2003. Dolly also died
earlier than otherwise expected, at the age
of six. In her last months, Dolly developed
arthritis and a deadly lung disease, both very
rare in a sheep of her young age. Fig 4.4.8
Woolly flocks
The technology used to produce Matilda and Suzi could help Australias future
wool and dairy industries. It takes many years of selective breeding to develop
a flock of sheep with improved qualities such as finer wool and good disease
resistance. If one sheep was found with the desired qualities, cloning could
produce that flock in a single generation!
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Gene cell therapy
Gene cell therapy involves removing the genetic
material from some body cells, manipulating it and
reinserting it into the same person. In the future, gene
cell therapy could overcome diseases such as cancer,
where the cancer-causing mutation is repaired. Gene
cell therapy may also be able to alter the DNA passed
from parent to child to prevent the inheritance of
diseases such as haemophilia. More controversially,
it could be used to design children by selecting
characteristics such as eye or hair colour and
body type.
Managing the risks
Cloning and gene cell therapy clearly offer benefits
but are not without risks. The ability to alter or
select the genetic material of a child raises many
ethical and moral questions. In Australia, the Genetic
Manipulation and Advisory Committee reviews
all experimental and commercial use of genetically
modified organisms.
Human genome
Gene technology relies on knowing where specific
genes are and what they do. A genetic map shows the
positions of specific genes along the chromosomes.
Maps have been developed for many organisms
such as bacteria, fruit fly, some fungi and corn. The
human genome project was an international effort to
determine the complete genetic code for humans. It
identifies every gene that codes for each characteristic,
as well as the base pairs that make up the genes. The
mapping stage of the project was completed in 2003.
Some surprising findings of the project follow.
For all people, 99.9 per cent of the genetic code is
the same.
Only 6 per cent of the DNA in a persons genetic
code actually codes for genes. The rest is termed
junk DNA.
The genetic map contains 32 000 genes, far fewer
than the expected 100 000.
The code specifies 26 000
proteins, but it is not
known how these proteins
all function and interact.
There is still a great deal
to be learned. Armed with
the map, many trials are
now underway to attempt
to use gene technology to
cure diseases ranging from
haemophilia to cancer.
Living longer
Francis Collins, head of
the human genome project,
has stated that by 2030
the genes involved in the
ageing process will be fully
catalogued. By 2040, gene
therapy and gene-based
designer drugs will be
available for most diseases,
and the average human life
span is then expected to be
ninety years.
Therapeutic cloning might cure
many diseases in the future.
Fertilised
egg
After 57 days
the egg grows
into a blastocyst
Inner stem cells
are collected
from blastocyst
Muscle cells

Skin cells

Nerve cells

Stem cells are
placed in
growth media
Healthy normal
cell taken
DNA of cell transferred
into an egg
Transported
back
without
rejection
Patient
Fig 4.4.11
Homework book 4.5 Human cloning
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Selective breeding
1 Give two examples of selective breeding.
2 Identify two advantages of selective breeding.
Using gene technology to improve an
organism
3 What is gene technology?
4 Give two examples of how gene technology has been
used to benefit humans.
5 Summarise five arguments that you think are most
important:
a in support of gene technology
b against gene technology.
6 a What is meant by a genetically modified plant?
b What is a transgenic animal?
7 a Use a diagram to help explain what plasmids are.
b Where are plasmids found?
c How are plasmids used in gene technology?
8 What is recombinant DNA?
Using gene technology for testing
9 a What is a gene probe?
b State two uses of gene probes.
10 List three characteristics of an embryo that can be
detected by prenatal testing.
11 How are the cells used in prenatal testing obtained?
12 DNA fingerprinting will always give the same results,
regardless of whether the sample comes from
someones blood, skin or hair. Explain why.
Using gene technology for cloning
13 Who or what were Dolly, Matilda and Suzi?
14 What evidence is there that cloning might be risky for
the animal produced?
15 Explain the difference between cloning and therapeutic
cloning.
16 What are the advantages of therapeutic cloning over
normal transplant procedures?
17 a What is gene cell therapy?
b Suggest two possible uses of gene cell therapy.
Human genome
18 What four surprising results did the human genome
project produce?
Thinking questions
19 Scientists have suggested that pet lovers will soon be
able to clone their dead dog or cat. Would a cloned
cat or dog have all the characteristics of the original
animal? Explain.
20 Imagine a persons genetic code was mapped and a
gene predisposing that person to heart disease was
identified.
a How might the person use this information?
b How might an insurance company or a prospective
employer use this information?
21 Bt cotton produces a protein that kills its major pest,
the Heliothis caterpillar. Other organisms might be
affected too. Make two suggestions how.
22 Suggest why some people insist that all GM foods be
labelled as such.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about genetics by connecting to
Use the destinations there to complete the following
activities.
1 Run the online electrophoresis experiment to separate
your own samples of DNA.
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2 Prepare a PowerPoint presentation describing the
details of the human genome project. Specifically find:
what it is
why it began
future benefits it might bring
associated ethical issues.
3 Prepare a letter or email to a local member of parliament
that outlines how a patent on a genetically modified
variety of wheat might affect an Australian wheat farmer.
>>
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164
explain how the persons genetics were used as a form
of discrimination
explain why genetics were used to determine job
placement
offer your point of view about whether this
discrimination is right or wrong
describe what happened in the end
explain what the title GATTACA refers to and why it is
relevant to the film
assess how realistic the film is
accurate.
an interview with the director, leading actor or the
biologist advising the director
or The Movie Show
a single page spread for an entertainment magazine
TV Week.
Imagining
How do you see it?
1 Imagine that a genetically modified soybean able
to tolerate a commonly used weedkiller has been
produced. Using this soybean would allow farmers to
spray to kill weeds without killing the soybean crop. It
is proposed that this soybean be planted in Australia.
Write two letters or emails to a newspaper. In one,
explain why you think the planting should be allowed.
In the other, explain why you think it should not be
allowed.
2 Suppose an experiment is being conducted to
genetically modify cows milk so that it has a
composition more like that of human breast milk. To
achieve this, a single human gene is to be inserted into
the DNA of a cows zygote (the first cell of a new cow).
Imagine you are the human gene. Write a short story
describing what happens to you during the course of
the experiment, and explain how you feel about being
used in this way.
at work SCIENCE
>>
The wheat variety is high yielding and drought-resistant
and the patent is owned by a multinational company.
Present your work in the way indicated.
Researching gene technology
Internet, etc.) to:
find arguments for and against the use of prenatal
testing and the use of early abortion for family planning
research why stem cells are of great interest to
scientists, and why there is controversy surrounding
their use.
a newspaper article, maybe using Microsoft Publisher
a class debate
a written essay.
Researching cloning
It has been suggested that extinct animals such as the
thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) or even dinosaurs might be
recreated using preserved DNA and cloning. Surf your
available resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias, Internet,
etc.) to research one such project.
a written report of your findings, including arguments for
and against recreating the animal
a trailer for a horror or science-fiction film about such
a recreation
a flow chart explaining how it might be done.
Reviewing
GATTACA
GATTACA is a science-fiction film set in the near future. In
this future world, the job you have is based on your genetics.
Watch the movie and prepare a film review about it. In your
review you must:
offer the views of different people in the film
include how you value them as a person
state how the genetics of a person were tested
explain how the main character effectively avoided
genetic testing
>>>
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Biotechnology and DNA fingerprinting:
Understanding technology
What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and
substances produced by them. Biotechnology can
also refer to biological techniques. Biotechnology
products include antibiotics, insulin, interferon and
recombinant DNA. Biotechnologies include waste
recycling, bio-batteries and DNA fingerprinting.
Humans have already exploited biotechnologies in
many ways. Plants and animals have been selectively
bred and chemicals have been extracted from animals
and plants to make medicines, glues, health products
and fibres. Because scientists can determine the
genetic code of any organism and can manipulate
genes, many new techniques have been developed.
Biotechnology and crime
Police and forensic scientists have always sought a
universal identifier that could be used to accurately
identify the perpetrator of a crime. Although
fingerprints were originally thought to have provided
the answer, criminals soon learned to wear gloves
or simply wipe clean any surface they touched.
The discovery of DNA and its characteristic genetic
code provided the universal identifier that forensic
scientists had dreamed of. The DNA within your
cells is unique. It cannot belong to anyone else. Also,
a person can leave DNA on anything they touch,
perhaps by losing a hair or dead skin cells. This
makes it almost certain that a criminal will leave
some evidence behind.
DNA fingerprinting
Some key biotechnologies are used in the DNA
fingerprinting process
Restriction enzymes
Restriction enzymes are protein molecules that can
bind to a particular sequence of base pairs in a DNA
molecule and then cut the DNA into sections.
Electrophoresis
After cutting the DNA molecule into smaller pieces,
scientists need to be able to separate these pieces
of DNA for analysis. The process for separating
DNA is called electrophoresis and is similar to
chromatography. The DNA samples are placed in a gel
at work SCIENCE
Fig 4.4.13
This technician is placing DNA
samples into the wells at the end of the
electrophoresis gel ready for separation.
The result will be a DNA fingerprint.
Fig 4.4.12 A fingerprint can easily be wiped away from a
crime scene. DNA is almost always left behind.
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and an electric current is applied. The current makes
the pieces of DNA move: larger pieces move slowly
through the gel and smaller pieces move faster. Pieces
of DNA separate across the gel according to their size.
Gene probes
There is a huge amount of DNA in a human cell
and much of this genetic material is very similar in
different people. To use DNA for solving crimes it is
necessary to find sections of the DNA that represent
genes that produce different but comparable results for
different people, such as the gene for a physical trait
for hair or eye colour.
Once these genes are identified, a way to mark
them while analysing DNA is needed. This is where
a gene probe is used. A gene probe is a small piece
of DNA with a base sequence identical to part of a
gene. This enables it to stick to a specific gene. By
attaching a radioactive atom (radioisotope) to the gene
probe, the radiation released will indicate where the
gene probe is attached. Gene probes that attach to the
sections of DNA required for analysis enable forensic
scientists to use the information provided by leftover
hair, skin, blood or other body fluids.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Only very small amounts of DNA are needed to
conduct DNA fingerprinting. The DNA required can
even be obtained from a corpse or a sample where the
DNA may have started to break down. If only a very
small amount of DNA is available for analysis then
a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
is used. In this technique, enzymes copy the DNA
sample many times, producing more identical DNA.
The sample can undergo DNA fingerprinting when
enough DNA has been produced.
Using DNA fingerprinting
Crime scene investigation
The process of DNA fingerprinting is outlined in Figure
4.4.16. DNA fingerprinting produces a barcode-type
result that is unique to each individual. By comparing
the DNA found at a crime scene with that of a suspect,
the perpetrator of a crime can be identified.
Fig 4.1.14 DNA fingerprints on X-ray film
C S1 S2 V St
Fig 4.4.15
Whodunnit? DNA fingerprints from
suspects (S1 and S2), the victim (V),
the crime scene (C) and a standard (St).
Who is guilty?
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1 DNA is extracted from blood or a cell sample.
DNA fingerprint on X-ray film
7 The radioactive DNA pattern is transferred
to X-ray film, giving the DNA fingerprint.
6 The excess probe material is washed away,
leaving a unique pattern.
5 A radioactive DNA probe is added that binds
to specific sequences in the DNA bonds.
4 DNA band pattern in the gel is transferred
to a nylon membrane.
3 Pieces of DNA are separated in a gel using
electric current. This process is called
electrophoresis and is very similar to
chromatography. Small DNA pieces move
faster and further than larger ones.
2 DNA is cut into fragments using enzymes.
DNA sample
power
supply
DNA samples move and
separate in electric current
gel
nylon
radioactive probe
agarose
gel
DNA samples
placed in wells
in the gel
conducting
solution
Fig 4.4.16 The process of DNA fingerprinting
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Paternity disputes
DNA fingerprinting is now used in legal cases where
the identity of a childs father might be in doubt.
Figure 4.4.17 shows the DNA fingerprints of two men
who were disputing who the father of the child is.
The results for the child and childs mother are also
shown. The arrows in the diagrams show where the
woman has been clearly identified as the mother. For
the man to be identified as the father, the childs DNA
must match his.
Other uses
DNA is a very stable molecule. Under the right
conditions and in certain tissues it can remain intact
for a very long time. For example, DNA in bones
or hair can remain intact for hundreds of years.
Archaeologists and anthropologists can therefore
analyse samples of DNA extracted from ancient
corpses, such as Egyptian mummies. The results
obtained in these studies are providing information
about the relationships between the different races of
humans, and about human evolution.
[
Student activities
]
Possible father 1
Possible father 2
Fig 4.4.17 Who is the father?
Surfing
Researching a biotechnology
encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to gather information
about how one of the following biotechnologies works:
electrophoresis, restriction enzymes, gene probes.
2 Construct a flow chart using a series of diagrams and
boxes to demonstrate how your chosen biotechnology
works.
Researching PCR
It has recently been suggested that the use of DNA for
crime solving might have serious flaws. The technology is
now so freely available that a criminal could potentially take
someone elses DNA, use a PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
to make copies of it, and then deliberately spread it around
at a crime scene.
encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to conduct research to
find out how DNA is replicated using PCR.
2 Produce a poster or cartoon to demonstrate how a
sample of DNA can be replicated by PCR.
3 Using an example, assess whether criminals using this
technique could influence the use of DNA as evidence
of their crime.
Analysing
Invasion of privacy
Some in the community have expressed concern that the
increasing use of human DNA and genetic information
could lead to an invasion of privacy and that the
information obtained by screening a persons DNA might
then be used for the wrong reasons.
>>
169
AATGCGTCTGATATCTCCCATGCACGCGCCCGGGATTACGTACCCGGGATCCGCGTAACACTGATATCTATT
1 Discuss this issue with classmates and construct a table
of the advantages and disadvantages that screening of
each persons DNA could have for society.
2 Evaluate this information and make a judgement as
to whether the collection of DNA-related information
should be allowed in the future and, if so, under what
conditions.
Cutting DNA
The base-sequence below represents a gene located in a
section of DNA that a forensic scientist wants to analyse.
Only one strand of the DNA is shown. The code for the
gene is shown in red. To cut up the DNA, a restriction
enzyme that recognises a particular sequence of six bases is
to be used. The restriction enzyme uses the base sequence
GATATC to allow it to identify the place where the DNA
should be cut.
Police collect DNA using a cottonbud-like
swab and seal the sample in a tube for
testing. A swab to collect cells is usually
taken from the inside of the cheek.
Fig 4.4.18
1 Copy the base sequence shown above and indicate the
locations where the restriction enzyme will attach to the
section of DNA for cutting.
2 Propose reasons why this particular restriction enzyme
was chosen to locate the place to cut the DNA.
3 Construct a sequence of six bases for a gene probe
that will attach to the gene.
Imagining
Giving DNA samples
Imagine you are in a small town where a serious crime
has been committed. In order to help catch the criminal,
the police have asked everyone to give a DNA sample for
analysis. This would either eliminate people as suspects or,
hopefully, confirm the criminals identity.
a Discuss whether giving a DNA sample should be
voluntary or compulsory.
b A person has chosen not to give a DNA sample as
they fear their genetic information may be misused.
Account for this persons decision.
c Do you think that a person who chooses not to
give a DNA sample should be treated any differently
than a person who does give one? Justify your
answer.
d Propose a set of guidelines that could be used when
collecting DNA samples for analysis in this town,
to convince people that their DNA would not be
misused.
AATGCGTCTGATATCTCCCATGCACGCGCCCGGGATTACGTACCCGGGATCCGCGTAACACTGATATCTATT
170
>>>
Chapter review
8 Match the following terms to the appropriate
description:
Terms Descriptions
codon causes a spontaneous change
in a gene or chromosome
genetic map a small piece of DNA that
recognises a gene
plasmid an organism with a new gene
gene probe shows positions of genes on
chromosomes
recombinant DNA a circular piece of DNA
transgenic organism a molecule containing DNA from
two organisms
mutagen a sequence of three bases that
codes for an amino acid
9 Explain what is meant by:
a gene technology
b cloning
c gene cell therapy.
[
Thinking questions
]
10 The ability to taste a bitter chemical known as PTC is
dominant over the inability to taste it. Three children in a
family can taste PTC; one cannot. Explain whether it is
possible for both parents to be:
a non-tasters of PTC
b tasters of PTC.
11 Explain how a mutation may be:
a harmful to an individual but have no effect on the
species
b harmful to the species but not to the individual
c beneficial to the species.
12 a What percentage of your total DNA base sequence is
the same as that of your classmates?
b Is it possible for two people to have exactly the same
total DNA base sequence? Justify your answer.
[
Summary questions
]
1 Give examples to describe two influences that make you
what you are.
2 In Mendels pea plants, long-stem flowers were
dominant over short-stem flowers. Stem length is
controlled by a single gene with dominant and recessive
alleles. Use this example to explain what is meant by the
terms:
a allele
b genotype
c phenotype
d homozygous
e heterozygous.
3 Distinguish between genes, chromosomes and DNA.
4 Which of the following statements are correct for:
a mitosis
b meiosis?
i It involves replication of DNA strands.
ii Two daughter cells are produced.
iii Four daughter cells are produced.
iv It produces cells with half the chromosome
number of the parent cell.
v It occurs in most body cells.
5 Match the following terms to the appropriate
description:
Terms Descriptions
meiosis the chemical that carries the genetic code
mitosis a hereditary unit
diploid cell division producing gametes
haploid cell division producing daughter cells
identical to the parent cell
gene a cell having two of each type of
chromosome
DNA a cell having one of each type of
chromosome
6 Using examples, explain the difference between
continuous and discontinuous variation within a
population.
7 The structure of DNA may be likened to that of a
twisted ladder.
a What forms the uprights of the ladder?
b What forms the rungs of the ladder?
c What name is given to the DNA structure?
171
Homework book 4.6 Genetics crossword
18 A pedigree for a rare X-linked disease is shown in
Figure 4.5.1. The symbols used to show the relevant
genes are X
m
for the recessive gene on the X
chromosome and X
M
for the normal gene on the X
chromosome.
a State the genotypes of individuals:
i generation II male 3
ii the female partner of generation II male 3
iii generation III male 1.
b Is the disease carried by a dominant or a recessive
gene?
c What is the probability that a male child of
generation III female 2 and her partner will have the
disease?
[
Analysis questions
]
13 Colour blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder. The
symbols used to show the relevant genes are X
n
for
the recessive gene on the X chromosome and X
N
for
the normal gene on the X chromosome. A colour-blind
female has children with a non-colour-blind male.
a What are the two possible genotypes of their
offspring?
b Their daughters will be carriers of the disorder.
Explain what this means.
14 In fruit fly, the allele that produces red eyes (R) is
dominant over the allele for white eyes (r). A red-eyed
heterozygous fruit fly is crossed with a white-eyed
fruit fly.
a State the genotype of each fruit fly.
b List the possible genotypes of the offspring.
c What percentage of offspring would be expected to
have each of the genotypes listed in (b)?
d What are the possible phenotypes of the offspring?
e What percentage of offspring would be expected to
have each of the phenotypes listed in (c)?
15 For snapdragons, a cross between a plant with red
flowers (RR) and a plant with white flowers (WW)
produces a plant with pink flowers. Predict the expected
ratio of red, white and pink flowers in the offspring of a
cross between:
a red-flowered and pink-flowered plants
b two pink-flowered plants.
16 The father of a child has blood group AB; the mother
has group O. What are the possible blood groups of the
child?
17 Albinism is caused by a single recessive gene (a). Two
people heterozygous for albinism produce a child.
a Predict whether the parents are albino.
b What are the chances that the child will be albino?
1
1 2
2
1 2
3
I
II
III
IV
Fig 4.19
5
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V
E
L

6
Standards:
Learning focus
G
e
t
t
i
n
g

s
t
a
r
t
e
d
Health
disease
and
Students:
that may initially be tentative and limited, examples being
the development of medicines and genetic inheritance
explore the role of DNA and genes in determining patterns
of inheritance.
investigate cell division (mitosis and meiosis) and the action
of micro-organisms
neuroscience
extensively
popular media
society, such as stem-cell research, personal safety, a clean
and healthy environment, the history and philosophy of
science, ethics and science research.
Students:
explain how the action of micro-organisms can be both
beneficial and detrimental to society
explain the role of DNA and genes in cell division and
genetic inheritance.
1 Rank your health from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent).
Why did you give yourself that number?
2 How much exercise should you do each week to stay healthy?
3 What diseases have you had so far?
4 Things are probably living inside you right now. What could
they be?
5 What vaccinations have you had in the past?
6 It is usually a waste of time and money taking antibiotics
for a cold or the flu. Why?
173
UNIT
UNIT
5
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5
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Requirements for good health
Although there are many factors that contribute
to good health, three vital components are good
nutrition, a healthy mind and adequate exercise. It is
important to pay attention to all of these factors or you
quickly become unhealthy. It is not enough to eat well
but never exercise, or to have a healthy mind but eat
only cheeseburgers.
Good nutrition
Organisms must take in nutrients to survive. A
nutrient is any substance that is used by an organism
either as a source of energy or to build living tissue.
Fats, proteins and carbohydrates are the main nutrients
for the human body since they provide us with energy.
Fig 5.1.2 If you function effectively in your
environment then you are in good health.
Are you healthy? What about you indicates that
you are healthy or not? How can you tell? The term
good health means different things to different
people. A person in a third-world slum may think
that they are in good health because they are able
to walk and work when many of those around
them cannot. You may look at that same person
and think they are in very poor health because they
may be malnourished or have skin diseases from
contaminated water. Good health is not the total
absence of disease but means that a person has an
overall sense of wellbeing and is able to function
well within their environment.
Health fact file
Energy is measured in joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ):
1 kJ = 1000 J
An older unit of energy is the calorie:
1 calorie = 4.2 kJ.
Fat supplies about 38 kJ of energy per gram,
while carbohydrates and protein each supply about
17 kJ per gram.
A balanced diet consists of a variety of foods
including fresh fruit and vegetables, breads and
cereals, dairy products, fish, lean meats and water.
It is best to avoid or limit foods that are high in fat,
sugar and salt.
Fig 5.1.1 Slum dwellers are prone to malnutrition and
infectious diseases. Health is a relative term.
174
>>>
Metabolism and food intake
As well as needing energy for movement and normal
body functions, your body needs to be kept at 37C,
the temperature at which your organs work best. The
amount of energy that different people need depends
on their size and metabolism, which itself depends on
age, health and activity levels.
Children need more energy than adults because
they are still growing. Highly active people require
more energy than inactive, sedentary people. If you
take in more energy than your body can use, it stores
the excess as fat. If you use more energy than you take
in, your body breaks down the fat and carbohydrates
in your body to use for energy. If these run out, your
body then starts to break down muscle protein.
An average teenager requires about 10 000 to
12 000 kJ of energy per day. This is roughly the same
as the amount of energy it would take to raise the
temperature of 38 litres of cold water to boiling point
(100C).
In addition to energy-giving nutrients, your body
needs other types of nutrients to stay healthy:
Dietary fibre, which cannot be digested, is
important for the health of your digestive system.
Vitamins, such as A, B12 and C, and minerals,
such as iron and calcium, are essential in
small amounts. They are
naturally supplied in a
balanced diet, and so vitamin
and mineral supplements are
usually not necessary. In fact,
too much of some vitamins can
be just as dangerous as too little.
Prac 1
p. 177
Fatty food
Be careful about following the current trend of low-
fat food. While a low-fat diet can be healthy, many
products advertised as low fat are extremely high in
sugar. Although this sugar makes the food tasty, too
much sugar can lead to many health problems and
will be converted into fat anyway!
Uses of some vitamins and minerals in the
body and the effects of deficiency
Fig 5.1.4
Vitamin A is important
for healthy sight
Fluoride strengthens
tooth enamel and
bones
Cracks at the corner
of the mouth show
a lack of vitamin B
1
Calcium is
important in
bone and teeth
formation
Skin problems
could mean a
lack of zinc
A lack of folate
leads to anaemia
and intestinal
damage
Vitamin K is involved
in blood clotting
Potassium helps
carry nerve impulses
Chromium
helps maintain
the glucose
concentration
of the blood
A lack of iron
results in anaemia
Vitamin C helps
form connective
tissue
indulgences or extras
meat and alternatives
milk and milk products
fruits
vegetables
breads and
cereals
no more than 2
1 serve (2)
2 serves (3)
4 serves (4)
5+ serves
(912)
3 serves (3)
Fig 5.1.3 The food pyramid, showing the proportions of each food
group needed for a balanced diet. Chips, fried foods and
lollies are fine occasionally, but should only ever make
up the smallest part of your food intake.
Health Health
175
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A vitamin C deficiency can lead to scurvy,
resulting in overgrowth of gums, bleeding
and loose teeth. Fig 5.1.5
Healthy mind
An old saying states that the mind is the greatest
healer, implying that the mind strongly influences
your wellbeing. Many alternative healing methods are
based on this idea. Your thoughts and feelings have
the power to affect every system in your body.
Psychosomatic illnesses are those caused by a poor
mental state (psycho means mind; somatic means
body). Some people think of these as imaginary
illnesses, but their effects on the body are very real.
Examples of psychosomatic illnesses are:
some forms of depression
anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder characterised
by starvation
bulimia nervosa, another eating disorder marked
by a bingepurge cycle.
Other disorders, such as acne and constipation, can
be made much worse by negative thoughts and feelings.
Fig 5.1.6 Exercise need not be as strenuous as
footballbrisk walks or jogging can
provide the exercise you need.
Adequate exercise
You need to exercise to be healthy. Exercise can range
from playing vigorous sports like tennis to a brisk
walk. It is important to choose something you enjoy or
else you will stop doing it. The exercise you do will
need to change as you age. Whatever your age and
fitness, most people should aim to do some type of
weight-bearing exercise that increases their heart rate
for at least 20 minutes, at least three times per week.
5
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Requirements for good health
1 What is meant by the term good health?
2 Explain why health is a relative term.
Good nutrition
3 Are the following statements true or false?
a Protein provides more energy per gram than fat does.
b Nowadays, energy is measured in joules or kilojoules.
c Your body doesnt need energy when you are asleep.
d Children need more energy than adults.
e 1000 J = 1 kJ
4 What is a nutrient?
5 What is your ideal body temperature?
6 Identify one mineral and one vitamin that your body
needs.
7 List the main nutrients for a human.
8 Some foods should only be eaten in limited amounts.
Suggest which foods these are.
9 What does a persons metabolism depend on?
Healthy mind
10 List three psychosomatic diseases.
Adequate exercise
11 How often should you exercise each week and what
type of exercise should it be?
12 Explain why the type of exercise you do should
change as you get older.
Homework book 5.1 Glycemic index and load
>>
5
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176
>>>
Thinking questions
13 Match the following words to their definitions:
Terms Definitions
psychosomatic substance taken in and used for
energy or to build tissue
nutrient caused by the mind
organism a mineral used by the body
calcium any plant or animal
14 Predict whether teenage girls would need to eat more
than teenage boys. Explain your reasoning.
15 Astronauts tend to lose muscle mass in space. Suggest
why this happens.
16 List age-appropriate activities to keep these people
healthy:
a a Year 10 student
b a 40-year-old man
c a 70-year-old woman.
17 a Identify three things you currently do that will keep
you healthy.
b Identify three unhealthy things you do that you could
change.
Analysis questions
18 Arrange these people in order from the person who
would need to take in the most energy per day to the
person who would need the least:
a baby an elite athlete
an active teenager a 40-year-old secretary
a taxi driver
19 Every day, a teenager needs enough energy to heat
38 litres of water to 100C just to keep warm. What
volume is this equivalent to? Is it a bucket, a rubbish
bin, a bathtub or a swimming pool?
20 Write down a daily menu for a balanced diet. Think
carefully about what you might include.
U
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about nutrition by connecting to
at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary,
button. While there visit:
the Nutrition Caf and act as a nutrition sleuth, solving
the mystery of the missing nutrients for various patients
the Have-a-Bite Caf and assess whether your diet is
healthy or not
the Better Health Channel and select a healthy menu
that provides the nutrients that are missing in your diet.
Researching vitamins
Choose a vitamin and surf your available resources
(textbooks, encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to find what
happens if you have too much (toxicity) or too little
(deficiency) of that vitamin.
Present your findings as a label for a bottle of your chosen
vitamin. Include enough information so that people reading
the label will understand exactly how it should be used and
what the effects will be.
Researching health
Internet, etc.) to research the diseases prevalent in slum
areas or in a poor, third-world country. Find out:
how these diseases are related to the poor conditions
in which the people live
how these problems could be eradicated.
a letter to the World Health Organization (WHO)
recommending action that should be taken to reduce
disease in those areas
a campaign for a charity organisation that will gather
funds to improve the health in those areas
a speech to Year 10 students encouraging them to
donate money to a campaign for funds to improve the
health in those areas.
Researching alternative healing
Internet, etc.) to research methods such as acupuncture,
Reiki, homoeopathy and reflexology. Whatever you choose:
describe what the technique involves
explain how the healing technique is supposed to work
>>
5
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SCIENCE
Health Health
177
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[
Practical activity
] 5
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Which brand of orange juice has the most vitamin C?
Prac 1
Unit 5.1
1 Starch solution
+ 3 drops iodine
4 Repeat for juices.
test solution
3 Continue
until colour
disappears.
2 Fill each tube
to 3 cm depth.
Fig 5.1.7
You will need
Starch suspension, iodine solution, four test
tubes, test-tube rack, vitamin C solution (dissolve
vitamin C tablet or powder in 50 mL of water),
200 mL beaker, three different kinds of orange
juice, stirring rod, dropper, lab coat, safety
glasses, gloves
What to do
1 Half fill the beaker with starch suspension. Add 3 drops
of iodine solution. Stir well. The colour of the mixture
should now be purple.
2 Pour the mixture into each test tube to 3 cm depth.
(Make sure your test tubes are the same size.)
3 Using the dropper, drop vitamin C solution into the first
tube until the blue colour disappears. Record how many
drops it took.
4 Do exactly the same for the other three test tubes, but
use the different juices instead of the vitamin C solution.
Record how many drops of each it took until the
solution was colourless. The more drops it takes, the
less vitamin C that brand contains.
Questions
1 Which brand had the most vitamin C and which had the
least?
2 Construct a bar graph to show your results.
3 List five foods that you know are good sources of
vitamin C.
gather evidence for or against the method
evaluate whether the technique you researched is
effective.
an article for a medical journal
a segment for a TV current affairs or health program
a pamphlet to be given out at health insurance offices.
Health insurance
Medicare, how it gets its funding and what it provides
at least three private health insurance providers and the
different policies they offer. Analyse which of the private
providers and which of the policies would be the best
for a healthy young person and which would be best for
an older person with ongoing health problems.
Present your work as a folio that includes:
a brief written summary of Medicare
a copy of the tables from the private insurance provider
showing the benefits and cost of the policies you chose
a brief written explanation why you chose those policies.
Recording
Balanced diet diary
Record in a diary what you eat for one week and what
exercise you did. Remember to include all your snacks and
to include things that you might not consider exercise such
as walking to school. Analyse your diary to determine if
you are eating a balanced diet and whether you are getting
enough exercise. Recommend changes to your diet or
exercise routine to make it healthier.
Present your work as a list of recommendations.
at work SCIENCE
>>
5
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178
at work SCIENCE
After some 60 000 years alone on the continent, the
Aborigines of Australia suddenly had to contend
with European settlement from 1788. Not only
did this dispossess them from their land and their
traditional hunting grounds, it also began the breakup
of traditional social structures and the Dreamtime
stories that were passed on through them. Also, until
the 1970s, some Aboriginal children were forcibly
removed from their parents to form what has become
known as the Stolen Generation. Although difficult
to determine exactly, the impact of these changes
on the health of Aborigines has been profound:
Australians of Aboriginal descent now statistically
have a shorter life than those of European descent.
Fig 5.1.8 Aboriginal healing: applying white clay in a
healing ceremony
Analysing Aboriginal health
Aboriginal diet
Traditional diet
Before white settlement, the Aboriginal people were
hunter-gatherers. This involved collecting plants,
seeds, nuts, fruits and hunting animals. This food was
low in fat and sugars (low in kilojoules), but high in
carbohydrates, fibre, protein and nutrients. Overall
this was a healthy diet.
Fig 5.1.9 Before white settlement, Aboriginal people
hunted and collected foods.
The daily diet of Aborigines changed depending
on the season and plants or animals available. Some
foods like meat, honey, witchetty grubs and insects
were energy-rich. The hunter-gatherer lifestyle also
179
[
Student activities
]
5 Compare the traditional Aboriginal diet with:
a a modern Aboriginal diet
b your own diet.
6 Propose reasons why the Aboriginal diet changed so
much after settlement.
gave Aboriginal people plenty of exercise. Diet-related
diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes,
were uncommon.
New foods
After Europeans arrived, the traditional Aboriginal
diet began to include more foods, such as flour,
sugar and processed meat. Aboriginal people had
less chance to gather traditional foods. Settlement
destroyed the hunting areas of those who remained
on the land. New animals, plants and more frequent
bushfires all further restricted their food-gathering
capacity. Those Aboriginal people who were shifted to
government settlements or worked on cattle stations
either had their movement restricted or did not have
the time needed to go out foraging in the old ways.
As a result, the typical Aboriginal diet began to lack
nutrients such as protein, vitamins and minerals.
Modern diet
Modern Aboriginal diets are very different to the diets
of their ancestors and this has led to an exceptionally
high rate of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in the
Indigenous population. The typical Aboriginal diet
today is much more westernisedhigh in fats and
sugar, high in energy but with little nutrition. Exercise
has also decreased since now there is no longer a need
to gather food. The range of foods available to outback
communities is limited, particularly fresh fruit and
vegetables.
Surveys indicate that urban Aboriginal people eat
more fast food and salt than non-Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory consume
more sugar, white flour and carbonated soft drinks
than the Australian average. The typical modern
Aboriginal diet, whether city or country, is especially
low in vitamin C, calcium and magnesium.
The change of diet in Aboriginal communities
has led to many lifestyle diseases, including obesity,
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure,
certain cancers and stroke. Since these diseases are
more common in Aboriginal communities than in
non-Aboriginal ones, health organisations are trying
to improve the diets of Aboriginal people.
Introduction of European
diseases
Early European settlers brought in many new
diseases for which Aborigines had no resistance and
no traditional remedies. Smallpox plagues swept
through Aboriginal Australia, killing as much as half
the population. Influenza, tuberculosis, syphilis and
other diseases all reduced the Aboriginal population
even further.
Review questions
1 Australian Aborigines were traditionally hunter-gathers.
List foods that fit this description.
2 Outline the nutritional benefits of the traditional
Aboriginal diet.
3 List three food types introduced by European
settlement.
4 List three nutrients that were reduced after settlement.
180
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
Diseases and disorders are anything that makes you
feel unwell or makes you unable to function properly
in your environment. These medical conditions cause
symptoms such as nausea, rashes, fever, blurred
vision or stiffness in your joints. These symptoms
indicate that the body is not working properly.
5
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5
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Some common diseases and their symptoms Fig 5.2.1
Botulism (a type of food poisoning)
causes blurred or double vision and
difficulty swallowing.
Mumps causes fever,
swelling and tenderness
of the salivary glands.
Influenza causes headaches,
fever, chills, cough and
body aches.
The common cold produces
headache and a runny nose.
Chickenpox causes an itchy,
blister-like rash. Measles also
causes a red, blotchy rash.
Tuberculosis causes night
sweats and a persistent cough.
Fig 5.2.2 The symptoms of chickenpox are very clear.
Disease or disorder?
A disease is a medical condition caused by an external pathogen that
has been picked up from outside your body. A disorder is a medical
condition that is not caused by a pathogen. Sometimes common usage
confuses the two. For example, heart disease is a commonly used term
but it should really be re-named heart disorder when there is no external
pathogen involved.
181
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Pathology
The study of disease is called
pathology (pathos means
suffering; logos means study)
and people that work in this
field are called pathologists.
Here are some of the common
terms used in pathology.
An organism is any living
thing, plant or animal. You
are an organism, as is your
dog, the fleas that live on it
and the grass it lies on.
A micro-organism (often
called a microbe) is a very
small organism that can
be seen only by using a
microscope. Sometimes
micro-organisms consist of
only one cell. Bacteria and
viruses (sometimes referred
to as germs) are examples of
micro-organisms.
An agent or pathogen is
something that causes
disease.
A host is the organism being
affected by the agent or
pathogen.
A parasite is a pathogen that uses the host for food
or shelter.
An infection occurs when your body has been
invaded by foreign organisms. The pathogen is
considered infectious if it is able to multiply easily
in your body and is able to be passed on to others.
Virulence is a measure of how much damage a
disease does to its host. Highly virulent diseases
cause very serious symptoms, perhaps death.
There will always be disease in the world. Endemic
means that a disease is normally present in a small
number of people in the population.
An epidemic is when there are higher than normal
numbers of people affected by a particular disease
in a certain place.
An outbreak is when there is a sudden increase in
the number of people affected by a disease.
Causes of disease
Disease can be caused by many factors, some infectious,
some avoidable and others you are born with.
Forensic pathology
Whenever a person dies,
a cause of death must be
established before the
death certificate can be
signed. This is the job of
the forensic pathologist.
Even when the cause
seems obvious (such
as a gunshot wound or
drowning), the forensic
pathologist must still try to
find out as many facts as
possible. Sometimes they
find out unexpected things.
When American President
John F. Kennedy was
gunned down in Dallas
in 1963, the cause of
death was clear. The
autopsy, however, revealed
a well-kept secret. His
adrenal glands were
shrivelled up, a clear
sign that he had been
suffering from Addisons
disease. Addisons
disease can cause chronic
fatigue, nausea, weak
muscles, irritability and
depressionnot a good
image for a world leader,
especially one that took the
USA and USSR to the brink
of nuclear war!
The body can be invaded by micro-organisms such
as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. These
diseases are usually infectious.
Parasites such as worms can be caught from other
infected people. These would then invade the body.
Some part of the body can malfunction due to
some imperfection or fault. For example, diabetes
can develop if the pancreas isnt working properly.
Environmental factors (such as air and water
pollution and exposure to UV radiation) can cause
your body not to function properly.
Lifestyle factors can also cause your body not to
function properly. These factors are self-inflicted
and include drug abuse, overuse of alcohol,
smoking, sunbaking and diets high in fat and sugar.
Genetic disorders or diseases that your parents had
or carried. You do not catch these diseases,
but are born with them.
Homework book 5.2 Outbreak!
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Case study
Legionnaires disease
In July 1976, the Bellevue-Stratford hotel in
Philadelphia hosted the fifty-eighth state convention
of the American Legion Department of Pennsylvania.
Not long after, thirty-four of the participants were
dead of a pneumonia-like illness and a further 221
were seriously ill.
A previously unknown bacterium caused the
outbreak and it took one year to identify it. The
bacterium was named Legionella, and the disease
named Legionnaires disease, in memory of those it
had infected. Legionella bacteria reproduce best in
the warm, stagnant water commonly found in hot-
water tanks, cooling towers, or large air-conditioning
systems like the one in the Bellevue-Stratford hotel.
Legionella outbreaks occasionally occur in building
blocks where the water-cooling systems have not
been cleaned or disinfected properly. In 2000, 114
people were infected with Legionnaires disease
when they visited the Melbourne Aquarium. Two
later died and another seventeen were admitted to
hospital. In 2006, one man died and at least eleven
others were infected in Preston, Victoria, after
visiting a telephone showroom there.
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Questions
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Revision questions
Pathology
1 Define the terms infection and virulence.
2 Match these words to their definitions.
symptom study of disease
pathology something that causes disease
microbe outward sign of disease
pathogen very small organism
infectious pathogen that uses a host for food
or shelter
host organism being affected by pathogen
parasite can be passed to another host
3 Identify two major categories of micro-organisms.
4 Explain the difference between the terms endemic,
epidemic and outbreak.
Case study: Legionnaires disease
5 When was Legionnaires disease first detected?
6 What type of micro-organism causes it?
7 Under what conditions does it reproduce rapidly?
8 How could this disease be prevented?
Causes of disease
9 List six possible causes of disease, giving an example
of each.
Thinking questions
10 What are some likely symptoms of the following
diseases?
a a cold b chicken pox c tinea (athletes foot)
11 How does being very small help agents spread disease?
12 Ebola is an extremely virulent virus that kills incredibly
quickly. Suggest why this virus rarely spreads beyond
the remote African villages it appears in.
13 Suggest a disease that could be considered infectious
and another that could be considered non-infectious.
14 What are three diseases that you have had? What
symptoms did you show and what treatment were
you given?
15 Someone has a fever. Does this mean that they have
contracted an infectious disease?
16 Many scientists believe that bird flu or avian flu may
spread and become a pandemic. Suggest what this
means and how it might differ from an epidemic and
an outbreak.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about diseases by connecting
button. While there:
find an example of a virulent disease and a non-virulent
disease and note what the end-result of each disease is.
Compare each disease as a written document
study an outbreak of a disease in Australia such as
flu, Legionnaires disease or meningococcal disease.
Prepare a table of data showing the location of the
outbreak, the numbers involved, the cause of the
outbreak and how (if ever) it came under control.
Present your findings in the form indicated.
5
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SCIENCE
Debating
Infection control
Ebola is an incredibly infectious disease that kills
quickly and horribly, so quickly that it has little chance
of spreading beyond the African villages that it tends to
hit. SARS (sudden acute respiratory syndrome) is also
highly infectious and also deadly. Its incubation is longer,
meaning that it can spread. When it last hit Hong Kong,
whole apartment blocks were quarantined and treated like
prisons; no-one was allowed to exit or enter. Others were
forcibly detained in prison camps. What controls do you
think authorities should have when confronted with the
spread of a disease like Ebola or SARS? Contrast the rights
of the individual with the rights of the wider community. In
groups, come to an agreed position and then run a class
debate on the topic.
Diseases and disorders Diseases and disorders
183
One unprotected sneeze or cough from someone
around you is enough to make you sick. When
someone sneezes or coughs, thousands of individual
pathogens are sprayed into the air you breathe. Some
might land on food you are about to eat, or onto a
plate or bench on which you later place food or
Sneezing is a wonderful way of
spreading infection.
Fig 5.3.1
Diseases caused by
micro-organisms
Not all micro-organisms are harmful to humans. In
fact, some are very helpful. Some micro-organisms
serve as food sources, others help decompose wastes.
Some help protect you from disease and others aid
digestion. Only a few micro-organisms cause disease.
Agent Type Disease caused Symptoms
rabies virus rabies paralysis, spasms, fever, overproduction of saliva
varicella virus chickenpox fever, itchy blister-like rash
Vibrio cholerae bacteria cholera diarrhoea, vomiting and dehydration
Clostridium botilinum bacteria food poisoning blurred vision, weakness, difficulty swallowing and occasionally death
Giardia lamblia protozoa giardia nausea, flatulence, diarrhoea
Toxoplasma gondii protozoa toxoplasmosis acute form causes fever, chills, rash, exhaustion
Candida albicans fungi thrush creamy mucus, can be oral or vaginal
Tinea capitis fungi ringworm (scalp) rounded areas of scaling and baldness
touch with your hand. Only a few need to gain entry
to infect you, making infectious diseases very easy to
spread. Any disease that is transmitted easily from
person to person is called a communicable disease.
The micro-organisms that cause disease are known as
pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses,
protists or protozoa and fungi.
The table below shows some examples of disease-
causing micro-organisms and what they do.
Relative sizes of some viruses,
bacteria, protozoa and fungi
yeast
25
20
15
10
5
0
Viruses Bacteria Protozoa Fungi
E
b
o
l
a
H
I
V
s
m
a
l
l
p
o
x
c
h
o
l
e
r
a
s
y
p
h
i
l
i
s
T
B
malaria
L
e
n
g
t
h

(
m
)
Fig 5.3.2
UNIT
UNIT
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Microscopic bacteria are around us all the
time. There are about a billion in every
teaspoonful of soil and there are probably
more bacteria on your skin than there are
people on Earth.
Bacteria can be identified by their shape.
They may be rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral
(spirilla) or spherical (cocci). All bacteria
consist of one cell only, but they can join
together to form pairs, chains or clusters.
Bacteria
Fig 5.3.3 All of these things were
produced with the help of
bacteria. The holes in Swiss
cheese are left after gas was
produced by the bacteria.
Fig 5.3.6 A severe bacterial infection can lead to gangrene.
The black on this finger is dead tissue and will
need to be amputated. Smoking increases your
risk of gangrene.
Prac 1
p. 191
syphilis
cocci (singular: coccus)
gonorrhoea
tonsillitis
sarcina
staphylococcus
diphtheria, typhoid
Appearance Type Examples
diplococci
streptococci (chains)
tetrads (groups of 4)
clusters
bacilli (rods)
spirilla (spiral forms)
coccidiosis
Fig 5.3.4 Common bacteria shapes
Bacteria can multiply very quickly under the right
conditions. If conditions are not favourable for growth,
some types of bacteria can form thick-walled spores
that allow them to withstand cold, heat and prolonged
drying. They can remain inactive for days or even
years.
Many types of bacteria can be killed using
penicillin or other types of antibiotics.
A scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of
Staphylococcus aureus, the bacteria that lives on
your skin and up your nose. This is the bacterium
that causes the pus in a pimple.
Fig 5.3.5
Prac 2
p. 191
Infectious diseases Infectious diseases
Hand-dryers versus towels
Most people do not keep their hands long enough under hand-dryers to
completely dry them. They walk out of the toilet with hands that are still
wet and many wipe them on their clothes to finish drying them. Bacteria
also love the warm, moist atmosphere in dryers and get blown all over
your freshly washed hands. American researchers have found that using
a hand-dryer increases the bacteria count on your hand by up to 255
per cent, while paper towels and continuous-loop cotton towels reduce
bacteria counts by about half.
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cold sores come and go, but the virus is always there,
awaiting the right conditions for rapid reproduction
and re-appearance. Other viruses
do not kill the cell they infect, but
reprogram it in a way that causes
it to become cancerous.
Viruses are very hard to treat
because they are not cells. They
are not stopped by antibiotics.
With most viral infections you
simply have to wait until your
body uses its own defences to
stop and kill the invading virus.
Case study
Plague
The Yersinia pestis bacterium (formerly Pasteurella
pestis), is the pathogen responsible for bubonic
plaguethe Black Death. Between 1347 and 1352,
an outbreak of this disease killed a third of Europes
populationan estimated 25 million people. It was
spread by the fleas on rats.
Viruses
Viruses are so small that they can be seen only with
an electron microscope. Viruses are not considered to
be living things because they do not self-reproduce,
grow, feed or produce waste. They do move from
place to place, but only if they hitch a ride on
something, such as other organisms, wind or water.
Unlike bacteria, viruses are not cells.
Viruses are parasitic invaders made of DNA (or
a similar material called RNA) coated in protein.
They attach themselves to a suitable host cell, enter
it and take it over. They hijack the
cell, reprogramming it to make
more virus particles. Eventually
there are so many virus particles
inside the cell that it breaks open,
releasing the virus particles,
which then invade other cells.
Some viruses invade cells and
remain dormant or inactive for
long periods of time. An example
is the herpes simplex virus that
is responsible for cold sores:
Does your doctor wear a tie?
In 2004, Israeli researchers found that the neckties worn by doctors might
transmit disease from one patient to another. A comparison of the ties worn in
a New York hospital showed that doctors ties were eight times more likely to
be covered in disease-causing microbes than the ties worn by security guards
working there. Doctors ties get sneezed on and coughed on many times
each day. They then go home, but unlike all the other doctors clothes, they
rarely, if ever, get cleaned. They then go to work the next day, loaded with the
microbes collected the day before. The ties are known as fomites, non-living
materials that can transmit bacteria.
Rat virus
New viruses are emerging
all the time. The Sabia
virus first appeared in
1990 when a woman in the
town of Sabia, Brazil, died
from a virus that had been
affecting local rodents for
years.
Case study
Animal-human transmission
In general, it is rare for diseases to transmit from
animals to humans. Close contact might give you
fleas, diarrhoea or intestinal worms, but rarely
anything worse than that. Sometimes close contact
has been beneficial: humans exposed to cowpox, for
instance, were protected from the deadly disease
of smallpox.
Scientists believe, however, that new diseases
have recently transferred from animals to humans:
HIVAIDS from chimpanzees and bird flu (or avian
influenza A, H5N1) from birds.
Viruses mutate all the time, forming varieties
that humans find difficult to fight. It is thought
that HIV is a mutated version of SIV (simian
immunodeficiency virus) that chimpanzees carry,
and that H5N1 is a mutated form of bird flu.
Humans were immune to SIV and bird flu, but we
are not immune to their new mutated forms.
HIV has already killed tens of millions in a
world-wide pandemic and bird flu threatens to do
the same. Although small outbreaks of bird flu have
been occurring in Asia since 1997, migrating birds
began spreading the virus in 2005 and 2006 to the
rest of the world. Bird flu is deadly, but so far it has
infected only those who work in close proximity
to infected poultry. Health experts worry about the
possibility of H5N1 mutating further to become a
virus that can be transmitted as easily from human
to human as the common cold.
The fat virus
A virus known as SMAM-1
is a relative of the common
cold but has very different
symptoms. Instead of
coughs and sneezes,
SMAM-1 is thought to
cause obesity.
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Protozoa
Diseases caused by protozoa (sometimes called
protists) are most often seen in tropical and subtropical
areas. Like bacteria, protozoa are single-celled. Most
protozoa are harmless to humans, but some parasitic
types can cause serious illness. Protozoa sometimes
form protective cysts around themselves if conditions
are unfavourable, allowing them to survive between
outbreaks. Examples of protozoa that cause disease
are Giardia and Cryptosporidium. These protozoa
contaminate water supplies.
Plasmodium is a parasitic protozoan that lives in
red blood cells and liver cells and causes the common
tropical disease, malaria. Falciparum
malaria, the most dangerous type, is fatal in
about 20 per cent of untreated cases. Initial
infection occurs through a female Anopheles
mosquito bite.
Fungi
Very few fungi cause disease in humans and those that
do commonly invade the hair, skin and nails. Tinea
(athletes foot), ringworm and thrush are infections
caused by fungi. Fungi are opportunistic pathogens.
They are not usually associated with infection, but
will take the opportunity to infect a person if the
conditions are ideal or if their immune system is
weakened. HIVAIDS lowers immunity, as do the
cancer treatments of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
After transplants, patients are given anti-rejection
drugs that also lower immunity.
Fig 5.3.8 Shingles caused by the herpes-zoster virus
A collage of different viruses: papilloma (orange),
rotaviruses (yellow) and herpes (green)
Fig 5.3.7
Prac 3
p. 192
Fig 5.3.9 Microsporum gypseum, the fungus that causes
ringworm on the scalp and body
Fig 5.3.10 Thrush is an infection caused by a fungus.
Severe thrush like this would normally
happen only to those with weakened
immune systems.
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Macroscopic parasites
Parasites that can be seen without a microscope are
called macroscopic parasites.
Flukes
The most common type of disease-causing macroscopic
parasite is the flatworm. Parasitic flukes are one type
of flatworm. They are best known for causing disease
in many animals, including humans. Intestinal flukes,
blood flukes, lung flukes and liver flukes all affect
humans, causing serious damage to the organs they
inhabit, resulting in serious illness for the host. For
example, blood flukes can damage blood vessels near
major organs such as the bladder and kidneys.
Tapeworm
Another type of flatworm is the tapeworm, which
can sometimes live in human intestines. One type of
tapeworm causes hydatid disease. If the tapeworms
eggs are swallowed by humans, the tiny embryos will
hatch and emerge from the eggs and move from the
intestines into the bloodstream. Cysts then develop
wherever the embryos end up, most often in the liver.
These cysts are capable of killing the host.
Fig 5.3.13 This parasitic tapeworm sometimes
lives in the intestines of humans.
Life cycle of a blood fluke
cercariae
When they are ready to
lay eggs, they push their
way into capillaries of
the heart, lungs and
intestine wall. The eggs
cause capillaries to rupture;
in the intestinal capillaries,
eggs reach the faeces.

Fully grown
eggs pass
out of the
human (in
the faeces)
into water.

Upon contact
with water,
the eggs hatch
into tiny,
immature
flukes.
The young flukes
swim about and
penetrate the
soft parts of the
snail host,
feeding on it.

In the snail host, the
young flukes reproduce
to form new flukes.

Individuals of the
free-swimming
(infective) stage
leave the snail
and swim about
until they contact
human skin.

Cercariae
penetrate
skin and
find their
way into
blood
vessels.
Cercariae
mature
into adults.
miracidium

The adult worms
live in blood vessels.
Fig 5.3.12
Fig 5.3.14 A head louse and its egg among a
forest of hairs
A blood fluke
Fig 5.3.11
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Homework book 5.3 Infectious
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the entire leg can occur and men suffer genital damage
due to elephantiasis of the penis and scrotum. Associated
problems are fever, pain, nausea and vomiting.
People with the disease not only have to suffer the
pain and physical limitations of LF, they also suffer shame
and social isolation. They often lose their jobs and are not
considered for marriagethe only source of security in the
poor communities where this disease is endemic.
Most treatment for LF is crude: raising swollen limbs,
exercise and perhaps surgery in severe cases. There
is, however, some promise for the future. In 1998, the
World Health Organization (WHO) and the pharmaceutical
company SmithKline Beecham announced a joint program
to eliminate LF through a drug program to people most at
risk and a supplementary program educating people about
appropriate hygiene.
Case study
Elephantism
Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a disease endemic to central
Africa, southern Asia and South-East Asia. It is caused
by the parasitic worms Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia
malayi and is transmitted via mosquitoes. The female
worms produce embryos called microfilariae. These are
found in the blood of infected people and are transferred
to any mosquito that feeds off them. In the mosquito, the
embryos grow into larvae. The infection is transmitted
when the same mosquito bites another person. The
larvae travel to the lymph nodes where they reach
maturity. Lymph nodes are part of the lymphatic system,
which assists the circulatory system in fighting disease.
Blockages in the lymph system can result,
causing massive swellings (lymphoedema) due to the
accumulation of lymph fluid. Lymphoedema happens
mainly in the legs or genital areas. The damaged lymph
system also cannot control bacterial infections on the
skin, which cause it to harden and thicken, leading to
a condition known as elephantiasis. Elephantiasis of
thoracic
lymph
duct
lymph nodes
fine network
of lymph
vessels
Fig 5.3.15 Lymphatic system
Fig 5.3.16
Woman suffering from
elephantiasis
The Elephant Man
Elephantiasis is often
confused with the disease
that Joseph Merrick, the
Elephant Man, suffered
from. In fact, he suffered
from a rare condition
called Proteus syndrome.
Proteus syndrome is a
genetic disorder, which
causes large growths,
but it is very different to
elephantiasis.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Play the interactive games Bacteria in the
Cafeteria and Infection by connecting to the
Chapter 5, clicking on the Web Destinations button and then
linking to the Infection Detection Protection website.
5
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SCIENCE
Researching the Black Death
The most serious outbreak of the bubonic plague or Black
Death occurred in Europe between 1347 and 1352. Travel
back in time to the Middle Ages and find out more about
the Black Death by connecting to the Science Dimensions
4 Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/
secondary, selecting Chapter 5 and clicking on the Web
Destinations button. Use this and other resources to
determine:
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Diseases caused by micro-organisms
1 Identify the four types of pathogens responsible for
infectious diseases.
2 What are the symptoms of:
a rabies b giardia?
3 Draw an example of each of the common shapes of
bacteria.
4 What do viruses do to cells?
5 Viruses are not considered to be living things. Explain
why.
6 How do bacteria and protozoa protect themselves in
unfavourable conditions?
7 Name three fungi that cause disease.
8 Explain how fungi are opportunistic pathogens.
Case study: Bird flu
9 Give the correct name for bird flu.
10 When did bird flu first infect humans?
11 Explain why bird flu is such a concern.
Macroscopic parasites
12 Explain the difference between macroscopic and
microscopic parasites.
13 How can hydatid disease cause death in humans?
14 Suggest how tapeworms cause malnutrition.
Case study: Elephantism
15 How does lymphatic filariasis (LF) affect the body?
16 What is elephantiasis?
17 What can be done to reduce the symptoms of a person
infected with LF?
Thinking questions
a infectious diseases and communicable diseases
b an epidemic and a pandemic?
19 What does the name Staphylococcus suggest about this
bacteria?
20 Copy the following, correcting any incorrect statements
so they become true:
a Spherical bacteria are called spirilla.
b Viruses are larger than bacteria.
c Many fungi cause disease in humans.
d Parasites always kill their hosts.
21 Why is it important to describe all your symptoms to
your doctor when you are sick?
22 How could you protect yourself from malaria when
travelling in tropical regions?
23 When travelling in parts of Asia and Africa, it is vital to
wear long-sleeved shirts and cover yourself in insect
repellent. Suggest why.
Analysis questions
24 Refer to the life cycle of a blood fluke shown in
Figure 5.3.12. Explain what the cycle shows.
25 Imagine that a parasite, mooium, mainly lives in cows.
Mooium eggs are present in the cows milk. If the
milk is not treated before drinking, humans become
infected. Inside the infected person the eggs become
mature worms and live in the intestines. They cause
severe digestive problems and malnutrition. Construct a
diagram that shows the life cycle of mooium.
>>
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the symptoms
what micro-organisms were responsible and how they
were spread
the prognosis (outcome) if you contracted the disease
cures from the Middle Ages for the disease
the spread of the disease and death toll
whether the disease is still around today
if there have been any major outbreaks since 1352.
Present a history of the Black Death in one of the following
ways:
a written history
a video for the History Channel re-enacting scenes from
the time
a role play where you are a doctor of the Middle Ages
giving out advice and cures to your patients
a script or videoed trailer for a science-fiction movie
about a modern scientist and doctor travelling back in
time, armed with modern knowledge and antibiotics
a script or trailer for a thriller movie where a terrorist
threatens that a genetically modified Black Death
bacteria will soon be spread
an email to be sent from the Health Department to all
doctors alerting them to an outbreak of bubonic plague,
what they should look for and what treatments are
available.
Researching malaria
Internet, etc.) to find details about the different types of
malaria, the different symptoms, the mode of transmission
for each, its prevention and treatment. Your findings are to
be given to all travellers going to a tropical region where
malaria is endemic.
Present your work as a pamphlet from the Health
Department or a travel advisory on the Department of
Foreign Affairs website.
Researching food preservation
Food is the perfect environment for bacterial growth unless
kept under the correct conditions. Surf your available
resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to
research dehydration, canning and radiation. For each, find:
what foods are commonly preserved using that process
normally what is done in each process
how the process kills or slows microbe growth
what the shelf-life of each type is
what the special conditions for storage are.
Present your work as a guide to consumers to be placed in
a supermarket.
Reviewing
Outbreak
Outbreak is film about the transmission of disease from
animal to human, creating a pandemic. Watch Outbreak and
prepare a film review about it. In your review you must:
state what animal the disease came from
state whether the disease was caused by bacteria,
viruses, protozoa or fungi
classify the disease as infectious or non-infectious
describe the symptoms
describe the prognosis (i.e. outcome) of the disease
state how authorities initially controlled its spread
state how authorities intended to destroy the disease
assess how realistic the film is in these days of bird flu
accurate.
an interview with the director, leading actor or the
pathologist advising the director
or The Movie Show
TV Week.
at work SCIENCE
>>
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Practical activity
] 5
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Making yoghurt
Prac 1
Unit 5.3
Note: This prac involves observations over several
days.
You will need
250 mL beaker, spoon, clingwrap, 1 cup new UHT
milk, 1 large spoon of natural yoghurt with live
bacteria, incubator, lab coat
What to do
1 Half fill the beaker with milk.
2 Stir in the yoghurt. This will start the process off.
3 Cover the beaker with clingwrap and place it in the
incubator at 40C.
4 Record any changes in its smell and consistency over
the next few days.
Questions
1 Why did you need to add yoghurt to start the process?
2 Suggest why the mixture needed to be left at 40C.
3 Describe the changes in the mixture over three days.
Micro-organisms around you
You will need
Five Petri dishes containing the nutrient agar (agar
plates), wire loops, heat-proof mat, Bunsen burner,
masking tape, safety glasses, lab coat, gloves
What to do
1 Tape one agar plate closed, label it and put it aside. This
will be the control.
2 Take another agar plate and expose it to the air. Each
prac group should sample the air in different locations,
for example, the corridor or classroom. Seal your agar
plate and label it.
3 Light the Bunsen burner and heat the wire loop to
sterilise it.
4 Carefully touch the wire loop to a dirty surface, such
as the desk or lockers. Do not take samples from the
toilets. Brush the loop lightly over the surface of the
agar of a new plate. Each prac group should sample a
different surface. Seal and label your plate.
Prac 2
Unit 5.3
3 Very lightly brush
over the agar surface
and quickly replace
the lid.
Bunsen
burner
1 Sterilise the
wire loop.
2 Touch the wire loop
to a surface. Try not
to expose the surface to
the air for too long.
Fig 5.3.17
5 Put all your plates, including the control, in a warm
place for 48 hours.
6 Note the numbers and types of colonies that have
grown on your agar plate. Fungi colonies will appear
fuzzy, while bacterial colonies will be smooth.
Caution: Do not open the dishes. Look at them through
the plates.
Questions
1 Explain why it was necessary to have a control.
2 Compare your results with those of your classmates.
Which locations had the greatest numbers of micro-
organisms present?
3 Construct a table of your results. Include the different
colours and shapes of the colonies formed.
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Constructing the malaria infection cycle
Prac 3
Unit 5.3
liver where they reproduce. They can take up to a
month to mature.
When the parasites are mature they leave the liver
and invade the red blood cells. Inside the cells, they
reproduce and eventually cause the cell to rupture. The
parasites can remain in the liver, periodically releasing
mature parasites into the blood stream. Every time this
happens the person experiences a range of symptoms
including headache, fever, chills and fatigue. The cycle
begins all over again when the person is bitten by
another mosquito.
salivary
gland

parasite in walls
of stomach

fever
Fig 5.3.18
What to do
1 Read the information below and use it to form
a cycle for the disease malaria.
2 Draw or trace each scene and arrange them
with arrows to show the cycle you have
formed.
The transmission of the malarial parasite begins when
a female mosquito bites a person with malaria. The
infected blood moves into the mosquito and goes to its
salivary glands. When the same mosquito bites another
person, the parasites are injected into them through the
saliva. The malarial parasites then move to the persons
193
You are certain to have had a
cold at some time in your life. You may
even have contracted diseases such as
chicken pox, measles or the flu. These diseases
are infectious diseases: you caught them from
someone or something. But you also recovered
from them. Your body fought the disease and won,
perhaps with the help of drugs such as antibiotics.
Other diseases you are protected from because
you have been vaccinated against them.
Spread of disease
Infectious diseases may be transmitted by direct or
indirect methods. Direct transmission comes about by
direct contact with an infected person or by contact
with droplets of body fluid. Diseases transmitted by
direct contact are called contagious diseases. Indirect
transmission occurs through an intermediary agent
such as an insect, air or contaminated water.
Carriers of disease are called vectors. An
example of a vector is the mosquito that
carries malaria from person to person.
Natural control
Your body has several mechanisms for coping with
disease.
Skin
The first defence is the outer layer of your skin. Your
skin is constantly dying and you constantly shed its
dead cells. Harmful pathogens will often shed with
them. There are also lots of good bacteria on your
skin, which help fight invaders.
Pus
The second defence is leucocytes (white blood cells),
which are able to destroy some pathogens. They travel
in the blood to the site of infection, converge on the
pathogens, digest them and engulf their remains. Dead
micro-organisms and dead white cells are left behind,
forming the discharge called pus.
Prac 1
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Fig 5.4.1 Disease fightersnormal lymphocytes
(white blood cells)
Fig 5.4.2 A carbuncle full of pus. A carbuncle is a series of
interconnected boils, which are really just deep
pimples at the base of a hair or sweat gland. The
pus is an indication that the body is at war.
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Acquired immunity
The final defence is a process called acquired
immunity. In this process, your body responds to any
invasion by a foreign substance by producing special
chemicals called antibodies. A foreign substance
that triggers the production of antibodies is called
an antigen. The antibody combines with the antigen,
disabling it, reducing its effect or allowing it to be
consumed easily by white blood cells.
There are many different forms of antibodies and a
particular antibody will only work against the antigen
it responded to. Your body can continue producing
that type of antibody long after the antigen has left
the body. You will then be immune to that particular
antigen as long as its specific antibodies are present
in the body. For example, imagine you contract
measles. Having never had measles before, you have no
antibodies to fight the disease off. Your immune system
will then produce antibodies, although not yet in
sufficient numbers to fight the rapidly growing number
The process of acquired immunity
8 The lymphocytes which make this particular
antibody may remain in the blood for
many years, giving protection against
further attack by this
particular virus.
Blood vessel

Bone marrow
1 White blood cells called B
lymphocytes are made in
the bone marrow in large
numbers. Each lymphocyte
makes an antibody which
recognises one particular
antigen. Many copies of
this antibody can be made
by a lymphocyte.
lymphocyte

2 Millions of different
lymphocytes are made
in the bone marrow.
Thus an almost
unlimited number
of antigens can be
recognised.
3 The lymphocytes move out into the body
and the blood. The antibodies are carried
on the surface of young lymphocytes.
4 Foreign particles (e.g. bacteria,
viruses) arrive in the blood. The
antigens are on the surface of
the virus particles.

5 A lymphocyte comes in contact
with an antigen to which its
antibody can bind. This
stimulates the lymphocyte to
reproduce rapidly.

6 The lymphocytes
release their antibodies,
which bind to the
antigens on the viruss
surface and make the
virus inactive.
7 Other types of white
blood cells then engulf
the inactivated viruses
and destroy them.
antibody
Fig 5.4.3
of measles viruses in your body. You will feel very sick
until there are sufficient antibodies to win the war.
These antibodies will allow you to recover and will
protect you from measles in the future. Unfortunately
they cannot protect you from
chickenpox or any other disease:
they need different antibodies.
If you caught a cold last
year, your immune system
would have built the antibodies
required to fight it, allowing
you to eventually recover.
Unfortunately, the cold virus
mutates quickly into new but
similar forms. The antibodies
that you built last year will not
be effective against this years
strain and so you can get sick
once more. Influenza (the flu)
is another virus that mutates
quickly into new forms. You can
catch the flu year after year.
Inflammation
When you receive an injury,
the site tends to swell
shortly after. This swelling
is called inflammation
and is a natural response
to tissue damage. It is
a protective response,
allowing increased flow of
body fluids to the area to
promote healing. Too much
inflammation, however,
means that further damage
will be done. This is why
ice packs are applied to
sports injuries.
Your natural disease
protection relies on a healthy
immune system. Some factors
that can lower the function of
your immune system are:
poor diet
alcohol or drug use
stress
a lack of sleep
diseases such as HIVAIDS
chemotherapy and
radiotherapy used to treat
cancers
anti-rejection drugs used
after organ transplants.
Artificial control
Good nutrition, clean water and
adequate sleep and exercise
will give you a degree of natural
protection from disease. Some
particularly dangerous diseases,
however, need additional and
artificial protection.
Transmission and control of infectious diseases Transmission and control of infectious diseases
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Vaccinations
The threat from many of the killer diseases of the
past has been greatly reduced, and sometimes
eliminated, by the development of vaccines. A person
can be immunised against a certain disease by being
inoculated or vaccinated with a vaccine, usually by
injection. The vaccine can consist of:
living micro-organisms
an antiserum that works against the toxins
produced by pathogens
the toxins themselves, but as a non-virulent strain.
For example, the Sabin polio vaccine uses a live
but non-virulent strain of the disease.
Vaccines can be used against both bacterial and
viral diseases. Children in Australia are routinely
vaccinated against diseases such as polio, tetanus,
measles, chicken pox and tuberculosis. There have
been no cases of polio since 1986 in Australia and
other diseases are far less common because of mass
vaccination programs. Girls are commonly vaccinated
against rubella. Although rubella is a nasty disease
for anyone, it often causes abnormalities in unborn
children if their mothers contract it during pregnancy.
Some parents choose not to immunise their children
through fear of relatively uncommon side effects. It
is estimated, however, that for every dollar spent on
immunisation programs, four dollars are saved in
public health costs.
Immunity
Two types of immunity can be
produced by vaccines: active
immunity and passive immunity.
Active immunity
Active immunity occurs when the
body is stimulated into making
its own antibodies. This usually
involves injecting a live, but
disabled version of the virus or
bacteria. The Sabin polio vaccine,
for example, uses a live but non-
contagious strain of the disease.
The deadly disease smallpox has
been effectively eliminated world-
wide by widespread vaccination
using a vaccine made from less
harmful cowpox, a virus very
similar to smallpox. The bodys
immune system is tricked into
producing antibodies for the
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Looking back
First successful
vaccination
You might think it strange that scientists and doctors
would even imagine injecting people deliberately
with a disease to protect them from it. The history of
vaccinations, however, is one of acute observation,
particularly of cows and those that worked with
them. The earliest evidence of vaccinations goes back
to around 500 BCE. Chinese physicians noted that
exposing healthy people to particles from smallpox
scars gave them a milder form of the disease. This
protected them from the more serious form. Only
4 per cent died from this procedurea phenomenal
success rate for that era.
In 1796, the English physician Edward Jenner
noticed that milkmaids rarely contracted the deadly
disease smallpox. He hypothesised that this was
because most had been infected with a similar, milder
disease of cows known as cowpox. James Phipps
was then an 8-year-old boy whose family was dying
of smallpox. Jenner exposed James Phipps first to
cowpox and later to smallpox. The boy survived,
and within a few years, widespread vaccinations
began. Jenner predicted in 1798 that smallpox would
eventually be eradicated. In 1980 the World Health
Organization (WHO) officially announced the end
of smallpox: a worldwide vaccination program had
effectively eliminated the disease, the last case of
naturally transmitted smallpox being in Africa in 1977.
High-security laboratories in the USA and Russia still
hold stocks of the smallpox virus.
actual disease. These vaccines may cause some of the
milder symptoms of the disease to appear, but will
protect the person from a serious attack.
Active immunity does not last forever. Production
of antibodies can reduce with time and a booster
shot (re-injection with the vaccine) may be needed.
It is recommended, for example, that tetanus booster
shots be given every ten years.
Passive immunity
Passive immunity involves injecting a vaccine
consisting of antibodies produced previously by
another organism. This gives quick immunity and so
is good in emergency situations. Passive immunity
does not last as long as active immunity.
Relenza
flu fighter!
Although the flu virus
keeps mutating into new
forms, there is always a
part that stays unaltered.
Because the drug Relenza
attacks that part it can
fight every flu strain
that has existed over the
last century. Developed
in Australia, Relenza is
extremely effective and
may be the only way
of fighting a bird flu
pandemic. It is, however,
very expensive since the
Australian government will
not subsidise it through the
Pharmaceutical Benefits
Scheme (PBS).
196
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Antibiotics
Antibiotics are drugs that
are able to selectively kill
off certain pathogens while
leaving the patients own
body cells intact. Although
antibiotics can fight many
bacterial infections, they
are completely ineffective
against viruses because
viruses are actually inside
the body cells.
Overuse and misuse of
antibiotics have led to the
development of antibiotic-
resistant strains of bacteria.
The more antibiotics are used,
the more quickly resistant
strains emerge. It takes up
to twenty years to develop
new drugs and soon doctors
might be left without any
drugs to fight the new strains.
Particularly worrying is the
recent rise of drug-resistant
and deadly tuberculosis
(TB). This form of TB seems
to have originated in the
overcrowded jails of Russia.
Prisoners often did not
complete the prescribed
course of antibiotics, leading
to the development of
super-TB. This TB has
recently appeared in New York, USA, and there is
no effective way of treating it.
Unless an infection is severe, it is best to let
your body recover naturally. If you are prescribed
antibiotics, make sure you complete the course set by
your doctor.
The problem with viruses
The problem with developing medicines for viruses is
that viruses are too small to isolate easily in the lab.
Another problem with viruses is that they multiply
so rapidly that new strains are appearing all the
time. Control of viral infections has relied mainly on
vaccines. With so many different strains, however, it is
difficult to find effective vaccines. There are so many
strains of the common cold virus that no-one can
ever become immune to all of them. Although some
drugs are effective in reducing the effects of a virus,
as yet no chemicals can eradicate a viral infection.
AZT, for example, is a drug used to treat patients with
HIVAIDS. Not all patients respond to AZT,
however, and it does not kill the virus.
Fig 5.4.5 Many different antibiotics are available to
fight bacterial infections.
Mouldy bread to the rescue!
In 1928, British scientist Alexander
Fleming found that the mould
Penicillium was effective at killing
certain bacteria. He couldnt separate
the active ingredient from the
mould, however, so penicillin was
not developed until the 1940s when
Australian scientist Howard Florey
succeeded in using it to fight infections.
Super-croc!
Despite living in dirty
water, crocodiles rarely
get infections from the
injuries they receive from
other crocs. In contrast,
similar wounds in humans
would quickly become
infected and probably lead
to blood poisoning or
death from septicaemia.
Scientists have isolated an
antibody in the blood of
crocodiles in the Northern
Territory that seems to
keep them infection-free.
It is hoped that this
antibody might lead to the
development of new and
powerful antibiotics for
human use.
Prac 2
p. 200
Vaccine is normally administered by injection.
Fig 5.4.4
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Spread of disease
1 Name one direct and one indirect method for spreading
a disease.
2 Give an example of a vector.
Natural control
3 What is pus made up of?
4 Explain the terms antigen and antibody.
5 List the three lines of natural defence and briefly
describe each.
6 How does your body know when to produce antibodies?
7 The following passage contains some incorrect facts,
spelling and punctuation. Write it out, correcting any
problems.
Antibodies are part of a group of chemicals called
immunoglobens once your body has produced an
antibody it can never produce the same one again.
Your body is immune as long as antigens are present.
8 Explain why you are unlikely to catch measles twice.
9 Many people catch colds every year. Explain why they
dont have immunity after their first cold.
10 List seven ways a persons immune system might be
lowered.
Artificial control
11 Identify three different types of vaccines.
12 Explain the difference between active and passive
immunity.
13 Why are booster shots sometimes necessary?
14 Name two diseases that have been reduced to minimal
levels through vaccination programs.
15 Edward Jenner found that infection with cowpox gave
immunity against smallpox. Explain how an infection
with one pathogen could give immunity against a
different pathogen.
16 Why are antibiotics ineffective against viruses?
17 Why is the overuse of antibiotics dangerous?
People in science
Joseph Lister
Joseph Lister was born on 5 April 1827. He was an
outstanding student and graduated from University College,
London, in 1852 with an honours degree in medicine. In
1861 he became surgeon at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary.
At that time, almost half of all patients undergoing surgery
died of post-operative wound sepsis infection, known then
as hospital disease.
In 1865 Louis Pasteur found that decay was caused
by fermentation when living matter in the air entered the
body. Lister made the connection between
Pasteurs ideas and wound infection.
Having heard previously that carbolic
acid was being used for the treatment of
sewage, he began cleaning wounds and
dressing them with a solution of carbolic
acid. Soon his wards were completely free
of wound sepsis. It was not long before
Listers antiseptic methods were used
worldwide, saving countless lives.
Joseph Listers
water
Ever gargled with the
antiseptic mouthwash
Listerine? Listerine is
named after Joseph Lister.
Fig 5.4.6 Joseph Lister
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Infection
droplets
from
sneezing
open
wound
mosquito
bite
contact
with faeces
blood clot
over wound
white
blood cells
antibodies
bacteria
Fig 5.4.7 The problem with viruses
18 Viruses are extremely difficult to deal with. Give
two reasons why.
Thinking questions
19 Small children tend to get sick a lot. Suggest why.
20 Suggest why people who are already ill with one
disease often catch other diseases.
21 HIV infection rates have increased in recent years
because some people are taking more risks when
having sex. One reason suggested is the success
of AZT and other anti-viral drugs in fighting the
disease.
a Propose a way these two facts might be
connected.
b Explain why unsafe sex is still foolish and
dangerous.
Analysis questions
22 Look at Figure 5.4.7. Explain in
words what it is showing.
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Surfing
Companion Website
Find details on a communicable
disease by connecting to the Science
Some diseases you could research are anthrax, chickenpox,
diphtheria, gonorrhoea, syphilis, herpes, hepatitis (A, B or C),
malaria, rubella, shingles, yellow fever, giardia, influenza or
the common cold. Whatever disease you research, you
must find:
the cause of the disease (virus, bacteria, etc.)
how it is spread
how it is contracted
if it is a widespread disease or endemic to particular
locations in the world
whether the disease is rare or common
symptoms of the disease
the incubation period of the disease (how long it takes
for symptoms to become obvious)
the treatments used
the prognosis (future) of a patient with and without
treatment.
Present your information in one of the following ways:
a website
a poster for display in a doctors waiting room
a community announcement for TV or radio
a pamphlet for a health clinic.
Researching vaccinations
Internet, etc.) to find:
which, if any, vaccines require a once-only injection
to achieve immunity and which vaccinations require
booster shots. Present your information in a pamphlet
to go to parents of Year 7 and Year 10 students about
to have vaccinations at school
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Modelling the transmission of disease
Prac 1
Unit 5.4
You will need
One test tube per person, phenolphthalein
indicator, 0.1 M hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M sodium
hydroxide, 1 eye-dropper (Pasteur pipette)
per person
What to do
1 You will each be given a test tube containing 3 cm
3

of liquid.
One of you will have 3 cm
3
of 0.1 M sodium
hydroxide solution. If it happens to be you, then you
are infected with NaOH disease, but you wont
know it. Only the teacher will know who the infected
person is.
All other students have 3 cm
3
of water.
2 You will have 30 seconds to walk around the room,
putting five drops of your solution into the test tubes of
everyone you come into contact with. Note the names
of your contacts.
3 After the 30 seconds, add 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator to your test tube. All infected people will see
a purple colour in their tubes. Note the number
of infected people.
4 Try the activity again, this time allowing 1 minute for
everyone to move around the room.
5 Do the activity again, with the following test tubes
of liquid.
Half of the students will have 3 cm
3
of 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid in their test tube. This represents
an immunisation since the acid will neutralise any
infection with NaOH disease. Only the teacher will
know who these students are.
One person will have 3 cm
3
of 0.1 M sodium
hydroxide solution. Again, only the teacher will know
who this infected student is.
The rest of the students will have 3 cm
3
of water in
their tubes.
Questions
1 Is it possible to work out who the original infected
person was?
2 Describe any difference you observed in the spread of
the disease when the time for infection became longer.
3 The spread of disease was different when half of the
people were immunised. Describe how.
the arguments for and against vaccination. If you had
children, would you get them vaccinated? Why? Present
your decision in a written document that includes
summaries of the arguments you have found and the
ones you found most persuasive.
Researching MRSA
When penicillin was first introduced it was very effective in
treating infections caused by the bacteria Staphylococcus
aureus, known as golden staph. Golden staph has
now emerged as a new strain, Methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). MRSA is resistant to
penicillin and around twenty other antibiotics, antiseptics and
disinfectants and its rise is thought to be directly related to
the widespread use of antibiotics.
Surf your available resources (textbooks,
encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to find details about:
the rate of antibiotics consumption in the world today
MRSA and how it is fought currently
the rate at which new diseases or new strains of known
diseases are being discovered
how high antibiotic usage can lead to new, dangerous
strains of diseases
other factors that might contribute to the emergence of
new diseases.
a brochure for patients and doctors encouraging them
to limit antibiotic use
an email from the Health Department to doctors
a TV or radio community announcement.
at work SCIENCE
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Effectiveness of antiseptics
You will need
Five Petri dishes containing the nutrient agar,
cotton buds, masking tape, four different
antiseptics (e.g. tea-tree oil, eucalyptus oil,
commercial antiseptics), lab coat, safety glasses,
gloves
Prac 2
Unit 5.4
What to do
1 Expose all agar plates to the air.
2 Tape one dish shut. This is your control.
3 Dip a cotton bud in one of the antiseptics and carefully
brush it in an s pattern over the surface of one of the
agar plates.
4 Repeat step 3 for the other three antiseptics.
5 Tape all dishes shut and put them in a warm place for
48 hours.
6 After 48 hours, take them out and record your results.
Caution: Do not open the dishes. Look at them through the plates.
Questions
1 Sketch the appearance of the control and one other
plate.
2 Compare the effectiveness of the different antiseptics.
3 Identify the most effective antiseptic.
Rub the cotton bud over
the agar in this pattern.
Fig 5.4.8
>>>
at work SCIENCE
201
Understanding HIVAIDS
AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency
syndrome. It is a condition caused by infection with
the virus known as HIV, which stands for human
immunodeficiency virus.
Origin of HIVAIDS
It is thought that the disease originated in monkeys
in Africa. HIV was first discovered in a human blood
sample taken in 1959 in Africa. There are several
theories about how the virus came to be transmitted
to humans, but the most likely is that it sprang from
monkeys, into chimpanzees and then into humans.
Primates carry their own version of HIV, called SIV
(simian immunodeficiency virus). They are usually
immune from it, suffering little, if any, illness. Most
scientists believe SIV sprang from monkey to human
by a scratch or by eating meat from an infected
chimpanzee. The SIV then mutated to become HIV,
the virus that causes AIDS. This theory gained
strong support after 1999, when a sub-species of
chimpanzees native to west Africa was found to be
the source of the original HIV-1 virus. In 2003 it was
found that chimpanzees could acquire the disease
from eating monkeys, their favourite prey.
How HIV makes
you ill
HIV is a type of retrovirus.
These viruses incorporate
their DNA into the host cells
DNA. This means that when
the host cell reproduces, the
virus is also replicated. HIV is
unusual because it invades T4
leucocyte white blood cells,
the very cells that protect you
from disease. This invasion
leaves the body vulnerable to
other diseases. It is these other
diseases that make up AIDS.
Transmission
Although the virus is present in all the bodily
fluids of an infected person, fluids such as saliva,
tears, breast milk and sweat are considered safe
since the concentration of the virus in them is very
low. In contrast, blood, semen and vaginal fluid have
high concentrations of the virus and so pose the
greatest risk of transmission. HIV is most commonly
transmitted via bodily fluids during sexual contact or
via blood by sharing needles when injecting drugs. It
can also be transmitted through blood transfusions or
blood products. This is now highly unlikely, however,
due to rigorous screening procedures in blood banks.
The virus can also be passed on from mother to child
in the womb.
Fortunately, the virus does not survive well outside
the body.
Diagnosis
HIV is diagnosed by a blood test, which detects
if HIV antibodies are present. If they are, then you
are HIV positive. It also tests for other indicators of
HIV infection such as a very low white blood cell
count or a T4 to T8 lymphocyte cell ratio lower than
1 to 1. This ratio is normally 2 to 1 in healthy people.
Fig 5.4.9 T cells (green) protect you from disease, yet
they are the cells attacked by HIV (red).
Did scientists
create AIDS?
Some scientists think
that infected monkey
kidneys were used in the
development of a polio
vaccine called CHAT.
Polio was devastating the
world in the 1950s and the
experimental CHAT vaccine
was given to thousands of
people in Africa between
1957 and 1960. The first
outbreaks of AIDS were in
the same region that the
vaccine was given, the first
death being in 1959. Did
the CHAT vaccine cause
the AIDS outbreak?
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at work SCIENCE
Symptoms
Many people infected with HIV develop symptoms
of a flu-like viral illness within a few weeks, although
these symptoms soon disappear. It can be years before
AIDS develops. A small percentage of people who test
positive to HIV never develop AIDS.
Early signs of HIV infection are night sweats, fever,
swelling of lymph nodes, fatigue, unexpected weight
loss and concentration problems. AIDS is not really a
defined disease. Instead, it is a collection of symptoms
caused by opportunistic infections that thrive due to
the sufferers depressed immune system. Symptoms
vary from patient to patient and include purple
markings on the face (Kaposis sarcoma, a type of skin
cancer), continued diarrhoea, fungal infections such
as thrush of the mouth and skin, bleeding, bruises,
dementia and an extreme form of pneumonia.
Treatment
There is currently no cure or vaccination for
HIVAIDS. Ongoing research means that treatments
for HIVAIDS sufferers are improving all the time,
prolonging their lives and minimising symptoms.
One major advance was the development of
azidothymidine (AZT). It prevents new HIV particles
being correctly made in cells.
It cannot cure the disease,
but improves health and adds
one to two years of quality
life to about 60 per cent of
AIDS patients. However, AZT
is extremely expensive, has
unpleasant side effects and is
not effective in all patients.
Fortunately, there are now
many other drugs available,
and most HIV sufferers are
able to find a combination
that works for them.
Staying safe
To avoid HIV you need to
avoid contact with bodily
fluids, particularly blood, semen and
vaginal fluids. This means:
condoms should always be used in any situation
where there is even a remote chance that either
person has been exposed to the virus. This is not
foolproof protection, however, since condoms have
a 5 to 10 per cent failure rate. Note that other forms
of contraception such as the pill give no protection
at all against HIV
HIV and AIDS
Not all HIV-infected
people develop AIDS. A
few remain symptom-free
long after the time when
AIDS would normally have
developed. Everyone has
human leucocyte antigen
(HLA) proteins in their
bodies that attach to virus
fragments in infected cells
and destroy the cell. Some
types of HLA proteins
are better at attaching
themselves to certain
viruses than other HLA
proteins. It is currently
thought that those HIV-
infected people who do not
develop AIDS have in their
bodies a special type of
HLA protein that is good at
killing HIV-infected cells.
They could hold the secret
for a vaccine or cure in
their blood!
Fig 5.4.10 A one-week-old baby who has HIV. He already
has the herpes virus since it too was passed on
via the placenta from his mother. Many children
in third-world countries contract HIVAIDS
from their parents before they are born. Most
will die young because their families cannot
afford expensive HIVAIDS drugs.
Fig 5.5.11
Although HIV can be managed
by drugs, you have to take a lot of them.
203
Homework book 5.4 HIVAIDS
ensuring all needles and equipment that
might draw blood are new or sterilised before
use, whether they are to be used for injecting
drugs, tattoos or body piercing or simply to cut
someones hair
using rubber gloves if treating someone for first aid
and ensuring bleeding players leave the sports field
thinking about donating your own blood in the
weeks before planned surgery. Although blood
supplies are now considered safe, many people
take this option.
[
Student activities
]
Present your data in one of the following ways:
a map with a coloured key showing numbers or the
percentage infected in each country.
a bar graph showing numbers or percentage infection
rates of different countries
a table or spreadsheet (e.g. Excel).
Researching HIVAIDS
Internet, etc.) to prepare:
a poster showing how testing for HIV is carried out
and what it actually detects
a Word document describing infections such as
Karposis sarcoma associated with HIVAIDS
a pamphlet for women with HIVAIDS explaining the
risk of a baby contracting the disease
a Health Department website or email detailing
the hygiene and safety protocols that doctors,
paramedics, tattooists etc. must adhere to
a fund-raiser for an organisation that helps people
infected with HIVAIDS, such as PLWHA (People
Living with HIVAIDS) or VAC (Victorian AIDS Council).
Reviewing
Philadelphia
Watch the film Philadelphia or some other suitable film in
which HIVAIDS is a major theme. Prepare a film review
about it. In your review you must:
state what opportunistic infections the infected
character had
describe what treatment was available to them
describe if and how the character was discriminated
against
explain what happened in the end
assess how realistic the film is
suggest improvements to make the film more accurate.
special effects or the medical advisor to the director
or The Movie Show
TV Week.
Review questions
1 What do HIV and AIDS stand for?
2 In what year was the first known case of HIV?
3 Identify the main ways HIV can be passed from person
to person.
4 Why is HIVAIDS so effective? Why dont our bodies
fight it like normal viruses?
5 Describe three early signs of HIV infection.
6 What does HIV positive mean and how is it diagnosed?
7 Suggest reasons why AIDS is spreading so quickly in
third-world countries.
8 HIVAIDS is currently devastating the African continent,
with up to 40 per cent of the population in some
countries being HIV positive. Predict some of the likely
effects that HIVAIDS could bring to these countries.
9 It could be said that no-one has ever died of AIDS.
Explain what kills people infected by HIV.
10 What hope is there for a vaccine for HIVAIDS in the
future? Evaluate the information above to decide if it is
possible.
Surfing
Researching HIVAIDS statistics
Internet, etc.) to find the numbers of people currently
infected with HIVAIDS in different countries around the
world. Find or calculate the percentage this represents of the
population of each country.
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UNIT
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Genetic and chromosomal
medical conditions
Genetic medical conditions are caused by
abnormalities in one or more genesthis means that
the code contained on the chromosomes for building
new cells is faulty. These genetic abnormalities could
be caused by a mutation in a gene:
in the patients family tree, which is then inherited
by the patient (inherited genetic condition)
in the patient themselves (non-inherited genetic
condition).
Whatever their cause, genetic conditions are not
infectious and cannot be caught.
Chromosomal disorders are caused by having an
extra or missing chromosome. Humans normally have
forty-six in each body cell.
Inherited genetic disorders
The inheritance of genetic disorders, particularly
albinism (a lack of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes)
and haemophilia (the lack of a clotting factor in the
blood) were discussed in detail in Chapter 4 Genetics.
Most genetic disorders are recessive and only occur
when parents either suffer from the disorder or are
healthy but are carriers of it. Inherited disorders such
as haemophilia or colour-blindness are often sex-
linked: although girls can inherit the disorder, they are
far less likely to have it than boys.
Non-inherited disorders
Sometimes a disorder like diabetes may show up
suddenly in a family that has no previous history of
Many medical conditions are non-infectious.
They are disorders and not really diseases
since they cannot be caught, meaning they
are not transmitted or are not caused by
pathogens. The causes of non-infectious conditions
are varied and frequently unknown. Some conditions
like haemophilia are genetic, while diseases like
cancers seem to be linked with environmental
factors such as exposure to carcinogenic chemicals
or radiation. The causes of others remain a mystery.
the disease. This is caused by a new
gene mutation in the gametes or sex
cells of the parents. The cause of
gene mutation is often unknown,
but mutagens such as radiation,
drugs, chemicals and some viruses
may be responsible. Once a new
gene mutation has happened, the
disorder it causes will be passed
on to future generations.
One non-inherited chromosomal
disorder is Turners syndrome.
This causes webbing of the neck,
infertility, short stature and
subnormal intelligence. Downs
syndrome is not usually inherited,
but some women have anomalies
in their genes that could increase
their risk of having a child affected
with the disorder. The chance of a woman having a
child with Downs syndrome increases with her age. At
25 the risk is 1 in 1250, but by the time a woman is 45
the chance has risen to 1 in 30.
Fig 5.5.1 An elderly woman with neurofibromatosis, a
rare inherited disorder that causes soft, fibrous
non-cancerous tumours. Because it is a genetic
disease, it cannot be caught.
Famous people and
their diseases
Accumulated historical
evidence suggests that
English King Henry VIII
suffered from syphilis,
a sexually transmitted
disease, King George
III was sent mad by a
disease called porphyria,
a rare, inherited metabolic
disorder, Shakespeare
had scriveners palsy or
writers cramp and the
English writer Jane Austen
is thought to have died of
Addisons diseasethe
same disease that US
President John F. Kennedy
suffered from.
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It is possible to test for some genetic disorders
while the child is still in the womb. These methods
are explained in detail in Chapter 4 Genetics.
Diseases and diet
Many diseases can be linked directly to the way we
treat our bodies.
Malnutrition
People in developing countries may not have the
quantity or range of foods that you have, making them
more susceptible to malnutrition than you.
Fig 5.5.2 This child is suffering from malnutrition.
Vitamin and mineral deficiencies can easily
cause death. In Australia, most people have access to
sufficient food. Despite this, many have poor diets,
eating too much of one type of food. They thus have
deficiencies in certain essential nutrients, fibre,
vitamins and minerals.
Obesity
Obesity is a widespread problem in Australia and
much of the western world. Excessive weight places
a strain on all body systems, causing high blood
pressure, joint and blood vessel problems and an
increased chance of developing diabetes. Flexibility
is also reduced, making it difficult to perform simple
tasks such like tying shoelaces.
Eating disorders
Anorexia nervosa results in severe weight loss, often
enough to cause massive organ failure and death.
Bulimia nervosa is a related disorder characterised by
a bingepurge cycle. The imbalance of electrolytes
that results from this cycle may cause heart failure.
Electrolytes are mineral salts dissolved in the blood
that conduct small electric currents through our
nervous system to our muscles and are responsible for
maintaining a regular heartbeat.
Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which glucose,
the energy source for the body, is not used correctly
due to a lack of a substance called insulin. Diabetes
seems to have some genetic component but there is no
defined pattern of inheritance. There are two types:
juvenile onset (Type I)
mature onset (Type II).
Being overweight is a common factor
in Type II cases.
If the insulin deficiency is
serious, regular monitoring and
injections are needed throughout
the patients life. If the condition
is less serious, it can often be
controlled through tablets or diet.
An uncorrected lack of insulin can
result in a diabetic coma and death.
Heart disease
In Australia, heart disease (more
properly called heart disorder) is
the leading cause of death in males
over 35 and females over 60. The
term covers disorders that affect the blood vessels
of the circulatory system and not just the heart.
Monkey transplants
Recent research may
soon end the daily insulin
injections needed by
millions of diabetics
worldwide. After receiving
a transplant of insulin-
secreting cells, diabetic
monkeys did not require
injections of insulin. They
did, however, need to
keep taking a new drug
that stops rejection of the
transplant.
The heart is a muscle that needs a regular
workout by exercising three times a week
for 20 minutes .
Fig 5.5.3
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Thrombosis
Thrombosis is a disease that causes a large, solid mass
(a thrombus) to form on the inside wall of a blood
vessel. Sometimes these large masses can detach from
the wall of the blood vessel and end up blocking
major arteries, causing death.
The blockage of a blood vessel is called an
embolism. The embolism can result from a thrombus,
gas, fat, tumour cells, or some type of foreign body.
Fig 5.5.4 Blood vessels can completely block due to a
thrombus. The thrombus can then break away
and travel to the brain and cause a stroke.
Stroke
A stroke occurs if the blood supply to part of the brain
is cut off by either a blockage (embolism) or a burst
blood vessel (haemorrhage). Brain cells immediately
start to die. One third of stroke victims die soon after,
one third eventually fully recover. The other third
need intensive care since they are often left paralysed,
particularly down the left side of the body.
Forty-eight thousand Australians suffer stroke
every year: this amounts to one stroke happening
every eleven minutes. Stroke is the biggest cause of
disability in Australia and the third biggest killer.
Health costs associated with it amount to $1.3 billion
per year.
Although little can be done for a haemorrhage
stroke victim, research is developing new ways of
helping those who experience a stroke caused by
an embolism. Research has shown that injecting
special chemicals soon after the attack can sometimes
dissolve embolisms in the brain. Another approach is
to use a microscopic corkscrew that is inserted into
the blood vessel. It burrows into the embolism and
bits of it can be pulled away, eventually clearing the
blockage.
Hypertension
Hypertension is the name given
to persistent high blood pressure.
It can cause arteriosclerosis, or
hardening of the arteries, and
coronary heart disease. The
worst type of arteriosclerosis
is called atherosclerosis. It is
characterised by fatty deposits
within arteries. These deposits
can eventually cause arteries to
become blocked. Atherosclerosis
can occur in any part of the
body, not just the heart. It can
be inherited, but is also strongly
linked to environmental factors
such as smoking and diet.
Although more common in
women, it produces much more
serious effects in men.
Varicose veins
Irregularities in vein walls and weaknesses in the
valves can stop blood flowing back to the heart
normally. Varicose veins are the result and are usually
seen in the legs where blood must fight gravity to get
back to the heart. Unsightly, bulging veins develop
wherever blood is trapped. They are more likely
to occur in women than in men, and are usually
inherited. If you are female and one of your parents
has varicose veins, then there is a very high chance
that you will develop this condition.
Margarine and
cholesterol
Cholesterol is a vital
component of all our
cells, but too much of
it in our diets can lead
to arteriosclerosis.
Margarines are now
available that contain plant
sterols, substances that
can lower the amount of
blood cholesterol. This is
good news for all those
heart patients condemned
to low-fat dietsfor
the first time, margarine
can actually make them
healthier!
Non-infectious medical conditions Non-infectious medical conditions
Airplane passenger disease
Passengers on long flights do not get much chance to move about, the
inactivity sometimes causing a thrombus to form in blood vessels in
the legs or feet. This deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) becomes a
problem when the passenger gets moving again. The thrombus will often
start moving, only to block more vital blood vessels in other parts of the
body, maybe in the lungs, heart or brain. Death often results, perhaps in
the terminal after departing the plane. All age groups can suffer from DVT
and airlines now recommend you exercise your legs and feet to keep
blood flow moving in them on long flights. You will find these exercises
in the in-flight magazines and sometimes on one of the video channels.
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Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease is usually caused by
arteriosclerosis but refers to anything that reduces
blood flow to the heart itself. It can cause mild
attacks of chest pain, called angina, or a serious heart
disruption, called a heart attack. About 25 per cent of
people with coronary heart disease die suddenly from
a heart attack. Some diseases (such as diabetes) can
weaken the heart muscle.
Cancer
Cancer occurs when the division process that
produces new cells happens uncontrollably. Cell
division happens all the time throughout your
body via a carefully controlled process and even
tiny changes within cells can be enough to disturb
the process and produce cancer. Cancer can occur
anywhere in the body. The most common sites for
cancer are the skin and prostate in men and the
breasts in women.
Varicose veins are caused by a fault in the valves.
spider vein
deep vein
superficial vein
connecting vein
varicose vein
Fig 5.5.5
Floss your heart
Want to know one easy
way to help keep your
heart healthy? Floss your
teeth! Gum disease can
result in your mouth
having an extremely high
concentration of bacteria.
These bacteria can end
up in your bloodstream
and cause damage to your
heart.
Fig 5.5.7 Tumours and cancerous cells require a higher-
than-normal blood supply because they grow
rapidly. This also means that they are the first
cells to be poisoned by chemotherapy.
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Fig 5.5.6 What happens during a heart attack. Not everyone will experience all of these symptoms.
A heart attack is initiated by a blockage in a major blood vessel. This stops blood and oxygen getting to the heart.
Within 20 minutes the heart starts to die, leading to a heart attack.
1 2
3 5 6 7
1 Stabbing sensation in chest
2 Great pain which can last for hours
3 Dizziness, cold sweat, dry mouth
4 Tingling in wrists, hands, fingers
5 Pain radiates down left arm
6 Chest feels like it is being crushedoften
described as like being in a vice or like a
great weight is on the chest
7 Vomiting, indigestion
One in three people die
within a few hours of the
chest pain starting. Anyone
experiencing any of the
above symptoms combined
with chest pain should call
an ambulance immediately.
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A tumour is any abnormal growth in the body and
can be one of two types:
A benign growth is one in which cells are not
rapidly dividing. A wart is an example of a benign
tumour.
A malignant growth is cancerous. Its cells are
undergoing uncontrollable growth.
A biopsy is carried out to determine if a tumour
is malignant or benign: a sample of tissue is taken,
which is then examined under a microscope.
Development of cancer
Factors that make someone more susceptible to cancer
are:
environmental: smoking of any type (lung cancer),
exposure to the sun (skin cancer), poor diet (bowel
cancer) or exposure to cancer-causing chemicals
called carcinogens such as benzene
genetic predisposition: some families have histories
of breast or prostate cancers suggesting that those
cancers have some inherited characteristics.
Normally several factors need to come together
before a malignant growth will occur.
If a malignant growth is found, it needs to be
treated before metastasis occurs. Metastasis is when
cancerous cells find their way into the circulatory or
lymph systems and travel to other parts of the body.
The disease becomes difficult to treat once secondary
cancer sites called metastases develop.
Leukaemia is a type of cancer of the bone marrow
and the tissues that produce blood cells. The first
symptoms are usually fatigue, unexplained bruising
and anaemia, due to the lack of red blood cells. An
abnormal number of white blood cells appear. Like
most cancers, there is no known cure, but many
treatment options are available.
Cancer treatments
There are three common treatments for cancer, all
having serious side effects.
Surgery: Some healthy cells surrounding the
tumour need to be removed, often resulting in
serious scarring.
Radiotherapy: This treatment uses radiation to kill
localised growths. Although targeted at the cancer
cells, other healthy cells are usually affected, too.
This can cause illness, fatigue and often a loss
of hair.
Chemotherapy: This treatment uses chemicals to
poison cancerous cells. It, too, affects healthy cells
and can cause similar side effects to radiotherapy.
The best chance for surviving cancer is to detect it
early while it is still small, before metastasis. Never
ignore unexplained lumps anywhere on your body.
Illegal drugs
A drug is any substance that has the ability to alter a
persons body chemistry. Psychoactive drugs are those
that alter mood. Drug use is the controlled, beneficial
use of a substance. Drug abuse is when a drug is used
in a way that causes negative
effects.
Many people frequently
use substances that cause them
harm. It is wrong to think that
nasty side effects only occur
with prolonged use. Long-term
problems can arise just as easily
in first-time users. People who
use illegal so-called recreational
drugs like Ecstasy or marijuana
are often unaware of the serious
side effects that can occur. Often
users develop mental disorders
that stay with them for life.
The table opposite shows the
long- and short-term effects of
some psychoactive drugs.
Fig 5.5.8 Surgery is an obvious way of removing
cancer. It scars, however, and cannot cope
with the number of smaller cancers after
metastasis occurs.
Illegal drugs were
once used for
medicine
Heroin was first developed
in 1898 by the German
drug company Bayer as a
sedative that was supposed
to make you feel like a hero
(hence its name). Cocaine
was first developed in
1860 as an anaesthetic.
Amphetamines were first
developed in 1932 by the
US drug company Smith,
Kline and French to relieve
clogged noses.
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Legal drugs
Two of the most widely used and abused drugs today
are alcohol and nicotine. Because they are legal, their
use is much more widespread, open and accepted than
illegal substances such as heroin and amphetamines.
Results of their abuse can be just as devastating,
however, both to the user and to those around them.
Alcohol
In Australia, approximately 7 per cent of all male
deaths and 4 per cent of all female deaths can be
directly attributed to alcohol.
Alcohol is technically a depressant drug. While
it doesnt necessarily make you depressed, it does
depress your central nervous system, slowing down its
responses. Alcohol has different effects depending on
how much is consumed.
Alcohol initially gives a sense of warmth,
wellbeing and a loss of inhibitions.
With a little more alcohol, muscle co-ordination
becomes difficult and speech slurred. Reactions
are slower and senses become dulled. Alcohol
is a cause of around one-third of all road deaths.
Hence the legal blood alcohol concentration
(BAC) in Victoria for all learner and provisional
licence holders is zero. The legal BAC for all other
drivers is 0.05 per cent.
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Drug Common names Short-term effects Long-term effects
Cannabis marijuana, grass, pot, dope, Mary
Jane, hooch, weed, hash, joints, brew,
reefers, cones, smoke, mull, buddha,
ganga, hydro, yarndi, heads, green,
skunk
euphoria, poor co-ordination, disturbed
sense of time, increased appetite, thirst,
dizziness, loss of co-ordination, paranoia,
respiratory problems, depression, memory
problems, decreased motivation, reduced
levels of sex hormones, dependence
may unlock existing illnesses
such as schizophrenia in those
susceptible
Amphetamines speed, uppers, buzz, crystal, meth,
crystal meth, base, pure, ice, shabu,
ox blood
more energy, hyperactivity, less appetite,
dry mouth, higher blood pressure and
heart rate, nausea
sleep problems, extreme mood
swings, compulsive repetition of
actions, paranoia, depression,
anxiety, panic attacks, seizures,
dependence
Speed
(derived from
amphetamines)
uppers, buzz stimulant, increased heart rate, decreased
fatigue, feelings of agitation, excited
speech
can lead to brain damage, memory
loss, psychotic behaviour and heart
problems
Crystal meth
(derived from
amphetamines)
crystal, ice as above as above
Ecstasy
(derived from
amphetamines)
E, eccy, XTC, pills, eggs, doves,
MDMA
feeling of closeness to others, lack of
inhibitions, chewing, teeth grinding,
nausea, inability to sleep, increased body
temperature that can lead to death
damaged brain and memory,
depression, cracked teeth
Ketamine green, K, super K, special K delirium, amnesia, affects movement,
speech and vision, increased body
temperature, can cause fatal breathing
difficulties
damaged attention span, memory,
personality and mood changes
LSD acid, trips, holidays, blotters,
microdots, tabs, tickets (street name
often depends on the design of the
blotting paper squares)
hallucinogen, increased heart rate, higher
body temperature, tremors, paranoia,
effects often unpredictable
panic attacks and persistent
psychosis and flashbacks,
recurring hallucinations
GHB fantasy, liquid ecstasy, liquid E drowsiness, induced sleep, nausea,
reduced inhibitions, dizziness, headache
agitation, extreme drowsiness,
hallucinations, difficulty focussing
eyes, vomiting, stiffening muscles,
disorientation
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If more alcohol is ingested, intoxication occurs.
The person will be staggering, nauseous, possibly
vomiting, and will have difficulty speaking. People
are likely to fall into a coma if their blood alcohol
content gets to 0.40 per cent. Death through heart
and respiratory failure can occur at around 0.60
per cent. This rarely happens, however, since
unconsciousness and vomiting has usually forced
the person to stop drinking.
Alcohol also stimulates urine production,
dehydrating body cells. Part of the liver is put out of
action while it works on processing alcohol. A by-
product of all this processing is poisonous chemicals
that are then released back into the blood. It is a
combination of dehydration and these chemicals that
give the symptoms of a hangover. Binge-drinking
(classified as five or more drinks in one session) is
particularly harmful since it gives no time for the
body to process the alcohol.
Chronic alcohol abuse causes many ill-effects:
Digestive problems: Alcohol destroys the lining of
the stomach.
Malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies: Diet is often
neglected. Although alcohol is rich in kilojoules, it
has no nutrients.
Destruction of the liver: Alcohol can cause
cirrhosis, a disease where cells are replaced by
fibrous tissue.
Heart damage: Alcohol can
harden artery walls.
Destruction of brain cells.
Slow deterioration of the
central nervous system.
The abuse of alcohol
can result in the disorder
called alcoholism, where
drinking is compulsive and
the person is dependent on
it. This dependence is most
often psychological, but
can develop into a physical
dependence.
Fig 5.5.9 Although legal, alcohol and nicotine are
drugs that can cause much harm.
Homework book 5.5 Blood alcohol concentration
Smoking
The harmful effects of smoking have long been well-
documented. Despite this, every year young people
take up the habit. More young women than men are
currently smokers, one common reason being that it is
an appetite suppressant.
The nicotine in tobacco is addictive and once
the habit is formed, it is not an easy one to give
up. Withdrawal symptoms include intense craving,
anxiety, sweating, depression, sleep problems and
difficulty concentrating. It often takes many attempts
before people are able to kick the habit for good.
If you smoke, then you are more susceptible
to lung cancer, throat cancer and cancer of the
voice box, shown here in an 80-year-old patient
who was a heavy smoker.
Fig 5.5.10
Sexist alcohol!
Alcohol affects different
people very differently. Its
effects will depend on your
body weight, fat content,
age, mood, previous
exposure to alcohol and
many other factors. Women
have a higher fat content
than men and so are not
able to metabolise as
much alcohol. Women will
therefore be affected by
smaller amounts. In both
sexes, even small amounts
of alcohol can make
the symptoms of mood
disorders like depression
and anxiety much worse.
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Before you think about lighting up, think about
these statistics.
Smokers are likely to have more accidents than
non-smokers, due to the slowing down of their
reflex actions following a cigarette.
Smoking causes constriction of the blood vessels,
which means that smokers brains dont work as
well as non-smokers brains.
Smokers have a middle-age death rate twice that of
non-smokers.
Smokers have an increased risk of developing
many diseases, not just lung cancer.
Pregnant smokers have an increased risk
of having low-birthweight babies with
health problems and reduced intelligence.
Environmental hazards
Exposure to radiation, heavy metals such as mercury,
chemicals such as dioxins, or materials such as
asbestos, are all environmental hazards that can cause
disease. Although usually avoidable, some people are
unknowingly exposed to hazards. Many environmental
diseases have only been diagnosed relatively recently,
since many take a long time to develop. Materials such
as asbestos were once thought to be safe and many
Fig 5.5.12 This cancer of the lower lip was
caused by prolonged exposure
to UV radiation from the sun.
Fig 5.5.13 There is still a lot of debate among
scientists as to whether or not radiation
from mobile phones causes cancer.
Some effects of smoking
Fig 5.5.11
increased chance
of cancer and
heart disease
prone to lung
infections,
persistent
cough
cant smell or
taste as well
ageing
bad breath,
smelly hair, hands, etc.
expensive
unfit
Prac 1
p. 214
people exposed themselves to it in the
past. What diseases will develop in the
years to come from the materials that we
use now?
Radiation
Radiation can come from natural
sources, such as the Sun, or can be
generated from artificial sources such as
X-rays and nuclear explosions. Radiation
most commonly causes mutations in
cells, producing various cancers.
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Genetic medical conditions
1 Genetic disorders are not able to be caught. Explain
why.
2 Copy the following, correcting any incorrect
statements to make them true:
a Gene abnormalities are always inherited.
b Older women have less chance than younger
women of having a child with Downs syndrome.
c If you have an inherited genetic disease, then your
parents must have had the disease, too.
Diseases and diet
3 Explain how people who eat lots of hamburgers and
fries can still be malnourished.
4 Contrast anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
5 What is diabetes and how is it treated?
Heavy metals
The heavy metals include
mercury, thallium, lead and
bismuth. The human body has
no method of ridding itself of
these metals and they build up
with each exposure to them.
Hence, they are often called
cumulative poisons. Throughout
history, mercury and lead were
used for many purposes before
their ill effects were known,
poisoning people as they were used.
Lead poisoning has been
linked to the exhaust from cars
and from flaking old-fashioned
lead-based paint. Lead is rarely
used in paint these days, but
renovators of old homes need
to take care when sanding and
ripping down walls. Chronic
lead poisoning has many
ill effects including foetal
deformities in pregnant women
and mental impairment in
children.
Thats super!
In the past, petrol contained
lead because it stopped
engines from knocking. It
was called super petrol.
This lead became part of
their exhaust, poisoning all
who lived near major roads.
Because of this, all fuels are
now lead-free.
Depression is often difficult to diagnose. Once
recognised, it can be effectively treated.
Fig 5.4.14
Mental illness
Disorders of the mind can be the most devastating of
all. Not only do sufferers have to deal with the disease
itself, they must also deal with the terrible stigma that
society places on those with mental disorders. In spite
of their widespread natureit is estimated that one in
four Australians suffers from a mental health problem
severe enough to affect their ability to maintain a
normal lifestylemental illnesses are not discussed
with the same openness as many other illnesses.
Societys attitude towards sufferers of mental illness
results in them feeling even more isolated, rejected and
shamed. Hopefully this attitude will change as people
become better educated about mental disorders.
6 If you are not a diabetic, does this mean you will never
be one? Explain your answer.
Coronary heart disease
7 True or false? Heart disease is the leading cause of
death of Australian men over 35 years old.
>>
Mercury poisoning
gone mad
The Mad Hatter (from Alice
in Wonderland by Lewis
Carroll) was mad indeed.
Hatters once used mercury
to put the shine on top
hats. It slowly sent them
mad.
Mental illnesses include schizophrenia, depression
and bipolar disorder. Mental illnesses are no different
to other types of illnessthere are symptoms and
treatments. They can be inherited or caused by other
factors such as drug abuse. Anyone that is ill needs
acceptance, understanding and respect
from those around them. People with
mental illnesses need that, too, more than
anything else.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about legal and illegal
drug use by connecting to the
Present your findings as a web page for those who want to
quit their habit. Include links to the sites you thought were
worthwhile.
Researching inherited disorders
Internet, etc.) to find details about a genetic condition such
as thalassemia, sickle-cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, colour
blindness, haemophilia or albinism. Whatever condition you
choose, you must find:
how common it is
whether it is sex-linked and why
what its effects are
any treatment or care necessary
whether the condition reduces the life span of the
sufferer.
>>
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SCIENCE
Fig 5.5.15
8 Define the following terms:
a thrombosis
b embolism
c hypertension
d arteriosclerosis.
9 Explain what can happen if an embolism forms in:
a the brain
b the legs of a passenger on a long flight.
Cancer
10 What is the difference between a malignant growth and
a benign growth?
11 Describe three ways of treating cancer and the effects of
the treatment.
12 Metastases make it difficult to treat cancer. Explain why.
Illegal drugs
13 Define the term drug.
14 How is drug use different from drug abuse?
15 Use an example to explain what a psychoactive drug is.
16 List the long-term effects of ecstasy.
Legal drugs
17 Why are alcohol and nicotine classified as drugs?
18 Describe some of the effects of long-term alcohol abuse.
19 What are four effects of smoking?
Environmental hazards
20 a What is a cumulative poison?
b Give an example of a cumulative poison and its
effects.
Mental illness
21 Give three examples of mental illness.
5
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Thinking questions
22 Decide whether caffeine is a drug. Explain your answer.
23 Mental illness is a common problem. Why isnt it
discussed openly like most other illness?
24 Propose reasons why young people are tempted to use
illegal drugs such as marijuana.
25 Suggest why the blood-alcohol concentration for learner
and P-plate drivers is 0.0 per cent.
Analysis questions
26 Look at the person in Figure 5.5.15. What non-infectious
diseases is he at risk of getting?
214
>>>
[
Practical activity
] 5
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Prac 1
Unit 5.5
Present your findings as a speech, video or PowerPoint
presentation to inform a group of parents who have just
been told their child has a genetic condition.
Researching heart disease
Internet, etc.) to research one type of heart disease such
as angina, heart attack or stroke. Whatever condition you
research, find:
a diagram showing what happens
how many people it affects annually
factors that increase the risk of being struck with that
condition
what age groups it affects predominantly
its symptoms
the treatment or medical care afterwards
life, if any, after recuperation.
Present your work as a poster.
Researching DVT
Internet, etc.) to find what exercises are recommended by
airlines to minimise the possibility of getting DVT.
at work SCIENCE
>>
a demonstration by flight attendants
a short article for the in-flight magazine
a video to show early in the flight.
Debating
Genetic disorders
A healthy woman is three months pregnant and has just
discovered that her child has a genetic disorder. Should she
have it anyway or should she abort it? Debate the issues
with your class.
Constructing
Family tree
Construct a family tree of at least three generations.
What natural causes did most people die from? Does
your family have a history of any particular disorder?
Construct a display warning people about a health risk.
It might be heart disease, skin cancer, smoking, drug
abuse or other health condition that they have some
control over.
Teacher demonstration
retort
stand
tap
rubber
hosing
vacuum
pump
glass tube
cotton wool
cigarette
bosshead
and clamp
Fig 5.5.16
Effects of smoking
You will need
Glass tubes, cigarette, cotton wool, sink, vacuum
pump, matches
What to do
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.5.16.
2 Turn the pump on and light the cigarette.
Questions
1 What did you observe as the cigarette was being
smoked?
2 What did the cotton wool represent?
3 What is one poisonous substance produced as a result
of cigarette smoking?
215
Chapter review
[
Thinking questions
]
18 Some very old bacteria have been found alive in ice in
polar regions. How do they survive for so long?
19 What pathogens are you trying to avoid when you wash
your hands after:
a going to the toilet
b playing with a pet?
[
Analysis question
]
20 Look at the following diagram. What is acting as
a the host
b the vector?
[
Summary questions
]
1 How is health different from disease?
2 Give an example of a psychosomatic illness.
3 What are three types of nutrients?
4 Give an example of a disease and its symptoms.
5 Give one reason why pathologists carry out autopsies.
6 How can the spread of a disease be prevented if it is:
a water-borne
b air-borne?
7 Copy and complete these sentences:
a The study of disease is called ____________________.
b A plant or an animal is an ______________.
c A very small ________________ is called a
__________________.
d An _______________ causes disease.
e Parasites use a ____________ for food and
____________________.
f ___________________ is a measure of how much a
disease damages the host.
g Another name for an epidemic is an
_____________________.
8 What is a pathogen? Give an example.
9 What pathogen causes:
a cholera
b thrush
c food poisoning?
10 Why are fungi called opportunistic pathogens?
11 Describe one natural and one artificial way of controlling
disease.
12 Explain how vaccinations can give immunity.
13 What sorts of things can vaccines be made of?
14 What is a gene mutation and what is one thing that can
cause it?
15 What is metastasis? Why is it better to find cancers
before this happens?
16 Name three heavy metals.
17 What are the effects of lead poisoning?
Homework book 5.6 Health and disease crossword
6
Movement
Students:
that may initially be tentative and limited
develop a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the
relationships between force, mass and movement
observed in physical processes and applications
learn that using a theory to successfully predict the
consequences of changes is important in the validation
of that theory
design and conduct scientific investigations of their choice
use correct units of measurement when recording quantities
extensively
develop an understanding of the constancy of the big ideas
of science, matter, energy, time and space
explore how science concepts, language and perspectives can
be misunderstood and misrepresented
society, such as personal safety, energy use and the history
of science.
Students:
explain change in terms of energy
give both qualitative and quantitative
explanations of the relationships between force,
mass and movement.
1 Where would feathers and hammers fall at the same rate?
2 How long does it take you to react to something?
3 True or false? Passengers are thrown forwards in a head-on
car crash.
4 Are headrests in cars for comfort or for some other reason?
5 What are the differences between kicking a football and
kicking a brick?
6 How does a jet engine propel an aircraft forward?
7 Why do photos often blur motion?
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Standards:
Learning focus
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UNIT
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Distance and displacement
How would you describe your journey to school this
morning? Apart from boring, you might mention the
distance travelled and the time it took.
Distance can be measured in any length units, such
as kilometres or millimetres, but is usually converted
into metres (m) for calculations. Likewise, time is
usually converted into seconds (s).
Displacement is distance with a difference. It is
how far you end up and in which direction (up, left,
north, towards the window). You travel a considerable
distance each day, but your overall displacement is
likely to be zero. You will end in the same bed that
you crawled out of this morning.
Speed and velocity
Instantaneous speed
In a car, speed is measured continuously by the
speedometer in kilometres per hour (km/h or kmh
1
).
This is its instantaneous speed or its speed at any
moment in its travels. Speed is the rate at which
distance is covered.
Distance is how far you have travelled.
Displacement is how far and in which direction
you have moved from the start.
A B
8 m
A to B
distance = 8 metres
displacement = 8 metres to the right
A to B back to A
distance = 16 metres
displacement = 0
Fig 6.1.1
Fig 6.1.2 Instantaneous speed can be measured by a
speedometer or a radar gun.
Sometimes movement is obvious: a car whizzes
past or an aircraft flies overhead. Some movement
is not obvious at all. Although you dont notice it,
the Earth is moving all the time, carrying you with it.
It rotates on its axis at a speed of about 1670 km/h
and revolves at an even faster speed around the Sun.
Inside you, blood is pumped so that it moves around
your body and your chest expands and contracts as
you breathe.
The biggest, highest and longest
Highest bungee jump = 15 200 m
(American Curtis Rivers from a hot air balloon over Spain, 2002)
Largest waves surfed = 21.34 m
(American Pete Cabrinha in Hawaii, 2004)
Deepest free-dive (with no breathing apparatus) = 171 m
(Frenchman Loic Leferme, 2004)
Longest kite-surf = 42.9 km
(British Chris Calthrop, Andy Preston and Jason Furness
across the English Channel, 1999)
Physics fact file
Symbol in formulas: x (distance has no direction,
displacement has direction)
Unit: metres
Unit abbreviation: m
218
>>>
Conversion of
speed units
Although speed is often
measured in kilometres
per hour (km/h), it is usually converted into
metres per second (m/s) for calculations. To do this
conversion, you simply multiply or divide by 3.6.
km/h
3.6
3.6
m/s
Average speed
If you dont have a speedo or a radar gun to measure
instantaneous speed, then some simple measurements
will allow you to calculate average speed:
Average speed =
distance travelled
time taken
or v =
x
t
If a car took half an hour to travel 20 kilometres
into the city, its average speed would be:
v =
20
= 40 km/h
0.5
This seems slow, but it is an
average of all the instantaneous
speeds the car did on its journey.
The car went faster than 40 km/h,
but also stopped at traffic lights
and had to crawl through tram
stops, school zones and
shopping areas.
A cloud of ice crystals forms as an aircraft
reaches an instantaneous speed of 1200 km/h.
This is the speed of soundthe plane has
broken the sound barrier.
Fig 6.1.3
Fig 6.1.4 One way of measuring motion is to put it on
a treadmill. This brushtailed bettong has been
trained to hop along on one!
Thats slow!
The speed limit for cars in
France was 13 km/h
in 1893. Originally all
cars in Great Britain had
to have a man walking in
front of them with a red
flag to alert horseriders. In
1896 the speed limit was
raised to 20 km/h, and in
1904 to 33 km/h. The first
Australian speeding ticket
was given to a Tasmanian,
George Innes, who was
recklessly driving a car
through Sydney at
13 km/htourists!
Thats fast!
Measurements are only as
accurate as the device that
measures them and faulty
equipment will never give
accurate measurements. This
was particularly so when a driver
in Belgium was fined in 2004
after a radar gun measured his
speed at 3500 km/h!
Busted on average
Up to now, police have only been able to measure the instantaneous
speeds of cars. A new system of measuring the average speeds
of motorists will soon be in place, however, monitoring the Hume
Highway between Melbourne and Wodonga. Along the 330
kilometres will be ten cameras that will read every number plate of
every vehicle. It will match each vehicle and will measure the time
each one took from one camera to the next. If you take less time
than the speed limit allows, youre busted!
Describing movement Describing movement
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Velocity
A weather report of 60 km/h wind gusts is useless to
pilots, sailors, surfers and those who simply want to
fish, unless they also know the direction from which
it is blowing. Velocity is speed in a given direction.
Wind is usually stated as velocity.
Average velocity =
displacement
time
Graphing movement
Line graphs are a useful way of representing the
motion of an object travelling in a straight line.
Distancetime graphs
Distancetime graphs show the total distance travelled
by an object as time progressed. Time is always placed
on the horizontal axis. Steep graphs indicate that the
object is covering more distance and travelling faster
than shallow graphs. A horizontal graph indicates no
movement at all: the object is at rest or is stationary.
The slope or gradient of a distancetime graph gives
its speed.
Physics fact file
Speed and velocity
Symbol in formulas: v (speed has no direction, velocity
has direction)
Unit: metres per second
Unit abbreviation: m/s sometimes written as ms
1
Time
Symbol in formulas: t
Unit: seconds
Unit abbreviation: s
Although useful, the ticker-timer can
record only motion in a straight line.
paper ticker tape
vibrating arm or hammer
carbon paper
disk
dots produced
to AC
power
pack
Fig 6.1.5
The spacing of dots gives an accurate idea of
what is happening in the motion.
at constant speed
accelerating
decelerating start
Fig 6.1.6
Measuring speed
Averages are useful, but are not what is actually
happening. If the distance or time chosen for the
average is small, however, average and instantaneous
speeds become closer to each other. A runner might
be timed as completing the 100 m sprint in 12 s, but it
would be better to measure the times taken to run past
markers spaced at, say, 10 m. The average speed of
each section would show any changes that happened
along the way. Spacings of one metre would be
even better.
Ticker-timer
A ticker-timer is a device that breaks movement
into a series of small intervals. It provides a way of
accurately measuring distances travelled and times
taken and provides the data from which speeds can
be calculated. A small electric hammer strikes a
piece of carbon paper at the same frequency as its AC
power supply, fifty times a second or 50 Hz. Motion
is recorded as dots on a strip of paper that passes
under the hammer. Fifty dots are produced
every second, so a space between dots takes
only one-fiftieth of a second or 0.02 s to be
produced.
Prac 1
p. 225
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>>>
Calculating distance
The average speed formula can be rearranged to give
another useful formula:
Distance = speed time
or x = vt
A car travelling at an average speed of 20 m/s for
5 s will have travelled a distance of:
x = 20 5 = 100 m
Reaction time and distance
Humans do not respond immediately to emergencies,
but take up to 1.0 s to react. This is their reaction
time. This means that a driver of a car will not begin
braking until well after they see an emergency.
Meanwhile the car is travelling quickly towards it.
To calculate the distance a car travels while the
driver reacts, the speed must be converted into m/s
The area under the graph = 6 + 8 = 14.
The object has moved 14 m.
S
p
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d

(
m
/
s
)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
area = 8
area = 6
v
t
v
t
v
t
speed is increasing
speed is decreasing
constant
speed
Fig 6.1.8
D
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a
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c
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(
m
)

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
To calculate
gradient pick
any 2 points gradient =
rise
run
= 6
3
= 2 m/s
rise = 6
run = 3
d
t
slow
d
t
fast
d
t
at rest
Fig 6.1.7 The steeper a distancetime graph is, the
faster the object is going.
Homework book 6.1 Distancetime graphs
Speedtime graphs
A graph of speed against time gives another picture of
what is happening in the motion. As before, time is
placed on the horizontal axis. If the object is getting
faster, the graph rises. If slowing, the graph falls.
Constant speed gives a flat graph. The area under a
speedtime graph gives the distance that the object
has travelled up to that point. You can count the
squares or use area formulas to find out the distance.
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to match the units used for time. For example, a car
is being driven at 60 km/h (16.7 m/s) by a driver with
a reaction time of 0.8 s. The distance the car travels
before the driver brakes is then:
x = 16.7 0.8 = 13.36 m (equivalent to three to four car lengths).
A drivers reaction time
is slowed by alcohol, drugs,
fatigue, old age and distractions
such as mobile phones or
changing a CD in the car.
Reaction time might then be
as slow as three seconds and
reaction distance will be much
greater than normal.
Instant reaction
required
Ace bowlers such as
Australian Brett Lee or
Pakistani Shoaib Akhtar
deliver the ball so fast that
the batsman has less than
half a second to react!
Experiments have shown
that the fastest reaction
time for humans is
0.110 seconds.
Prac 3
p. 227
Prac 2
p. 226
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
1 Write the commonly used symbols, units
and abbreviations for distance and time.
2 Use examples to explain the difference
between distance and displacement.
Speed and velocity
3 Write the commonly used symbols, units and
abbreviations for speed.
Measuring speed
4 What two measurements would be required to calculate
the average speed of a sprinter?
5 a How many dots are produced by a ticker-timer in one
second?
b What time does the space between two dots on a
tickertape represent?
6 How can average speed be calculated from two dots on
a ticker tape?
7 State one disadvantage of ticker-timer data.
Graphing movement
8 Which of the lines in Figure 6.1.9 represents:
a an object not moving
b the fastest object
c travelling backwards?
9 Which of the lines in Figure 6.1.10 represents:
a an object travelling at constant speed
b an object increasing in speed
c an object slowing down?
D
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a
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c
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Time
A
B
C
D
Fig 6.1.9
Calculating distance
10 Write the formula used to calculate distance.
11 What factors could be expected to influence
reaction time?
Thinking questions
12 A distancetime graph always increases and never
drops down, while a displacement graph could.
Explain why.
13 Describe what a driver is doing in an emergency
during their reaction time.
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Time
A
B
C
D
Fig 6.1.10
>>
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start
2 km
2 km
Motion 1:
Motion 2:
1 km
3 km
7 km
5 km
end

time taken = 4 h
time taken = 9 s
5 m
2 m
1 m
6 m
4 m
up
N
start
end
Fig 6.1.11
15 Calculate the average speed of:
a a car that travelled 990 km in 9 h
b an ant that ran 24 cm in 2 s.
16 Scott leaves home for the 1.5 km walk to school at 8.15.
He arrives at 8.45. Calculate his average speed.
17 Thai tribesman, Hoo Sateow, died at the age of 77 in
2001, having made it into the Guinness World Records
for having the worlds longest hair. Its length was 5.15 m.
a What was the speed in mm/y at which his hair grew?
b What assumption have you made in your calculation?
c Is the speed you calculated instantaneous or average?
18 Calculate the distance travelled by:
a a jet in 6 h at 800 km/h
b a sprinter running at 11.7 m/s in 8 s.
19 To calculate time, t =
x
/
v
can be used. Write this formula
in words.
20 Use the formula t =
x
/
v
to calculate the time taken to
travel:
a 75 m at 2.5 m/s
b 300 km at 60 km/h.
21 Light travels at a speed of 300 000 km/s. How long does
it take to travel:
a from the Sun to Earth, a distance of 149 600 000 km
b the 384 403 km distance between the Moon and
Earth
c from Earth to Pluto, 5 750 400 000 km away?
22 Copy and complete the following table to calculate
the distance a car would travel while the driver is
reacting.
Speed
(km/h)
Speed
(m/s)
Reaction
time (s)
Reaction
distance (m)
20 0.7
50 0.6
60 0.9
100 0.5
110 0.8
23 Measure the distances travelled on the sections of
tickertapes shown in Figure 6.1.12 and calculate the
average speed for each one.
a
b
c
Fig 6.1.12
>>
Analysis questions
14 For the motions shown in Figure 6.1.11, calculate:
a the distance travelled
b the displacement
c the average speed for the whole trip
d the average velocity for the trip.
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24 Calculate the gradients on the graph in Figure 6.1.13 to
find the two different speeds.
26 Refer to the displacementtime graph in Figure 6.1.15
to find:
a how far Sharnika travelled in total
b her displacement for the entire journey
c how long she was away for
d what her speed was for the first leg of the trip
e her return speed
f at what times she was stationary
g the average speed of her whole trip.
D
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t
a
n
c
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(
m
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
Fig 6.1.13
25 Calculate the area of the shaded parts of the vt graphs
in Figure 6.1.14 to find the distance travelled.
S
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(
m
/
s
)

S
p
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(
m
/
s
)
S
p
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d

(
m
/
s
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Time (s)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Time (s)
a b c
Fig 6.1.14
D
i
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t
a
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c
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(
k
m
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (h)
Fig 6.1.15
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find interactive websites to measure your
own reaction time by connecting to the
Alternatively, search for the phrase reflex tester.
Researching speed and time
Internet, etc.) to find:
how a speedometer works
how a radar gun measures speed
how an atomic clock measures time
what a sonic boom is and what speed it happens at.
>>
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>>>
at work SCIENCE
>>
Speed conversions
Copy and complete the following table (round answers to
one decimal place) and then carefully plot a line graph
to compare the speeds shown.
Speed (km/h) Speed (m/s)
athlete sprinting 11.7
bushwalker 4.0
race horse 19.0
cheetah 100.0
greyhound 18.3
cockroach 4.5
speed of sound 334
antelope 88.0
peregrine falcon 97
Analysing
Woomera craft
Eight Zuni rockets launched
a craft from Woomera, South
Australia, in 2001 to gauge
its impact on falling back to
Earth. It reached a height of
5.9 km in 40 s.
1 Calculate the average
speed of the craft from
launch to the top.
2 Trace the trajectory in
Figure 6.1.16.
3 On your tracing indicate:
a the height the craft
obtained in reality in
kilometres and on the
diagram in millimetres
b the total distance the
craft travelled before landing (in mm and km).
4 Use this information to develop a scale for distance for
the photograph.
5 Estimate the approximate displacement of the craft from
launch to landing. Indicate this distance on your tracing.
6 The shape of the trajectory is one very familiar in
mathematics. What is it called? (Hint: turn the photo
upside down.)
Fig 6.1.16
Present your findings as a mini-poster that includes at least
one diagram.
Researching athletic records
Internet, etc.) to find the times taken for the same race (such
as the womens 100 m sprint) in each Olympics since 1896.
1 Plot a graph showing the variation in time for the race
through the last century.
2 Convert these times to speed by using the formula
v =
x
/
t
.
3 Plot a line graph of speeds through the century.
Present your work as a table showing the information you
collected and the line graph you plotted.
Researching athletic styles
Modern athletes can analyse their movement by viewing
videos of their races. They can then correct faults in style
that may slow them down. The way athletes move (and the
equipment they use) has changed over the last century to
increase speed. Gather photos to show how the sprint sports
of running, swimming and cycling have changed.
a Word document with photos
a collage of photos on poster paper.
Plotting
Record speeds
Accurately plot the following record speeds on a bar graph:
F1 car in a Grand Prix = 361.8 km/h (David Coulthard in
a McLaren-Mercedes at the Italian GP, 2000)
Production car = 349 km/h (Jaguar XJ220 in Italy, 1992)
Bicycle ride = 269 km/h (Dutchman Fred Rompelberg on
a salt-flat in the USA, 1995)
Badminton smash = 260.6 km/h (British Simon Archer,
1997)
Tennis serve = 256.2 km/h (American Andy Roddick in
the UK, 2004)
Baseball pitch = 166 km/h (Matt Anderson for Detroit
Tigers, 1999)
Cricket ball = 161.3 km/h (Pakistani bowler Shoaib
Akhtar in South Africa, 2003)
Roller coaster = 160 km/h (Superman: the escape,
California USA, 2005)
Skateboard while lying face down on it = 126.12 km/h
(American Roger Hickey, 1990).
>>
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Ticker-timer experiment
Prac 1
Unit 6.1
You will need
AC ticker-timer, carbon paper circles and tape,
power pack, scissors, ruler, graph paper, paper glue
What to do
1 Tear off about 1 m of tape and thread it through the
timer.
2 Start the timer, then pull the tape through, changing
speed as you go.
3 Repeat with new tape, until everyone in the group has
their own tape.
measure in mm
measure in mm
1
0.1 s
5 dots
0.1 s
5 dots
2
3
4
5
6 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Time (s)
S
p
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d

(
m
m
/
s
)
Fig 6.1.17
at work SCIENCE
>>
Present your work as a tracing of the trajectory including
measurements taken, a set of calculations and answers to
the questions.
Investigating
Theyve got the runs!
A student is to run a short distance (say, 50 metres). Design
an experiment that will enable a group of other students
to collect as much data as they can about the run. Make
sure you have selected somewhere flat and safe for the run.
Gather all the data and display it in an appropriate table.
Plot the results obtained for each run as a speedtime graph.
If time allows, repeat for another students run.
1 Where did you expect acceleration and deceleration on
the run? Why?
2 Where could it be expected the speed would be
reasonably constant?
3 Why was it important to have more measurements in
areas where acceleration was expected?
4 Normally, experiments are repeated a number of times.
Only one set of measurements should be taken in this
case, however. Suggest why.
5 What would the graph look like if the student was
cycling and not running? Explain.
the normal features such as aim, materials, method, results,
discussion (answers to the questions) and conclusion.
Measuring speed
Design experiments that will measure the:
speed of a moving object
speed of sound.
You could use simple equipment such as tape
measures and stopwatches or use datalogging equipment
with appropriate sensors (light gates, ultrasonic sensors,
microphones).
Present your work as an experimental report. Include all the
normal features such as aim, materials, method, results and
conclusion.
Designing
A speedo
Although speed is normally converted into m/s, it can be
measured using any distance or time unit, such as km/h,
miles per hour, centimetres per year, metres per minute.
Design a speedometer with units in km/h, with markings
every 10 km/h. Include on your speedo at least two other
speed units, accurately converted for each 10 km/h.
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2 How many dots are produced
by an AC ticker-timer in
1 second?
3 How long does it take to
produce:
a a new dot (this is equivalent
to a single space)
b five new dots (equivalent to
five spaces)?
4 Draw a line through the first clear dot, then every fifth
dot after that. There should be five spaces per section.
This represents a time of 0.1 seconds.
5 Number each section, then cut along the lines.
6 Paste the pieces in order onto paper to produce a
speedtime graph.
7 Measure the length of each section in millimetres and
enter your results in a table like the one below.
Section Elapsed
time (s)
Distance of each
section (mm)
Total distance
(mm)
Average speed (mm/s)
Column 3 0.1
0 to 5 dots 0.1
5 to 10 0.2
10 to 15 0.3
15 to 20 0.4
20 to 25 0.5

8 Add axes to the cut-and-paste graph and use the values
in the table to mark appropriate scales along each axis.
9 On graph paper, plot a distancetime graph for your
hands motion.
Questions
1 Why was it important to number the sections before
cutting?
Chain reaction
How long do we take to react to a message?
You will need
Stopwatch, piece of paper and pen
What to do
Part A
1 Gather into groups of ten to fifteen students.
2 Arrange in a ring, with everyone facing outwards, about
50 cm apart.
Prac 2
Unit 6.1
Fig 6.1.18 Measuring group reaction times
3 One in the group (the starter) has a stopwatch. Another
will record the group results.
4 The starter is to touch the shoulder of the neighbour to
their right, starting the stopwatch when they do. When a
shoulder is touched, the message is to be passed on.
5 Time how long it takes for the message to get back to
the starter. Record the time taken and the number in
the ring.
6 Repeat at least three times.
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Part B
7 Repeat, but send the message to the left, using the left
hand.
Part C
8 Send the message back to the right.
9 The starter can now touch either the left shoulder of
their neighbour or they can lean behind them and touch
their right shoulder.
10 If the left shoulder is touched, pass the message onto
your neighbour by leaning behind and touching their
right shoulder and vice versa.
11 Have a few practice runs before you record any times.
Questions
1 Make a copy of all results.
2 Calculate the average reaction time for each person,
for parts A, B and C.
3 Was there any difference sending the message right
or left?
4 Part C needed complex thinking. What happened to
reaction times when you needed to process information?
Prac 3
Unit 6.1
3 Hold the 30 cm ruler vertically with the zero level with
the top of your partners hand.
4 Without warning, let go of the ruler. Your partner must
catch it as quickly as possible.
5 Note the reading of the ruler (in centimetres) level with
the top of your partners open hand.
6 Have two trial runs and then record the next three runs.
Driving reaction times
You will need
30 cm ruler, metre ruler, access to calculator
What to do
Below are two methods that use falling rulers and simple
mathematics to calculate your reaction time. Choose either
method or carry out both.
1 Copy the table below.
Experiment Ruler drops
(cm)
Average drop
(cm)
Average reaction
time (s)
Without distractions
With distractions
Method 1
2 Arrange yourselves into pairs.
Fig 6.1.19
ruler
have your
fingers level
with zero
the ruler
has
dropped
22 cm
Method 2
7 Arrange yourselves into groups of three.
8 Place a desk close to a wall, leaving a small
gap. Place a chair on top.
9 One student holds the chair securely.
Another (the driver) sits on it. The driver
places their right heel on the desk, their
toes against the wall, in the position of a car
accelerator.
10 The third student holds a metre ruler against
the wall. This is the brake pedal. Align the
ruler so that the zero is level with the top
of the drivers toes.
11 Without warning, let the ruler go.
12 The driver must pivot their foot onto the
ruler and stop it falling.
13 Read off the position of the toes now and
enter the reading in the table.
14 Repeat at least three times. Each student
should have a turn as driver.
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15 Repeat the test, but now distract the driver (for
example, touch their neck, tickle them).
16 Use this formula and your own data to calculate your
reaction time:
where t = reaction time (s)
and d = average ruler drop (cm)
Check you are doing the calculation correctly.
If d = 10 cm the time should come out as 0.14 s. If not,
find out what you are doing wrong with your calculator.
It is physically impossible to have a reaction time less
than 0.11 seconds, so disregard any drops that were
less than 6 cm.
17 Copy the table below into your workbook.
18 Use your reaction times to calculate the distance a car
travels before braking.
19 In the yard or corridor, pace out each reaction
distance. Assume one large pace is about 1 m.
Questions
1 It was assumed here that the ruler dropped without
any resistance. Is this true? Explain.
2 Your first drop was probably the worst. What does this
suggest about inexperience in an emergency?
3 What did distractions do to reaction times?
4 What distractions might a driver logically encounter?
5 What does alcohol in the blood do to reaction time?
6 The RACV estimates that the reaction time of an
average driver is between 0.5 s and 1 s. Times from
this experiment are probably less. Give reasons for
the difference.
Fig 6.1.20 Measuring reaction time
Speed of car Without distractions With distractions
(km/h) (m/s) Reaction time (s) Reaction distance (m) Reaction distance (m) Reaction time (s)
Column 2 Column 3 Column 2 Column 5
10
30
50
60
80
100
110
t =
d
490
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Acceleration happens when speed or its direction
changes, such as when a car speeds up, slows
down or turns a corner.
picked up her speed over the next 5 seconds until she
was running at 2 m/s, her acceleration would be:
a =
(2 1)
=
1
= 0.2
5 5
The unit here would be speed units (m/s)
per time unit (s); that is, m/s/s or m/s
2
. An
acceleration of 0.2 m/s
2
means that she
increased her speed by 0.2 m/s every second.
Acceleration and deceleration
When cars accelerate away from traffic lights, they
increase their speed. The quicker they pick up speed,
the higher their acceleration. Acceleration is the rate
at which speed changes.
Imagine two cars starting and accelerating away
until they both reach 60 km/h. Their accelerations
are not necessarily the same because you have not
been told how long each took to reach that speed. If
one took 6 seconds, while the other took 6 minutes,
it becomes perfectly obvious which accelerated the
quickest. Its the car that took the shortest time.
If an object slows, it is decelerating. Deceleration is
negative acceleration.
Calculating acceleration
Acceleration is measured in speed units per time unit.
The most common unit for acceleration is metres per
second per second, or m/s
2
.
Acceleration can be calculated by finding the
change in speed and dividing by the time taken. This
can be written as:
Acceleration =
change in speed
time taken for the change
or a =
(v u)
t
Here v is the final speed, u is the starting speed and t
is the time taken for the change in speed to happen.
If the speed of a car changed from 0 to 60 km/h in
6 seconds, then its acceleration is:
a =
(60 0)
= 10

6
The unit here would be speed units (km/h) per time
unit (s) or km/h/s. An acceleration of 10 km/h/s means
that the car gained an extra 10 km/h every second.
For an athlete, speed is better measured in metres
per second. If a runner jogged along at 1 m/s but then
Fig 6.2.1 A multiple-exposure photograph shows
different stages in a motion. The spacing
gives some idea of speed. Increasing
spacing shows acceleration. What
happens when a ball bounces?
Calculating speed
Lets say a rocket launches with an acceleration of
50 m/s
2
. It starts at rest, but 50 m/s is added to its
speed every second that passes. Its speed will then
follow the pattern in Figure 6.2.2.
Prac 1
p. 233
Physics fact file
Acceleration
Symbol in formulas: a
Unit: metres per second squared
Unit abbreviation: m/s
2
sometimes written as m s
2
UNIT
UNIT
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If the rocket was already moving, say, at 500 m/s,
then the speeds would be those in the diagram with
another 500 m/s added to them. This can be written as:
Final speed = starting speed + acceleration time taken
or v = u + at
Acceleration and graphs
High acceleration is a rapid increase in speed. The
slope or gradient of a speedtime graph gives you
the rate of acceleration, so a steep speedtime graph
indicates a higher acceleration than a graph with a
lesser slope.
If acceleration is 50 m/s
2
then 50 m/s is added
every second.
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
add 50 m/s
v = 0
v = 50 m/s
v = 100 m/s
v = 150 m/s
v = 200 m/s
v = 250 m/s
t = 0
t = 1 s
t = 2 s
t = 3 s
t = 4 s
t = 5 s
Fig 6.2.2
v
t
v
t
v
t
deceleration
(negative
acceleration)
no acceleration
constant speed
slow
acceleration
quick
acceleration
Fig 6.2.3 The gradient or slope of a speedtime
graph is the same as acceleration.
Homework book 6.2 Plotting car performance data
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Revision questions
Acceleration and deceleration
1 Two cars accelerate away from traffic lights. How could
you tell which had the greatest acceleration?
2 What is the most appropriate unit for acceleration for
a car? Explain.
3 An object has zero acceleration. What could it be
doing?
A The object is at rest.
B The object is travelling at a constant speed.
C The object is travelling at a constant velocity.
D All of the above.
4 Explain why deceleration is always a negative number.
Calculating acceleration
5 Use a formula to explain how acceleration is
calculated.
6 What is happening to the speed of:
a a car that is accelerating at 10 km/h/s
b a runner who is accelerating at 0.2 m/s
2
?
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Acceleration Acceleration
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Calculating speed
7 Use a formula to explain how the speed of an
accelerating object can be calculated.
8 What would be the speed of an object every second for
the first 4 s if:
a it starts at rest and accelerates at 5 m/s
2
b it starts at a speed of 2.5 m/s and then accelerates at
5 m/s
2
?
Acceleration and graphs
9 Explain how acceleration can be calculated from a
speedtime graph.
10 Which of these graphs represents:
a slow acceleration
b quick acceleration
c no acceleration
d deceleration?
S
p
e
e
d
Time
A
B
C
D
Fig 6.2.4
a
b
c
Fig 6.2.5
15 Copy the table below and calculate all the missing values.
Starting
speed (m/s)
Final speed
(m/s)
Time taken
(s)
Acceleration
(m/s
2
)
0 50 10
10 50 4
50 30 5
at rest 25 10
60 stationary 12
16 Use the table below to calculate the final speed that
these objects would have.
Starting
speed (m/s)
Acceleration
(m/s
2
)
Time taken
(s)
Final speed
(m/s)
0 15 3
20 8 5
16 1 4
30 2 10
15 5 3
17 Calculate the area and the gradient of each section
of this vt graph to find the distance travelled and the
acceleration.
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)
Fig 6.2.6
>>
Thinking questions
11 How much speed is gained every second if acceleration
is 15 m/s
2
?
12 A car travelling around a corner maintains a constant
speed of 60 km/h. Explain how it can still be considered
to be accelerating.
Analysis questions
13 Use Figure 6.2.1 to determine:
a what an even spacing of images suggests about
speed
b what an increasing spacing suggests
c when the tennis ball was moving fastest
d when the tennis ball was moving slowest
e what further information you would need to calculate
speeds from Figure 6.2.1.
14 Describe the motion shown on the tickertapes in
Figure 6.2.5.
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18 A car accelerates from rest to 50 km/h in 5 s. What is
the acceleration of the car in:
a km/h/s b m/s
2
?
19 Below is a graph from RACV data on distances the
average driver needs to stop a car.
Total
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed of car (km/h)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Stopping
distance
Braking
distance
Reaction
distance
Fig 6.2.7
Speed
(km/h)
Reaction
distance (m)
Braking
distance (m)
Stopping
distance (m)
50
60
80
100
110
b In 2001, the Victorian suburban speed limit was
dropped from 60 km/h to 50 km/h. What difference
did it make to stopping distances?
c It is recommended that the distance between your
car and the car in front be equivalent to the reaction
distance at that speed. How many car lengths
should a driver travelling at 60 km/h and 100 km/h
leave in front of them?
20 Daisy, Su Lin and Delores had a race. All accelerated
smoothly from rest. Daisy reached a speed of 24 km/h
after 5 s, Su Lin reached 1.8 m/s after 2 s and Delores
took half a minute to reach 40 mm/s.
a Without changing units, calculate the accelerations
of each.
b Convert all the measurements into m/s and s and
recalculate the accelerations.
c Who broke away the quickest?
d Who was actually a snail?
a Copy the following table and use the graph to
complete it.
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tape (inside lid)
glass jar
paper-clip
fill with water
cotton thread
Fig 6.2.8 An effective indicator of acceleration
Constructing
An accelerometer
Use Figure 6.2.8 to build an acceleration indicator, or
accelerometer. Get it moving along a bench, push it so that
it travels at a constant speed or allow it to slide to a stop.
Present your work as drawings of what the paperclip
needle does in each case.
Estimating
Acceleration and braking
Estimate the acceleration and braking decelerations
happening in the normal travels of your family car. Explain
how you collected the data and show your calculations.
the normal features such as aim, materials, method, results
and conclusion.
Acceleration Acceleration
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Practical activity
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Braking distances
Prac 1
Unit 6.2
at work SCIENCE
>>
Present your findings as a speedtime graph that
compares their performance from rest.
Researching braking
Internet, etc.) to find details about one of the following:
1 the factors that affect braking distance such as
tyre design and tread, disc and drum brakes,
ABS braking
2 the physics that causes cars to skid when braking,
what drivers can do to regain control and how these
actions work.
Present your findings as a poster that includes a set of
labelled diagrams.
Investigating
Acceleration and datalogging
Use datalogging equipment and sensors such as
light gates and ultrasonic sensors to measure and
plot the speeds and accelerations of a moving object.
the normal features, such as aim, materials, method, results,
graphs and conclusion.
Surfing
Researching car data
Use car magazines or the Internet to find data on at least
two different cars.
d =
v
2

2b
When cars brake in an emergency, the best
deceleration is about 90% g or 8.82 m/s
2
.
(Gravity (g) is investigated in more detail in Unit 6.6.)
You will need
Access to a calculator
What to do
1 Copy the following table.
2 Convert all the speeds from km/h into m/s.
3 Use the formula

to calculate the braking
distance for a typical car, where v stands for the speed
of the car (in m/s) and b stands for the braking
deceleration (in m/s
2
) You will need to follow this order:
Car speed
(km/h) (m/s)
Braking
deceleration
90% g (m/s
2
)
Braking
distance
(m)
Reaction distance
(m) (from Prac 3,
Unit 6.1)
Stopping distance
(m) Column 4 +
Column 5
10 8.82
30 8.82
50 8.82
60 8.82
80 8.82
100 8.82
110 8.82
2 Which of these factors affect
reaction distance and which
affect braking distance?
a alcohol and drugs in the blood
b bald tyres
c tiredness
d wet road
e noisy kids in the back
f icy road
g poorly serviced brakes
h old car
i age of driver
j talking on the mobile phone.
Put the speed (in m/s) into your calculator.
Square it, then divide by 2 and divide again by the
braking deceleration (b).
The answer is the braking distance.
4 Record your reaction distances from Prac 3 in Unit 6.1.
5 Find the total stopping distance.
6 In the yard or the corridor, pace out the stopping
distances you found at each speed. Assume one pace
roughly equals 1 m.
Questions
1 What would happen if brake performance was less?
Halve it and see.
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UNIT
UNIT
Lots of different forces act on you.
A force is any push, pull or twist that causes
an object to do one of the following:
increase its speed (accelerate)
decrease its speed (decelerate)
change its direction
change its shape.
If any of these things happen, then a force caused it.
6
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6
.
3
No force and not moving
Place a pen on the desk. Watch what it is doing. Of
course, its not moving. This effect is called inertia.
English scientist Sir Isaac Newton described it in 1687
in his First Law, which states:
Anything at rest will stay that way
unless pushed or pulled.
This means that a force is required to get something
moving.
No force but still
moving
Why do you wear seatbelts
in a moving car? If you
answered Because you are
thrown forwards in a car
accident, then youre wrong!
This suggests that something
pushed you the seat must
have shoved you so hard in
the back that you were flung
towards the windscreen!
This is of course ridiculous: it
implies that seats are vicious,
have something against you
and are capable of throwing
you around whenever they
like. In an accident, you dont
get thrown forwards. Instead,
the car stops moving and
you keep moving just as you
were before the accident.
When you hit something,
like the windscreen,
dashboard or steering wheel,
a stopping (and injuring)
force is exerted on you. This
continued movement is
called inertia, too.
Types of forces
The force you apply is very obvious when you
physically push or pull something. This is a very
obvious contact force. Other forces such as gravity act
on objects without any actual contact at all. A summary
of other forces that you have met before is given below.
Contact forces
Friction acts between any two surfaces that try to
slide over one another. Friction acts in the opposite
direction to the movement or attempted movement.
Air resistance and drag are caused by friction
between air (or liquid or other gases) and a moving
object. Like friction, it acts in a direction opposite
to the movement.
Buoyancy is floating force. It acts upwards,
opposing the weight force.
Surface tension is built up from tiny forces
between particles on the surface of a liquid. These
forces form a skin on the liquid.
Lift is caused by air moving over a wing or airfoil.
It acts at 90 degrees to the surface of the airfoil.
Thrust is caused by gases or liquid being pushed
out the rear of an engine, jet or rocket.
Non-contact forces
Weight is caused by gravity. It acts downwards,
towards the centre of the planet.
Electrostatic force is the force of repulsion of like
charges (+/+ or /) or attraction of unlike charges
(+/).
Magnetic force is the force of repulsion of like
poles (N/N or S/S) or attraction of unlike poles
(N/S).
Killer shopping
Station wagons are
dangerous in a head-on
collision because anything
in the rear will keep
moving forward, possibly
striking the occupants. For
this reason, it is Victorian
law that all dogs be
restrained in cars.
Inflatable seatbelts
Most modern cars have
airbags, but aircraft
generally dont. Apart from
explosions in mid-air,
most aircraft accidents
are survivable and one
company is producing
an inflatable seatbelt for
aircraft to make them even
more so. The Aviation
Inflatable Restraint Belt
inflates in 0.070 s to form
a large pillow into which
the passenger collapses as
the aircraft comes to a halt
in an accident.
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Fig 6.3.3 Colonel John Stapp in his rocket-powered sled. Predict what is happening frame-by-frame.
Newtons First Law also states:
Anything that is moving will keep moving
at the same speed and in the same direction
unless a force changes it.
If a car is travelling at 60 km/h, then so are you.
If the car collides with something, it will stop very
quickly (typically in about 0.1 to 0.2 of a second).
Unbelted passengers will keep
travelling, however, at 60 km/h,
until stopped by the windscreen
or dashboard, generally hitting
it with their head. Seatbelts
restrain you and allow you
to decelerate with the car.
They also spread the
stopping force over
your chest and waist.
Airbags also allow
you to stop with
the car.
Feeling lighter,
feeling heavier
Inertia explains why you
sometimes feel lighter
or heavier when in a
rollercoaster or when travelling over speed bumps in a
car and why you move sideways when a car corners:
you keep trying to travel in a straight line.
Prac 1
p. 238
Crash test humans
Crash-test dummies were first developed by the US Air Force to
determine injuries pilots would sustain if they ejected from aircraft
in flight. Live humans were tested before the invention of the
dummies, however, and Colonel John Stapp underwent twenty-six
tests. In one, he sat in a rocket-powered open sled that accelerated
to a speed of 1000 km/h, but then stopped in less than 1 second.
Inertia kept his internal body parts and blood moving and he stated
later that he felt as if his eyes would fly out. Blood vessels in his
eyes burst and they bled profusely for 10 minutes after the test.
His lungs collapsed but he recovered quickly, proving that it was
possible to survive such extreme forces.
Fig 6.3.2 Motor bikes offer little or no protection to
their riders. Here an airbag is being tested
to determine its effectiveness.
A motor bike rider keeps travelling due to
inertia. They only stop when they
hit something.
Fig 6.3.1
Project BBQ
Crash-test dummies have
been used for over 30 years
to develop safer cars. Before
that, live but anaesthetised
pigs were used in crash
tests. A large pork BBQ often
followed. Human corpses
were also used in tests.
Accelerometers and force
meters were implanted in the
cadavers to measure what
was occurring. The results
from these experiments led
to the development of the
modern crash-test dummy,
the Hybrid 3.
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Homework book 6.3 All over in 200 milliseconds!
passengers keep moving
in a straight line
car
turns
left
passengers appear to move to right
Fig 6.3.5 You keep travelling in a straight
line unless a force changes your
direction.
Prac 2
p. 239
The heaviness and lightness that you feel on a
roller coaster and in a lift is due to inertia.
Fig 6.3.4
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Questions
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Revision questions
Types of forces
1 List three examples of:
a contact forces
b non-contact forces.
No force and not moving
2 What does Newtons First Law state about objects that
are not moving?
3 What is required to get a stationary object moving?
No force but still moving
4 Explain why an unbelted occupant of a car will probably
hit their head on the windscreen in a head-on car
collision.
5 What features are designed to comfortably stop our
forwards inertia in a car?
6 What are the advantages of the stopping force being
applied to the chest instead of the head?
Thinking questions
7 True or false?
a An object needs a force to start moving.
b Passengers are thrown forwards in a head-on
collision.
c The typical accident takes 1 to 2 seconds.
d You have enough time in a collision to brace
yourself to avoid injury.
e To keep something moving on Earth, you need
to keep pushing.
8 a Explain how a magician can pull a tablecloth out
from under a table set with china.
>>
Fig 6.3.6
No force, no change: inertia No force, no change: inertia
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b In reality, the china will probably shift slightly in the
direction of the tablecloth. Explain why.
9 Amal lets a bucket go at point X when swinging it. Trace
Figure 6.3.7 and add an arrow at X to show the direction
the bucket will fly.
X
Fig 6.3.7
10 Explain what happens to the occupants when the car
they are in:
a turns left
b suddenly accelerates
c goes fast over a
speed hump
d goes over a deep
dip in the road
e collides head-on
into a wall
f is parked, but is
hit from behind by
another car
g is parked, but is
hit from the left by
another car.
then then
Fig 6.3.8
19 Analyse the photos of John Stapp in Figure 6.3.3.
Use inertia to explain his changed appearance in
each frame.
11 A car on ice is almost impossible to stop or control.
Use the concept of inertia to explain why. What force
is required to gain control?
12 People sometimes hold their baby while travelling in a
car, thinking that they will react and hold the child in
any accident. Explain how these people are seriously
risking the life of the baby.
13 Passengers in the rear of a car often think that they
are safe when not wearing seatbelts. What do you
think?
14 Even when not wearing a seatbelt, the lower body is
less likely to be influenced by inertia than the head.
What force(s) slow the lower body?
15 Seatbelts leave bad bruising and can crack ribs in a
car accident.
a Why do they do this?
b A friend is arguing that this is a good reason not to
wear seatbelts. What will you tell them to convince
them to buckle up?
16 Truck cabins need to be rigid and able to withstand a
heavy blow from the rear. Explain why.
17 Explain why rockets will keep moving in deep space,
needing no engines to do so.
Analysis questions
18 Figure 6.3.8 shows three frames of a car collision.
a What type of collision probably happened here?
b Explain what is happening in each diagram and
why.
c Use this diagram to explain why modern cars are
fitted with headrests.
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[
] 6
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Crash-test dummies
Prac 1
Unit 6.3
You will need
Dynamics trolley, ramp, ruler, chalk, a solid barrier
such as a brick or wall, Plasticine or playdough,
talcum powder, sticky tape
What to do
1 Mould a small Plasticine person. Lightly powder it so that
it is not sticky.
2 Sit the Plasticine person on the dynamics trolley.
Part A
3 Set the ramp up on a shallow slope and let the trolley
run down it and onto the floor. Carefully note what
happens to the Plasticine person.
4 Place a chalk mark every 20 cm up the ramp, and place
a brick on the flat near the ramps end.
>>
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about Newtons First
Law by connecting to the Science
Researching car safety
Internet, etc.) to:
construct a labelled diagram of how an airbag is
triggered and inflated
construct a timeline showing the important events and
dates in the development of crash-test dummies
construct a labelled diagram of the current model
crash-test dummy, the Hybrid 3
write a short biography of Colonel John Stapp
create a media campaign for the police encouraging
people to wear their seatbelts. Include who gets fined
if a passenger is not wearing one.
6
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SCIENCE
Debating
Seatbelts on buses
Should buses be required to have seatbelts for all
passengers and should passengers be allowed to stand?
In groups, discuss what you think.
Present your thoughts in one of the following ways:
a class debate
a set of cards to be used in a debate
a community safety message for TV
a safety billboard
a politicians speech for or against.
Constructing
The yokes on you!
Your task: Use your knowledge of inertia to design a safe
container that will protect a fresh hens egg from injury in a
high-speed collision (vegans can use a lightbulb).
The collision: Drop the egg from a first-floor window or
balcony onto concrete or bitumen.
The material: One piece of cardboard of roughly A3
dimensions and sufficient string, sticky tape, staples, glue
or other fixings to hold it together.
You cannot use:
any of the fixings as reinforcing or padding
extra paper or cardboard for padding or parachutes.
All fittings must be out of the original A3 sheet of
cardboard.
No force, no change: inertia No force, no change: inertia
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5 Model a head-on collision by releasing the trolley from
a 20 cm mark on the ramp. Repeat from the rest of the
marks. Note what happens to the Plasticine person,
particularly to any parts of the body that moved a lot
and any parts that moved little. Test which 20 cm mark
you consider to be life threatening to the Plasticine
person.
Part B
6 Build a sticky-tape seatbelt for the Plasticine person and
repeat. Are there any differences in the results? What
now is the life-threatening 20 cm mark?
7 Take the belt off, but this time
add a crumple zone to the front
of the trolley. Once again, what
20 cm mark do you consider to
be life-threatening?
Part C
8 Place the trolley and its driver
on a flat desk.
9 Model a rear-end collision by
hitting or flicking the back of
the trolley with your hand or a
ruler. Once again, note what
parts moved. Build a safety
feature to minimise injuries in
this type of collision.
Prac 2
Unit 6.3
trolley and person
bricks/books
20 cm marks
brick
Fig 6.3.9
Questions
1 Your backside is probably the least affected part of your
body in a car crash. Explain why inertia keeps heads,
arms and legs moving but seems not to be as effective
on your backside.
2 What stops the forwards movement in a car when no
seatbelts are worn?
3 What injuries would be likely in a head-on collision while
not wearing a seat belt?
4 Modern cars are designed to crumple in an accident. Why?
5 What is the purpose of headrests in a car?
Inertial eggs
You will need
One hardboiled but unpeeled egg, one fresh egg,
smooth desk, pen or pencil
What to do
1 Copy the following table into your workbook.
Egg 1 Egg 2
Fast or slow spin?
Began to spin again?
Fresh or hardboiled?
2 Mark one egg 1 and the other 2 with a pen or pencil.
3 Place both eggs on a smooth desk and spin each
equally hard.
4 Note which egg spins the fastest.
5 Spin each again. Stop them briefly, but let go
immediately. Note which egg remains stationary and
which begins to spin again.
6 Repeat to confirm your results.
7 Crack each egg over a sink. Which was hardboiled and
which was fresh?
Questions
1 When the shell of the fresh egg was spun, what effect
would inertia have on its liquid insides?
2 Why would this slow the spin of the shell?
3 Once moving, it was the shell that was then stopped.
What effect would inertia have on its liquid insides?
4 Why would this get the shell moving again?
5 Why did the hardboiled egg spin faster and why did it
stay stopped?
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240
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
Imagine you are playing football and must tackle the
player who has the ball. A large player will be less
affected by your tackle than a small player. If two
of you tackle the player, you are more likely to stop
them than if one does. Both the size of the force
and the size of the object you are trying to shift will
influence what happens.
6
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pushing it. But if the car is a big one, the acceleration
will be less and the push is less effective: mass
obviously affects acceleration, too. Mass is the amount
of matter in an object. It never changes unless you
snap a bit off or add more to it. A 2 kg mass, for
example, is always 2 kg regardless of where you take
it around the universe.
Newtons Second Law
Newtons First Law says that if there is no force, then
nothing happens. Newtons Second Law says:
Something will happen if a force is applied:
the object will accelerate and the acceleration
will depend on the mass of the object.
This can be written as:
Force = mass acceleration
or F = ma
This formula can also be arranged to give:
m =
F
/a and a =
F
/m
Acceleration, mass and force
Acceleration is any change in velocity. This may be
a change in speed, such as from 10 to 20 m/s, or a
change in direction, such as from north to east.
All acceleration requires a force. Bigger forces
produce higher accelerations. Two people pushing
a car will be more effective than just one person
Fig 6.4.1 Acceleration depends on mass and the
force applied.
Physics fact file
Mass
Symbol in formulas: m
Unit: kilograms
Unit abbreviation: kg
force
acceleration
twice the
force
twice the
acceleration
force
bigger
mass,
smaller
acceleration
Homework book 6.4 Calculating F = ma
Prac 1
p. 244
Physics fact file
Force
Symbol in formulas: F (force has direction)
Unit: newtons
Unit abbreviation: N
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A matter
of balance
There is usually more than
one force acting on an object.
Some of these forces may
balance each other by cancelling each other out. If
cancellation is complete then the overall force is zero
and there will be no acceleration. You dont speed
up, nor do you slow. You just stay stationary, or keep
travelling, as you were before.
Spongy heads
needed
Your head has very little
padding and comes to
a stop very quickly if
you fall from a bike and
it hits the road or kerb.
Bike helmets are the only
way you can extend the
time it takes your skull to
come to a stop and are
the only method you have
of protecting your brain.
The wearing of motorbike
helmets has been
compulsory since 1963
throughout Australia. In
Victoria, cyclists have been
required by law to wear
helmets since 1991. If only
heads were more spongy!
Forces often balance or cancel.
15 000 N
(force of ground on car)
2000 N
resistance
(air resistance,
drag, friction)
8000 N
driving force
(force from
driving wheels)
weight (force of car on ground)
15 000 N
total force
6000 N
Fig 6.4.2
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Acceleration, mass and force
1 Which statement is incorrect about a car turning a
corner without any change in speed?
A It has no acceleration.
B Velocity has changed.
C Force was required to do the turn.
D Speed was constant.
2 Explain why a broken-down car goes faster when more
people push it.
3 In a football match it is easier to push around a lighter
player than a heavy one. Explain why in terms of force,
mass and acceleration.
Newtons Second Law
4 Write the formula version of Newtons Second Law and
two useful re-arrangements of it.
5 What is the symbol and unit for:
a mass
b force?
>>
A matter of balance
6 What is the total force on you right now as you are
reading this question? Explain how you know.
Thinking questions
7 Running is more comfortable and less likely to jar you
if you wear sport shoes with spongy soles. This is
because:
A they have better grip
B they reduce acceleration and impact force
C they shorten impact time, making the force less
D they stop the foot from rolling.
8 Rugby players often slide to a stop. Compare the
deceleration obtained this way with the deceleration if
they dropped to the ground. What does this suggest
about the impact force on stopping?
9 Airbags are designed to inflate rapidly. They deflate
as a person collapses into them in an accident. Why
must they deflate?
10 A hammer needs to apply huge forces. To do so,
hammers are hard. Is the deceleration on hitting a nail
high or low? Why would a rubber hammer provide less
force and be less effective?
Analysis questions
Use this key to answer questions 11 and 12:
A: tripled
B: doubled
C: the same
D: halved
E: one-third of what it was
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Crash and crimple
The force that you experience in
an accident depends not on your
speed, but on the rate at which you
come to a stop. If you decelerate
more slowly, then the impact force
is less. Modern cars are designed
to extend the time you take to
stop in a collision. Crumple zones
slow the crash, and seatbelts and
airbags allow you to decelerate
with the car. Without them you
would strike something hard.
Deceleration and impact force
would then be high.
242
>>>
11 Compare the maximum accelerations away from
traffic lights of the cars and trailers shown in
Figure 6.4.3 with that of the car alone.
same mass as car
equivalent to
mass of 2 cars
Fig 6.4.3
12 Sarah measured the acceleration of a trolley using
the set-up shown in Figure 6.4.4. She found it to be
0.5 m/s
2
. She then replaced the 100 g with 200 g and
then again with 300 g. Compare the acclerations with
the original acceleration of 0.5 m/s
2
.
200 g
300 g
0.5 m/s
2
100 g
Fig 6.4.4
13 Copy and complete the following table.
Force (N) Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s
2
)
5.0 4.0
6.1 2.0
12.0 4.0
16.4 2.0
9.3 3.1
14 What force is being applied if a:
a 5 kg box accelerates at 4.1 m/s
2
b 1.3 tonne car accelerates at 2 m/s
2
c 400 g ball accelerates at 4 m/s
2
?
15 What is the acceleration caused by a:
a 40 N force applied to a 0.5 kg mass
b 0.5 N force applied to a 50 kg mass?
16 A 35 N force caused a mass to accelerate at 7 m/s
2
.
What was the mass?
17 A 3.5 kg body accelerates from rest to 20 m/s in 5 s.
Calculate:
a its acceleration
b the force required.
18 The brakes of a car can exert a stopping force of
3000 N. The car is 1.5 t.
a What is the mass of the car in kg? (1 t = 1000 kg)
b Calculate the deceleration of the car.
c Would this be positive or negative acceleration?
d How long would it take to stop travelling initially at
10 m/s?
>>
A force made me do it! A force made me do it!
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19 Calculate the
overall force and
acceleration on
the masses shown
in Figure 6.4.5.
50 kg
150 N
200 N 200 N
770 N
800 N
400 N
20 kg
a b
Fig 6.4.5
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about Newtons Second
Researching safety
the different types of safety belts installed in cars and
the advantages of each
the design of bike helmets or sports shoes and how
they reduce deceleration and impact forces).
Your aim is to encourage young people to belt up in a car, to
wear their bike helmets or to wear appropriate shoes for the
sport they do.
a community announcement to be played on TV or on
the radio
an advertisement for a magazine aimed at young men
or women
a five-minute talk to the class, with props to
demonstrate what you are talking about
a rap or other song
6
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SCIENCE
a pamphlet for young people who have just purchased
a new car or bike or are about to embark on a new
sport.
Investigating
Forces in sport
Many datalogging companies have specific
pracs that test the force and acceleration
involved in sport. Tain Electronics has
two experiments:
shock absorbing footwear
starting blocks.
Run one of these experiments and report on it.
the normal features, such as aim, materials, method, results
and conclusion.
Bike helmets
Use a fresh egg to model the human skull and its brain.
Test what protection different materials give to the
egg when it is wrapped in them and compare with an
unprotected egg.
and conclusion.
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[
Practical activity
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F = ma
Prac 1
Unit 6.4
You will need
Dynamics trolley, 50 g masses, pulley and clamp,
block and clamp, string or fishing line, ruler, access
to electronic balance or beam balance, a way of
measuring acceleration (a ticker-timer with tape
and carbon paper circles, or a stopwatch, or
appropriate light gates and datalogging equipment)
What to do
1 Copy the following table.
Hanging mass (g)
= pulling force
Mass on trolley
(g)
Acceleration
of trolley
2 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.4.6.
The basic experimentmeasure the
trolleys motion using one of the three
methods described.
50 g masses
50 g masses
trolley
single
pulley
block and
clamp
bench
Fig 6.4.6
Part A: Changing trolley mass
3 Find the mass of the trolley and record it.
4 Measure the acceleration using one of the three
methods shown below.
5 Add a mass to the trolley and measure the new
acceleration.
6 Repeat with at least three different masses.
Part B: Changing force
7 Hang 50 g on the line.
Method 1: Ticker-timer
1 Attach 1 m of ticker-tape on the back of the trolley.
2 Turn the ticker-timer on and let the trolley pull the tape
through.
3 Draw a line through every fifth dot and measure the
distance between the lines in millimetres.
4 Calculate the speed (in mm/s) of each section by
dividing the distance by 0.1.
5 Plot a speedtime graph and then calculate the slope of
the graph. This will be the acceleration in mm/s
2
.
6 Change the mass and repeat.
7 Each member of the group should analyse one tape.
Method 2: Mathematical
1 Accurately measure out a 2 m track on the desk.
2 With the stopwatch, time the run. Repeat three times
and find the average time taken.
3 Use the formula below to find the acceleration of the
trolley in m/s
2
; d is the distance of the run.
a =
2d
t
2
Method 3: Datalogging
1 Each equipment manufacturer will have instructions to
determine the acceleration of a trolley.
2 Use appropriate sensors to find the acceleration.
Question
Copy and complete:
a When the mass of the trolley increased, acceleration
_____________ .
b When the mass and the force pulling the trolley along
increased, acceleration _____________ .
A force made me do it! A force made me do it!
245
A hose flicks about if it is turned on, its nozzle
moving in a direction opposite to the water. The
hose is pushing the water out, but the water is also
pushing the hose back in the opposite direction.
This is known as an actionreaction force pair and
is an example of Newtons Third Law at work.
The forces on both the cannon and the ball are the
same (but in opposite directions) but their accelerations
are very different. The ball is relatively light and so
has a high acceleration and therefore velocity. Being
heavier, the cannon is much less affected.
Bats and balls
In sport, an action force is applied on a ball by a bat,
racquet or foot. When you hit a golf ball, the club
pushes the ball and is pushed back by it. The ball is
light, so its acceleration is high. The club is much
heavier and the force is usually only enough to slow,
not stop, the swing. It might also cause a shudder
through the handle. You would feel reaction force
even more if you played football with a brick!
Getting moving
To move forwards, you first need to push backwards.
This is most obvious when riding a bike or driving
a car. The driving wheel pushes the road backwards
when it turns, sometimes also spraying sand, mud or
water backwards. The road will then push the bike or
car forwards. This actionreaction pair depends on the
traction or friction between the tyre and the road. On
ice, the wheel will simply spin on the spot and you
will go nowhere. Walking and running also relies on
actionreaction. You push the ground backwards and
the ground pushes you forwards. Push back on ice and
youll fall flat on your face!
Newtons Third Law
Whenever a weapon is shot, it recoils or moves
backwards, just like a hose shooting water. The
explosion of gunpowder in a cannon, for example,
will push a cannonball out (the action) and the
cannon will recoil because of the force the ball applies
back on it (the reaction).
Newton explained the actionreaction phenomena
in his Third Law, which states:
For every action force there is an equal
and opposite reaction force.
Weapons recoil due to Newtons Third Law.
Fig 6.5.1
ground pushes
foot forwards
ground pushes
wheel forwards
foot pushes
ground backwards
wheel pushes
ground backwards
Fig 6.5.2 Push the ground backwards and it will push you forwards.
3, 2, 1, lift-off!
If you stand on a skateboard and throw something
heavy like a medicine ball away from you, then you
will move backwards. Your movement is because
UNIT
UNIT
6
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246
>>>
Rockets use actionreaction
to provide the thrust force
needed for launch. The rocket
expels massive quantities of
gases out and the gases push
the rocket back, usually upwards. Initially the thrust
is not enough to overcome the weight of the rocket, so
the rocket sits on the launch pad,
making a lot of flames, but not
going anywhere. When the thrust
equals weight the rocket begins
to hover and lifts off only when
the thrust is greater than its
weight. Rockets also expel gases
to change direction.
of action and reaction. Aircraft and ships also use
actionreaction to move. Propellers or jet engines
push air or water backwards and so the water pushes
the aircraft or ship forwards.
A jet engine works by actionreaction.
air
fuel
(kerosene)
combustion
chamber
fast moving air
turbine
compressor
fan
Fig 6.5.3
Fastest jet
In 1976, the US Air Force
jet called the SR-71
Blackbird reached Mach 3
or 3529 km/h.
Fig 6.5.4 The space shuttle and all rockets lift off
because of actionreaction.
Animal rockets
The purpleback flying
squid (Sthenoteuthis
oualaniesis) squirts out
jets of water to leap out of
the sea to feed. It can then
easily glide a distance of
over 10 m in the air.
Prac 2
p. 248
Heavy paint
Although it might not look thick, the paint needed to cover a Boeing
767 adds an extra 165 kg to its weight. Extra fuel needs to be burnt
just to carry the paint around. Air Canada is about to strip the paint
from one of its 767s in an effort to save fuel. They estimate it should
save $27 500 a year. If successful, they will strip all their forty-five
767s, potentially saving $1.2 million every year. Some airlines, such
as American Airlines, only have paint on the tails and signage of their
aircraft; the rest of the aircraft is polished aluminium.
Prac 1
p. 248
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Newtons Third Law
1 a State Newtons Third Law.
b Use an example to explain how it works in getting
things moving.
2 Explain why a balloon shoots around the room when it
is allowed to deflate.
3 Firefighters often need to brace themselves or have
extra help to hold a firehose while it is on. Explain why.
What would happen if they did not have this help?
4 Fiona is stranded on ice that is so slippery that she
cannot walk. Suggest how she could get herself to
nearby hard ground.
5 Stef throws a netball.
a What is the action force?
b What did it do?
c What was the reaction force and what did it do?
>>
Action and reaction Action and reaction
247
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10 Predict what part of the launch these rockets are in:
a thrust = weight of rocket
b thrust > weight of rocket
c thrust < weight of rocket
d thrust = 0.
11 Copy or trace these rockets. The arrows show gases
being expelled out the back. The longer the arrow, the
more gases are being expelled. Add any thrust forces
produced and the direction the rocket would go or turn.
Fig 6.5.5
centre of mass
gases
gases
gases
gases
gases
gases
Fig 6.5.6
Thinking questions
6 Explain why the acceleration of a rocket increases as its
fuel is consumed.
7 Rockets normally discard used fuel tanks soon after
launch. What is the advantage of this?
Analysis questions
8 Ben kicks a football. Draw the actionreaction pair of
forces acting on the football:
a as it lies on the ground waiting to be kicked
b as it is kicked, Bens boot touching the ball
c as it flies through the air, having no more contact with
the foot.
9 Copy or trace these diagrams and draw actionreaction
force pairs on each.
U
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at work
6
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SCIENCE
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about Newtons Third
Researching rockets
Internet, etc.) to:
find out more about how squids move. Are there any other
animals that propel themselves forwards like a rocket?
research the development of either the jet engine or
the rocket
find out about the V1 and V2 rockets that were
developed by Nazi Germany and were the first
missile-based weapons used in warfare
>>
find out who Werner Von Braun was, his personal
history, where he worked and what he built.
a video documentary
an article for a
history or nature
magazine
an interview with
Braun or a squid.
Constructing
Whirly rocket
Use Figure 6.5.7 as a
guide to make a rocket
that spins.
tape
pivot pin
flexible
straw
stick
balloon
Fig 6.5.7
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>>>
[
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Balloon rockets 1
Prac 1
Unit 6.5
You will need
Balloon, stopwatch
What to do
1 Blow a single full breath into the balloon.
2 Hold the balloon close to the ground, pointing upwards.
3 Release the balloon and time how long it takes to fall
back to the ground.
4 Repeat the experiment with two breaths, then three, then
four, and so on.
Prac 2
Unit 6.5
Balloon rockets 2
You will need
Balloon (long sausage-shaped balloons work
best), fishing line, straw, sticky tape, scissors
What to do
1 Blow up a balloon and hold its end so the air does
not escape.
2 Carefully stick a straw onto the inflated balloon.
3 Thread the fishing line through the straw and tie or hold
each end, making the line tight.
4 Let the balloon go.
5 Add a second balloon to the rocket to make it go
faster. There are many ways this can be done find
the best way.
Questions
1 Explain how the balloon demonstrates Newtons
Third Law.
2 Suggest the purpose of the fishing line.
3 Balloons normally fly all over the place. Why?
straw
inflated balloon
fishing line sticky tape
Fig 6.5.8
5 Plot a line graph of flight time (vertical axis) versus
number of breaths.
Questions
1 Describe the shape of the graph you plotted (such as
straight line, half a parabola, and so on).
2 As the balloon gets bigger, it is harder to deliver a
full breath into it. Suggest what this would do to the
flight time.
at work SCIENCE
>>
sticky tape, craft sticks, matches, straws, glue and string.
You can use commercially available wheels (such as
LEGO wheels).
Present your work in two parts, first as a draft design and
then your final car, ready for racing.
Competing
Fastest car
In groups, construct and race a model car propelled only
by an inflated balloon. Your aim is to make the fastest car.
You can use any basic materials, such as paper, cardboard,
Action and reaction Action and reaction
249
You have probably fallen off a chair before, dived
into a pool or were thrilled by a rollercoaster
plummeting downhill. Things fall, roll or accelerate
downwards because there is a non-contact and
invisible force called weight pulling them to Earth.
depends on the mass of the
planet you are on and the
distance you are away from
the centre of planet, but not at
all on the mass of the falling
object.
On the Earths surface,
the acceleration of all objects
is 9.8 m/s
2
. This means that
the speed of a falling object
increases by about 10 m/s
every second it is falling.
This value is for objects
falling in a vacuum. In
air, acceleration will be
slightly less.
Weight
Weight is the force that pulls objects down to the
surface of a planet. Weight depends on the mass of
the object and the acceleration caused by the planets
gravity. This can be written as:
Weight = mass acceleration due to gravity
or W = mg
Prac 1
p. 253
Fig 6.6.1 A delicate balance exists between
the downwards force (weight)
and upwards forces (the grip on
the rocks and the friction of the
climbers boots).
Gravity
Gravity is the rate of acceleration at which objects
fall. It seems logical that heavier objects should fall
faster than lighter ones, but Galileo Galiliei (1564
1642) found that the acceleration due to gravity is
the same for all similarly shaped objects. Newton
later discovered that the acceleration due to gravity
g-forces
Your weight often seems to increase
because of inertia and g-force is
used to describe it. Normally you
only feel 1g ; that is, normal gravity
(g). When you experience 2 g you
are pushed into your seat twice as
much as normal. Muscles and bones
are squashed.
Formula 1 drivers experience forces
of up to 5 g when cornering: neck
muscles strain to hold in place a
head five times heavier than normal
and blood is pushed sideways.
Blood flow to the edges of the eye
is disrupted, causing peripheral
(side) vision to deteriorate, distorting
perspective and making it difficult to
judge distances.
If an aircraft suddenly increases
altitude, blood moves down to the
feet and away from the brain. At 8 g
to 9 g this reduced blood supply to
the brain will cause blackouts.
Homework book 6.5 History of forces
Homework book 6.6 Losing and gaining weight
Prac 3
p. 255
Prac 2
p. 254
Air resistance
An object pushes air out of its way as it falls. The
air pushes back with an equal, upwards force called
air resistance. A higher air resistance will produce a
lower acceleration when falling.
Longest falls
Highest parachute jump = 31 333 m
= 26 000 m freefall + 5333 m under parachute
(US Air Force Captain Joseph Kittinger, 1960)
Highest base jump = 5880 m
(Australians Nicholas Feteris and Glenn Singleman
from the Great Trango Tower, Pakistan, 1992)
Highest fall without a parachute and surviving = 10 160 m
(Yugoslav flight attendant Vesna Vulovic after her
aeroplane exploded, 1972)
UNIT
UNIT
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Terminal velocity
Air resistance increases as speed increasesthe faster
something is falling, the more the resistance on it.
Eventually air resistance balances weight and the total
force on the object is zero. When this happens, there
can be no more acceleration and the object falls at a
constant speed called its terminal velocity. All objects
have a terminal velocity, but its value will depend on
the shape and size of the object. A sheet of paper has
high air resistance and a low terminal velocity, while
the same paper crumpled has lower air resistance and
will reach higher speeds.
A falling object travels at a constant
terminal velocity if the weight is equal
to the air resistance.
Air resistance increases with speed.
weight = mg
Fig 6.6.2
Fig 6.6.4 Leonardo da Vincis parachute
Physics fact file
Weight
Symbol in formulas: w
Unit: newtons (weight is a force)
Unit abbreviation: N
Gravity
Symbol in formulas: g
Unit: metres per second squared (gravity is acceleration)
Unit abbreviation: m/s
2
or ms
2
Falling down Falling down
Skydivers can change their terminal velocity
to catch up to others. Fig 6.6.3
Falling from the sky
Without a parachute, humans have a terminal velocity of
about 50 m/s. Skydivers, however, can control their descent
by changing the shape of their body as they fall, enabling
them to hang back or catch up to others to create group
formations. Parachutes reduce terminal velocity to
5 m/s, which is just about the terminal velocity of a
raindrop (7 m/s). Pulling on the chutes strings changes its
shape, which changes its speed and direction.
Leonardo da Vinci (painter of the Mona Lisa) sketched his
ideas for a parachute in 1485. In 1797, Andre Gamerin
completed the first successful parachute jump, having
dropped 680 m from a hot air balloon.
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Weightlessness
You have weight whenever there is gravity. True
weightlessness (where g = 0) only happens far from
the influence of stars and planets. You sometimes feel
weightless, however, in carnival rides like the Tower
of Terror when the seat, with you in it, falls. During
the fall, the seat cannot push back to give your normal
feelings of weight. When in orbit, the Space Shuttle
and space stations fall towards Earth. They dont hit,
however, because they are travelling at such high
speed horizontally that they always miss
the planet. Astronauts aboard them have the
feeling of weightlessness because both they
and the floor fall at the same rate.
Astronauts aboard the space shuttle are falling
at the same rate as the shuttle and appear to
be weightless. In reality, their weight is about
70 per cent of that on Earth.
Fig 6.6.5
Prac 4
p. 255
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A B C
Fig 6.6.6
Revision questions
Weight
1 Explain why mass doesnt change wherever you go in
the universe.
2 True or false? Weight is measured in kilograms.
3 State the formula used to calculate weight and give
the units for each value in it.
Gravity
4 True or false? Heavier objects fall faster than light ones.
5 a What is the acceleration due to gravity on Earth at
its surface?
b What special condition is needed for this value to
be accurate?
6 What is meant by experiencing a force of 8 g and
what will happen to a human experiencing it?
Air resistance
7 What does air resistance do to a falling object?
8 Where would there be no air resistance?
9 Does air resistance increase or decrease as speed
increases?
10 What is terminal velocity?
Weightlessness
11 Where can you be truly weightless?
12 Explain how you can feel weightless on the Tower of
Terror.
Thinking questions
13 Why would a hammer and a feather fall at the same
rate on the Moon?
14 Spacecraft often have fragile solar panels and antennae
projecting from them, but move at very high speeds.
Explain why they are not ripped off.
15 High performance and racing cars are far more
streamlined than cars that are for daily use. Suggest why.
16 Skydivers could throw a pumpkin back and forth
between them before they release their chutes, but
have no chance once the chutes are open. Suggest why.
(Hint: The terminal velocity of a pumpkin is 50 m/s.)
17 Identify in which direction a lift must move for you to
feel weightless.
Analysis questions
18 In which of the following diagrams will the ball be:
a accelerating
b being blown upwards
c travelling at terminal velocity?
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19 Lisa has a mass of 55 kg. What would be
her mass and her weight on:
a Earth (g = 9.8 m/s
2
)
b the Moon (g = 1.63 m/s
2
)
c Mars (g = 3.7 m/s
2
)?
20 Complete these photographs in Figure
6.6.7 by predicting where the missing object
is at the same time.
21 Dylan lands on the Planet Cochon. His
mass is 70 kg on Earth.
a What would be his mass on Cochon?
b If his weight on Cochon is 350 N, what is
the acceleration due to gravity
on Cochon?
c Is Cochon bigger or smaller than Earth?
hammer shotput feather bullet
Earth Moon
Fig 6.6.7
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SCIENCE
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about terminal
velocity by connecting to the Science
Use the interactive animation there to investigate what
occurs when you drop a ball and what happens when you
change its mass, radius and height of drop.
Researching gravity
Internet, etc.) to:
find out about Galileos gravity experiments on top of
the Leaning Tower of Pisa
find out more about Sir Isaac Newton, his history, major
scientific achievements and his theories on gravity
research the history of the parachute
>>
find the value of gravity on different planets of the solar
system and what that would mean you could and could
not do there.
an interview with Galileo, Newton or aliens from the
different planets
a written biography of Galileo or Newton
a video mockumentary of Galileos experiments
a table of values of gravity and other information.
Investigating
Datalogging gravity
Use datalogging equipment, appropriate
sensors (such as light gates) and equipment
(such as combs from Tain Electronics) to
measure and plot the acceleration due to gravity.
and conclusion.
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Finding the centre of
gravity
Mass is spread all through an object. Weight,
however, acts as if it is concentrated at one
particular point called the centre of gravity or
centre of mass.
You will need
A photocopy of a map of Australia, scissors, two sheets
of cardboard, cotton line, small mass (such as paperclips),
sticky tape, access to a hole punch, access to photos of
athletes (running, jumping, kicking, throwing)
What to do
Part A
1 Trace a map of Australia onto a piece of cardboard and
cut it out.
2 Punch a hole anywhere near its edge.
3 Tie the line to the hole and attach the small mass to the
other end.
4 Attach another line at the hole and suspend Australia
from it.
5 Use a pencil to trace onto the cardboard the vertical line
the mass line makes.
6 Repeat, but place the hole somewhere else on the map.
7 The centre of gravity is where the two lines intersect.
Mark its position.
Part B
8 On the other piece of paper, make a larger version of the
person shown in Figure 6.6.8.
Prac 1
Unit 6.6
Finding the centre of a mass Fig 6.6.8
at work SCIENCE
>>
Imagining
Convincing Aristotle
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotles views on gravity
shaped thought for over 1500 years. Unfortunately, Aristotle
thought heavier objects always fell faster than light ones.
You have travelled back in time to explain to him what
gravity is and what it does to falling objects. Your ancient
Greek is not good, so you will need to prepare some simple
demonstrations to convince him.
Present your work as a lecture with Aristotle as the
audience.
Watching
Cartoon laws of physics
Videotape a cartoon on TV. Watch carefully the movements
that it shows, particularly anything that is falling. (Roadrunner
is ideal.)
Prepare a presentation on a short snippet of motion
shown in the cartoon. Were the laws of physics displayed
correctly? If not, what should have happened? Show the
snippet of video to the class and explain where the laws of
physics were not obeyed.
>>
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3 Is the centre of mass the same for all human poses?
4 There are two styles of high jumping: the scissors and
the flop. Which one has the lowest centre of mass?
Suggest why the flop is the favoured style.
5 Skiers try to keep their centre of gravity as low as
possible. How do they do this and why?
6 How does centre of gravity affect the stability of cars
and trucks?
9 Arrange the body in a pose and use tape to connect the
body parts. Find the centre of gravity using the method
in Part A.
10 Arrange the body into the poses of various athletes from
different sports and find the centres of gravity.
Questions
1 Suggest another method of finding the centre of gravity.
2 Refer to an atlas and find which town is the closest to
the heart of Australia.
Prac 2
Unit 6.6
Finding g graphically
You will need
AC ticker-timer and about 2 m tape,
G-clamp, 50 g mass, sticky tape,
ruler, access to calculator
What to do
ticker-timer tape
to AC
power
pack
sticky tape
50 g mass
clamp or hold
flat on
doorframe/wall
ticker-
timer
Fig 6.6.9 Using a ticker-timer to measure g
Section Elapsed time
(s)
Time taken
for each section
(s)
Distance of
each section
(mm)
Average speed in
each section (mm/s)
Column 4 Column 3
Time at which
this happened
(s)
0 to 5 dots 0.1 0.1
5 to 10 0.2 0.1
10 to 15 0.3 0.1
15 to 20 0.4 0.1
20 to 25 0.5 0.1
>>
1 Tape a 50 g mass to the bottom of a 2 m long strip of
ticker-timer tape.
2 Clamp, or hold securely, the ticker-timer against a wall
or doorframe.
3 Thread the tape into the timer and hold it.
4 Turn on the timer and let the tape go.
5 Rule a line through every fifth dot. This should give
five spaces between each line. Measure the distance
between each line.
6 Copy the table below and enter your results.
7 Calculate the average speed of each section.
8 Plot a speedtime graph for the drop, drawing a line of
best fit through your points.
9 Find the gradient of the graph. This is acceleration due
to gravity in mm/s
2
. To compare with 9.8 m/s
2
, divide
by 1000.
Questions
1 How long would it take for one new dot (equivalent to
one space) and for five new dots (five spaces) to be
produced if the AC supply was:
a 10 Hz
b 100 Hz?
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2 What does the slope of a speedtime graph indicate?
3 Does your graph indicate constant acceleration as the
mass fell?
Prac 3
Unit 6.6
Measuring height with a stopwatch
4 Why would the acceleration measured here be less
than 9.8 m/s
2
?
5 From the tape, how can you tell when the mass hit the
ground?
The formula h = 4.9t
2
gives the height that an
object drops (measured in metres) when the drop
time t is measured (in seconds). It assumes that
the object falls with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s
2

due to gravity.
You will need
Any small mass that wont break, stopwatch, metre ruler or
tape measure, string with mass attached
What to do
1 Find appropriate safe spots around the school to drop a
small mass.
2 Measure the time taken for the drop at each place.
Repeat to obtain consistent results.
Place of drop Time of drop
(s)
Average time
(s)
Height from
formula (m)
Measured
height (m)
3 Use a calculator and the formula h = 4.9t
2
to calculate
the expected height of the drop.
4 Use the tape measure to find the actual drop.
5 Place all your results in a table like the one below.
6 If time allows, test whether the formula works for the
mass being thrown down (instead of being dropped)
and for masses that have high air resistance.
Questions
1 You both measured and calculated the height of the
drop. How close were they?
2 The formula would give inaccurate results for dropping
things like a feather. Why?
3 What must the starting speed of the
mass be for the formula to work?
4 What assumptions does the formula
make?
Prac 4
Unit 6.6
Observing weightlessness
2 How does this experiment relate to astronauts in orbit?
water
polystyrene
cup
small hole
punched
through
does
water
exit?
Fig 6.6.10 Water is weightless in a falling cup.
You will need
Polystyrene or paper cup, skewer or scissor to
make hole
What to do
1 Make a small hole in the side of the cup near its base.
2 Over a sink or while outside, add water to the cup and
observe.
3 Find a spot outside where spilt water will not matter.
4 Refill the cup but this time hold your finger over the
hole, stopping the water flow.
5 Drop the cup from a height (the higher the better) and
observe carefully if any water escapes as it falls. If the
cup survives the fall, repeat.
Questions
1 Explain why it would be near-impossible for the water to
escape while the cup was falling.
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UNIT
UNIT
The work done in a car crash
is very obvious. The car and its
occupants can undergo radical
rearrangement: bonnets crumple,
windscreens shatter, bones break.
Forces are applied and things
shifted. Work is done. Where did the
energy to do this work come from?
Kinetic energy
Movement is needed for cars to
crash: no accident will happen
if everything is stationary. When
something moves it has kinetic
energy. The heavier the car, the
more kinetic energy it has and the
more work and damage it can do.
Likewise, the faster we travel, the
more work will be done. If you
double your speed, then the work
done in a collision and the damage
caused will be four times what it
was at the slower speed.
Kinetic energy = mass speed speed
or KE = mv
2
Kinetic energy is measured in joules (J), mass in
kilograms (kg) and speed in metres per second (m/s).
Compare the kinetic energies of a typical 1.5 tonne
(1500 kg) car. At 50 km/h (13.9 m/s), the car has a
kinetic energy of
KE = 1500 13.9
2

= 144 908 J
At 100 km/h (27.8 m/s), the kinetic energy has
quadrupled:
KE = 1500 27.8
2
= 579 630 J
On braking, all this kinetic energy is converted
into heat energy that is dissipated by the brake pads or
discs. In a collision, it converts into heat and sound, but
mainly into work as it crumples or crumples other cars
or objectsa lot of rearranging is done in an accident.
Movement involves energy. Energy is the ability
to do work.
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Work
Work happens whenever things are shifted or
rearranged by a force. The bigger the force, the more
work done. Likewise, if something is shifted a long
way, then more work is done than if it only moves a
little. If it doesnt move, then no work has been done
on it.
Work = force applied distance shifted
or W = Fx
Force is always measured in newtons (N) and
distance in metres (m). Work is a form of energy and,
like all energy, is measured in joules, abbreviated as J.
Physics fact file
Energy
Unit: joules
Unit abbreviation: J
If a heavy box takes a force of 500 N to shift it 3 m,
then the work done on it is:
W = 500 3 = 1500 J
500 N force
Fig 6.7.1 If the crate shifts 3 m, then 1500 J of work
has been done.
The Trabi
West Germany produced
Mercedes Benz, BMW,
Porsche, Audi and VW;
East Germany made the
Trabant (affectionately
called the Trabi). Its
660 cm
3
two-cylinder
engine accelerated it to
a maximum speed of 80
km/h, a terrifying speed
given that much of the
cars body was made of
lightweight compressed
fibre! Collisions as low
as 16 km/h were often
deadly. Although the
Trabant is now not being
produced, old ones are
still on the roads of
the old East Germany.
They have become a
collectors item in
recent years.
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Gravitational potential energy
Similar damage would be sustained if a car ran off
a cliff. The higher the cliff, the worse the situation
becomes. Obviously height gives you energy, too.
Potential energy is stored energyit gives the
object the potential to do work. You give an object
gravitational potential energy if you lift it. The heavier
the object is and the higher you lift it, the more energy
it will have, and the more damage it will cause when
let go. This can be written mathematically as:
gravitational
potential
energy
= mass
acceleration
due to gravity
height
or GPE = mgh
GPE is measured in joules (J), m in kilograms (kg) and
h in metres (m). Like all accelerations, g is measured
in metres per second squared (m/s
2
). On Earth, g is
9.8 m/s
2
.
As something falls, it picks up speed; its
gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy. When it hits the bottom, most of its energy
Fig 6.7.2 Gravitational potential energy converts
first into kinetic energy (and high speed),
then work done (crumpling of the panels).
will be converted into work done on the ground and
the object itself. Both the ground and the object will
dent and change shape or break.
Elastic potential energy
Elastic bands and springs store energy when they are
stretched or extended. They store it as elastic potential
energy. They have the potential to release energy
and do work when let go, bouncing back to their
original shape. This is very obvious when a slingshot
is stretched and let go. You put your own energy into
stretching the elastic band. The more a slingshot is
stretched, the more energy it stores, the more kinetic
energy the projectile will have, the faster it will go
and the more damage (work done) it will do.
Homework book 6.7 Work and energy
Fig 6.7.3 An elastic band stores elastic potential energy
as it stretches, ready to release it as it bounces
back. Some energy is converted into heat.
Springs also store energy when squashed or
compressed. Tennis balls act as a store of elastic
potential energy when compressed on a bounce
or when hit. The more the ball stores, the more it
releases and the higher it will bounce. Some energy
is converted into heat.
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Some materials are stiff, needing high forces to
change their shape. Others are highly elastic. One
measure of stiffness is the spring constant of the
material. The higher the constant, the stiffer (and
less elastic) it will be.
Work = spring constant extension
2
or EPE = kx
2
Here, x is the extension or compression
of the elastic band or spring (measured
in metres) and k is its spring constant
(in newtons per metre, N/m).
Efficiency
Friction between moving surfaces wastes
useful energy, converting some of it into
heat and sound. Efficiency is a measure of
how much useful energy is retained in a
conversion:
Efficiency =
useful energy after the conversion
100%
before the conversion
A rolling ball will eventually stop due to friction.
All of the kinetic energy it once had has been
converted into heat and sound: the efficiency is 0 per
cent. A machine that was 100 per cent efficient would
be perfectly quiet and would run forever because all
the energy conversions would be perfect.
A ball loses a little of its useful energy each time it
bounces. Squash balls have very little bounce and are
incredibly inefficient, losing most of the
energy to heat. The ball gets hot quickly,
which then gives it more elasticity and
better bounce.
The ball is elastic and will bounce back to its
original shape. The bones in the players face are
only partly elastic: go too far, and they break.
Fig 6.7.4
Prac 1
p. 260
Prac 2
p. 261
extension x
F = weight = mg
m
k = spring constant = slope
F
x
Fig 6.7.5 Calculating the spring constant
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Work
1 Which of the following situations does not involve any
work being done?
A A 10 kg crate is lifted up 2 m.
B A car is pushed along a road.
C A spacecraft travels through the solar system
without being affected by air resistance or gravity.
D A skateboard rolls to a stop.
E A book sits on a desk.
Kinetic energy
2 What factors make an accident worse?
3 Write the formula for kinetic energy, defining each term
used and the unit it is measured in.
Gravitational potential energy
4 Why is gravitational energy referred to as a potential
energy?
5 Write the formula for gravitational potential energy,
defining each term used and the unit it is measured in.
Elastic potential energy
6 Explain two ways in which a slinky spring can store
elastic potential energy.
7 A slingshot holding a stone is stretched and let go.
Into what forms is the elastic potential energy
converted?
>>
Movement needs energy Movement needs energy
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16 Calculate the gravitational potential energy before and
after a bounce, if a 30 g ball is dropped from 2 m and
bounces to a height of 1.5 m. Calculate its efficiency.
17 List the springs in
Figure 6.7.6 in order
from stiffest to least
stiff.
18 Figure 6.7.7 shows
the graphs for the
extensions of the
elastic-band
combinations.
Identify which graph
matches each elastic
band. Extension
Force
A
B
C
D
Fig 6.7.6
F
o
r
c
e
A
B
C
D
Extension
Fig 6.7.7
19 Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in each
spring (make sure all lengths are in metres).
a A slinky spring with a spring constant 5 N/m is
extended 3 m.
b A spring (k = 25 N/m) is squashed 0.5 m.
c A slinky has a natural length of 15 cm, but is
stretched to a new length of 90 cm. Its spring
constant is 30 N/m.
d The slinky in (c) is stretched from 15 cm to 4 m
in length.
20 Compare the elastic potential energy stored in an elastic
band (spring constant 6 N/m) that is stretched 0.1 m
with an identical band that is stretched exactly double
the distance.
21 A slingshot that is stretched double the distance does
roughly four times the damage. Explain why.
Efficiency
8 a If a tennis ball was 100 per cent efficient it would
bounce forever. Explain why.
b In reality, a tennis ball will bounce a little less each
time. Energy is wasted. What is it being converted to?
Thinking questions
9 Suggest what type of energy can be referred to as:
a moving energy c spring energy
b height energy d rearranging energy.
10 Crumple zones are incorporated into the front and rear
of modern cars to convert the energy of the collision
into work on the panels. It does this by allowing them
to buckle instead of remaining rigid. If these zones were
not there, what would crumple to absorb energy?
11 If speed is doubled, the car accident will be twice as
bad. Do you agree? Use kinetic energy to support or
contradict the statement.
Analysis questions
12 Calculate the work done:
a by a 7 N force that shifts a box 2 m
b in shifting a trolley 50 cm by a 20 N force.
13 What is the kinetic energy in the following?
a A 400 kg motorbike travels at 25 m/s.
b A 50 kg skateboarder is freewheeling at 9 m/s.
c A 20 g stone is thrown at 2 m/s. (1000 g = 1 kg)
d A 30 mg spider runs about at 5 cm/s. (1000 mg = 1 g)
14 Calculate the gravitational potential energy that the
following objects have.
a Travis stands on a diving board, 11 m above the
surface. His mass is 60 kg.
b A 2.5 kg book is on a desk that is 70 cm high.
(100 cm = 1 m)
c Carol (55 kg) is on the Rialto observation deck, 253 m
above the street.
d Yee is piloting Flight 007 at a height of 9500 m.
Her mass is 70 kg.
15 Tanya is about to dive off the 10 m board. Her mass
is 50 kg.
a Calculate her gravitational potential energy before
the dive.
b This energy had to come from somewhere. Suggest
where. (Hint: How did she get there?)
c When she dives, into what form does the potential
energy convert?
d What proof is there?
e What should be her kinetic energy just before she
enters the water?
f Where does all this go when she enters the water?
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Extension of an elastic
band
You will need
Two elastic bands, retort stand, bossheads and
clamps, 50 g masses, ruler
What to do
1 Copy the table opposite.
2 Measure the natural, unstretched, length of an elastic
band.
Prac 1
Unit 6.7
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at work
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SCIENCE
Surfing
Companion Website
Active safety features are those that allow a
driver to avoid an accident in the first place
(brakes, tyre tread, headlights). Passive safety
features protect the occupants when an accident occurs
(safety belts, energy-absorbing bumpers). Search the
websites of the major car manufacturers by connecting
to the Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website at
Find what safety features are included in modern cars and
list them as active or passive features.
Present your work as a labelled diagram or photo of a car.
Researching energy-converting devices
Internet, etc.) to:
find out the methods used to stop a lift falling if the
cables break
find out how drum and disc brakes on cars work
find what leaf springs are in the suspension of a car
or truck.
Present your work as a single A4 sheet with explanation
and diagram.
Trabant
Internet, etc.) to find a photo of the Trabant.
Investigating
Ball bounce
The coefficient of restitution of a ball is a
measure of the rate at which a ball regains its
shape on a bounce. It can be calculated by the
following formula:
height of bounce
height of drop
Coefficient of restitution =
Design an experiment to measure the coefficient of
restitution of different balls from a particular height. Run
a further test to see if the coefficients change when the
starting height is changed.
1 List the balls from highest to lowest coefficients of
restitution.
2 Was the coefficient of restitution the same for each ball
for each drop height?
3 A coefficient of 1 is impossible. Suggest why.
4 Where does the energy go in a bounce? What evidence
do you have?
5 Apart from ball type and height, what other variables
could affect the coefficient of restitution?
Present your work as an experimental report. Include
all the normal features, such as aim, materials, method,
results, discussion (answers to the questions) and
conclusion.
Mass attached (g) Length (mm) Extension (mm)
0
50
100
150
200
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Prac 2
Unit 6.7
Efficiency of a roller coaster
retort
stand
elastic band
50 g mass
100 g mass
measure extensions
Fig 6.7.8
3 Hang a single band from the retort stand and attach a
single 50 g mass.
4 Measure its new length and calculate the extension the
50 g mass has caused.
5 Repeat for 100 g, 150 g, 200 g
and 250 g.
6 Plot a graph of mass (g) (vertical
axis) against extension (mm). Draw
a line of best fit through the points.
7 Repeat the process for the other
elastic band arrangements shown
in Figure 6.7.7.
8 On the same graph, plot the graphs
of these arrangements.
Questions
1 What energy is being stored in this experiment?
2 Which was the stiffest arrangement of bands?
start
finish
measure
height
measure
height
Fig 6.7.9
You will need
Material to make a track (clear plastic tubing
is ideal), ball bearing or marble, retort stands,
bossheads and clamps, metre ruler, access to
electronic scales
What to do
1 Set up the rollercoaster as shown in Figure 6.7.9.
2 Let the marble run from one end of the track to the other.
3 Measure the starting and finishing height.
4 Determine the mass of the marble.
5 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the marble
at the beginning and end of the track.
6 Calculate the efficiency of the track.
7 Change the shape of the track and repeat.
8 Find the most efficient and inefficient shapes for the
track. Draw them.
Questions
1 As the marble drops, what energies is the gravitational
potential energy converted into?
2 What type of energy did the marble have at the bottom?
3 The track will never be 100 per cent efficient. Why?
6
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Chapter review
d A parachutist jumps out of the plane, waits
a short time, opens the chute and then floats to
the ground.
12 All things fall at the same rate. Is this statement true,
false or a bit of both? Explain your answer.
13 Which of Newtons three laws best explains these
situations:
a A gun recoils when it is shot.
b You are pushed back into the seat when a car
accelerates away at traffic lights.
c A hose flicks about when the water is turned on.
d Your hand passes through a piece of wood in a
karate chop.
e You kick a soccer ball.
f Sand moves under your feet when you run.
14 Stationwagons are more dangerous than sedans.
Use inertia to explain why.
15 Use F = ma to explain why high-jumpers and
pole-vaulters land on a spongy mat and not the hard
ground.
16 Dashboards are generally padded but once were
metal. Explain how a padded dash reduces impact
force.
[
Analysis questions
]
17 Calculate the distance and displacement of a ball that is
thrown vertically, rises to a height 3 m above your hand,
and then returns to it.
18 The same ball is thrown up to the same height, but
is dropped on its return, falling 1 m to the ground.
Calculate its distance and displacement.
19 A cricket pitch is 20.1 m long. The ball is released
0.5 m behind the wicket and reaches the batsmans
wicket 0.83 s later. Find the average speed of the ball
in m/s and km/h.
20 Which of the graphs in Figure 6.8.1 represent an object:
a at rest or stationary
b moving at constant speed
c accelerating
d decelerating?
[
Summary questions
]
1 Match the following quantities with the most
appropriate unit.
a energy J
b displacement N
c time m/s
2
d velocity m/s
e acceleration m
f force s
g work done C
2 Write the symbols normally used for the following
quantities.
a distance
b speed
c acceleration
d force
e mass
a average and instantaneous speeds
b mass and weight
c work and force?
4 What is a driver doing during reaction time and
braking time?
5 What are Newtons three laws about force?
6 Use examples to explain what inertia is.
7 What two things need to happen for work to be done?
8 What does doubling the speed do to kinetic energy?
9 Into what forms does a cars kinetic energy get
converted in an accident?
10 Squash balls dont bounce well at all, but get very
hot after a little play. Explain how these two facts are
connected.
[
Thinking questions
]
11 On one graph, sketch speedtime graphs for these
drops:
a A shotput is dropped from 2 m.
b A tennis ball falls 2 m to the ground.
c A piece of crumpled paper falls.
>>>
263
22 Find the final speeds of the objects in the table below. 21 Complete the following table, choosing the appropriate
units for each.
Distance travelled Time taken Speed
20 m 5 s
6 h 80 km/h
1000 km 100 km/h
2.5 cm 0.5 s
7.0 m 35 m/s
Homework book 6.8 Movement crossword
Starting
speed
Accelerated
for this time
Rate of
acceleration
Final
speed
0 5 s 15 m/s
2
0 12 s 4 m/s
2
18 m/s 6 s 2 m/s
2
40 km/h 5 s 5 km/h/s
20 m/s half a minute 3 m/s
2
v
t
A
v
t
B
v
t
C
v
t
D
Fig 6.7.10
7
Using
space
Students:
explore how scientific theories are both powerful and
tentative at the same time
understand how science is empirical and non-empirical,
creative and methodical, and speculative and logical
develop a qualitative and quantitative understanding of
the relationships between force, mass and movement
investigate how energy may be responsible for the
changes observed in physical processes and applications
communication satellites
learn that scientific theories are both powerful and
never final
popular media
explore the ways in which science concepts,
language and perspectives can be misunderstood and
misrepresented
consider issues significant to themselves and to the
broader society, such as tourism in space and the history
and philosophy of science.
Students:
explain change in terms of energy
give qualitative explanations of the relationships between
force, mass and movement.
1 What fuels a rocket?
2 Why do rockets break up into stages when they are
launched?
3 What is meant by a geostationary orbit?
4 What can you use to instantly find your position
anywhere on Earth?
5 What is a satellite footprint?
6 Are there humans living in space right now?
7 Do you think it will one day be possible to travel to
other star systems?
L
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6
Learning focus
Standards:
G
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Newtons Third Law
Imagine you are stranded in the middle of an ice-
skating rink, wearing flat-soled shoes and a backpack
full of tennis balls. Whenever you try to walk, you
slip and fall. One way to reach the edge of the rink
and safety would be to throw the tennis balls in the
direction opposite to that in which you wish to move.
This is Newtons Third Law in action, which states:
For every action force there is an equal
and opposite reaction force.
To throw the tennis balls, you need to exert a force
on them (the action force). The tennis balls exert a
reaction force back on you in the opposite direction.
You would also move if you threw the backpack or
your clothes away. Rocket engines are sometimes
called reaction engines because they work on the
same principle.
Rocket engines
Rocket engines throw out huge amounts of hot exhaust
gases at high speed. Although these exhaust gases are
made up of tiny particles, the combined reaction force
they exert back on the rocket is significant, perhaps
enough to overcome its weight and launch
it. The exhaust is produced when fuel,
called propellant, undergoes combustion.
Propellant can be liquid or solid.
Liquid propellant
A liquid propellant engine uses two liquefied gases
(such as hydrogen and oxygen) that are combined in
a combustion chamber. The combustion chamber is
kept cool by circulating coolant fluids. The resulting
exhaust stream produces thrustthe force that propels
the rocket. The thrust produced by the space shuttle
at lift-off is 35 MN (35 meganewtons or 35 million
newtons), which accelerates the shuttle at three times
the force of gravity, or 3 g (approximately 30 m/s
2
).
Exhaust gases push a rocket in the opposite direction.
liquid
hydrogen
flow-valve
control
combustion
chamber
exhaust
gases
coolant liquid
oxygen
Fig 7.1.2
equal forces
Fig 7.1.1 Using actionreaction forces for movement
Stand on a skateboard and try to move it
without touching the ground or anything nearby.
Alternatively, sit on a desk chair that has wheels
on it. Raise your feet off the floor and try to move
it. You will probably find that you go nowhere.
It is nearly an impossible task. This is the problem
that rockets have in space: there is nothing to push
against. Rockets get moving in a different way.
Prac 2
p. 269
Prac 1
p. 269
Solid fuel
Rocket engines that use solid fuel are generally
simpler, cheaper and safer than liquid fuel engines.
The solid fuel is composed of chemicals in
proportions that allow them to burn quickly but
266
>>>
without exploding. Once started,
a solid fuel engine cannot be
stopped until all the fuel is
used. On the side of the space
shuttles main fuel tank are two
thin engines called solid rocket
boosters (SRBs). On launch,
the SRBs burn for just over 2
minutes before detaching and
parachuting into the ocean.
They are then retrieved and
reused in future missions.
Using rockets
Ariane, Proton and H2
Europes Ariane, Russias Proton
and Japans H2 rockets are powerful
enough to launch their cargo directly
into orbits 36 000 km above the
Earths equator. Such cargo is called
payload and is usually a satellite. At
this height, satellites travel around
the Earth once every 24 hours in a
geostationary orbit. They therefore
remain above the same point on the
planets surface, making them ideal
for communication or spying.
About two-thirds of communication satellites are
currently delivered into orbit by Ariane rockets.
Space shuttle
The USAs Space Transportation System (STS), better
known as the space shuttle, can reach up to only 500
kilometres above the Earth. It consists of an external
fuel tank supplying liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen, two solid-fuel boosters and an orbiter vehicle.
Not close to the
equator?
An old North Sea oil-drilling
platform has been re-fitted
as a rocket launcher by a
joint partnership between
Norwegian, US and
Ukrainian rocket companies.
The platform has been
towed to the equator
for launches to gain the
advantage of the Earths
higher speed at the equator.
Fig 7.1.3 The Earth moves fastest at its equator. The Ariane
launch site at Kourou, French Guiana, in South
America, takes advantage of this fact. H2 is
launched from the Japans southernmost island,
nearest to the equator.
The STS or space shuttle

Forward reaction control system (RCS)
Thrusters at the front help the orbiter
to manoeuvre in space.
Vertical tail
Orbital manoeuvring system (OMS)
Two OMS engines propel
the orbiter in space.
Main engine
The orbiters three main engines
are fed by the external tank.
Rudder
The rudder provides lateral
control and acts as a speed
brake on landing.
Fuel tank
Oxidiser tank
Payload bay door
Heat radiator
Payload bay
Satellites and other
cargo are transported
in this bay.
Remote manipulator arm
This robotic arm launches
and retrieves satellites.
Aft reaction control system (RCS)
The orbiter has 28 thrusters at the
rear that help it to steer in space.
Elevons
These hinged surfaces are used
to control angle and roll.
Crew cabin
This consists of an upper
flight deck and a mid-deck
utility area; beneath is an
equipment stowage bay.
Carbon tiles
These tiles withstand temperatures
of 1400C during re-entry.
Nose cone

Satellite
Fig 7.1.4
Rockets Rockets
The first rocketeer
Imagine tying forty-seven
large rockets filled with
gunpowder to your chair
and lighting them. Thats
exactly what Wan Hu,
an inventive Chinese
mandarin, did 650 years
ago. As his servant lit
the rockets, Wan Hu sat
in his chair clutching a
kite for re-entry. He was
never seen again. At the
time many thought that he
reached the heavens.
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The orbiter is 18 metres long and
4.5 metres wide. It contains a
payload bay large enough to
hold a 27 tonne bus and has a
15 metre manipulator arm used
for launching and retrieving
satellites. The orbiter is a
re-usable spacecraft that returns
to Earth as an unpowered
glider. There are currently three
orbitersDiscovery, Atlantis
and Endeavor.
Death of two space
shuttles
Accidents have destroyed two
space shuttles, each accident
killing all seven crew. On 28
January 1986, the Challenger
shuttle exploded 73 seconds
after launch. The explosion
was caused by a fuel leak from the liquid
fuel tank. The morning of the launch was
extremely cold and a rubber O ring used to
seal the tank had frozen. It did not expand
quickly enough,
allowing fuel to leak
and explode.
On 1 February 2003, the
Columbia orbiter disintegrated
and burnt up on re-entry after
its successful twenty-eighth
mission into space. On launch,
a small piece of foam had
broken off the main fuel tank.
It hit and severely damaged
some of the life-saving tiles on
its left wing. Although most of
the tiles were still good, the shuttle could
not withstand the incredible temperatures
(around 1600C) caused by its re-entry at
Mach 18.3 (18.3 times the speed of sound).
landing
solid rocket
booster
separation

external tank
separation
main engine and
solid rocket booster
ignition at lift-off

orbit

manoeuvring
before re-entry

orbiter engines
fired to slow
descent

re-entry into
atmosphere

approach
Fig 7.1.5 The main stages of an
STS mission
Tiles on the shuttle
The space shuttle was
intended to be an easily
re-used craft. The underside
of the orbiter is covered in
ceramic tiles that protect it
from the intense and deadly
heat of re-entry. These tiles
are very fragile, however,
and many are damaged or
become loose and cannot
be re-used. The US National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA)
estimates that between
17 000 and 70 000 hours are
needed between missions to
repair or replace faulty tiles.
Starship Enterprise
The first space shuttle orbiter
never flew in space because it
was built only to test its flight
and landing characteristics in
Earths atmosphere. It was named
Enterprise after the starship in the
TV and movie series Star Trek.
NASA leftovers
The space shuttle consumes 10 tonnes of fuel per second
on lift-off. Any fuel not needed for the mission cannot
be used in future launches because it solidifies once
mixed. Excess shuttle fuel is now being used to construct
flares that can be used to destroy landmines. The flare is
placed over the mine on a tripod and is then activated by
a battery-powered trigger. The fuel burns with such an
intense heat and so quickly that it destroys the explosive
before the mine has a chance to explode.
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Newtons Third Law
1 State Newtons Third Law.
2 Use Newtons Third Law to explain how rockets move.
Rocket engines
3 Particles of exhaust in rocket engines are tiny, so how
can they produce enough thrust to lift a heavy rocket?
4 Describe three differences between solid and liquid
fuel rocket engines.
Using rockets
5 Identify three rockets that can deliver satellites directly
into orbits at roughly 36 000 km above Earth.
6 Which series of launchers has put most modern
satellites into orbit around the Earth?
7 What is so special about an orbit 36 000 km above
the Earth?
8 Explain why the equator is the preferred location for
a rocket launch.
9 What is cargo on a rocket called?
>>
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about Newtons Third
Researching rockets
Surf your available resources (textbooks, specialist science
magazines, encyclopaedias, Internet, etc.) to:
7
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SCIENCE
find details of the Ariane, Proton or H2 rockets, their
structure, stages of launch and purpose. Prepare a
detailed and labelled diagram of the rocket
find how many space shuttle missions there have
been, their dates and purposes. Construct a list of key
missions and their main purpose
find specifically what happened in the Challenger and
Columbia shuttle disasters, whether the accidents could
have been foreseen and what happened to shuttle
missions afterwards. Prepare a poster or PowerPoint
presentation of your findings.
19 During combustion, which of the solid fuel arrangements
below would produce:
a steady thrust (called a neutral burn)
b increasing thrust (called a progressive burn)
c decreasing thrust (called a regressive burn)?
burning
surface
burning
surface
A
B
C
propellant
propellant
propellant
propellant
propellant
propellant
exhaust
nozzle
casing
burning
surface
Fig 7.1.6
Rockets Rockets
10 How many tonnes payload can the space shuttle carry?
11 Name the five space shuttle orbiters. Which of these:
a never flew in space
b have been destroyed by disaster
c are still operating?
12 The following acronyms stand for parts of the space
shuttle. Identify what they stand for:
a RCS b OMS.
13 Which part of the space shuttle is used to:
a launch satellites
b control angle and roll
c prevent the vehicle from burning up on re-entry.
14 Place the following space shuttle stages in order.
orbit re-entry into atmosphere
booster separation landing
re-entry manoeuvring external tank separation
main engine ignition engines fired to slow descent
approach
Thinking questions
15 Suggest how a person stranded on an ice rink could
move more quickly.
16 Give an example of a reaction force in sport.
17 Suggest why a space shuttle must carry liquid oxygen
but a jet aircraft does not.
Analysis questions
18 Which of the following is a space shuttle mission
number?
A SH-102 B SS-102 C SRB-102
D STS-102 E ISS-102
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Prac 1
Unit 7.1
A two-stage rocket
You will need
Plastic cup, scissors, two balloons (one long, one
round), tape
What to do
1 Cut the bottom out of one of the paper cups.
2 Partly inflate the long balloon and pull it through the
bottomless cup, taping the opening to the side of the
cup as shown in Figure 7.1.7.
3 Place the round balloon inside the cup and blow it up so
it wedges inside the cup. Hold the opening shut.
4 Remove the tape holding the long balloon on the side
of the cup and release the end of the round balloon to
launch your rocket.
Questions
1 What pushed on the rocket to propel it?
2 How could the rocket be enlarged to include a third
stage? Would there be a limit to how many stages you
could attach? Explain.
long
balloon
round
balloon
cup
Fig 7.1.8
tape
long
balloon
cup
Fig 7.1.7
Water rockets
What to do
1 Cut the champagne cork with the hacksaw, shortening
it so that it is a little shorter than the valve of the bike
pump.
2 Sand the sides of the cork so that it neatly fits into the
neck of the plastic bottle.
3 Drill a hole through the centre of the cork. Lightly smear
the sides of the cork with Vaseline.
4 Fill the bottle to about one-third with water.
5 Push the valve of the pump through the cork and then
secure the cork in the neck of the bottle.
6 Quickly place the bottle upside down in the ring.
7 Start pumping, standing well clear of the rocket.
8 Repeat trying different amounts of water.
Questions
1 What is the actionreaction force pair in this situation?
2 What was the fuel for this rocket?
3 What forces slowed its ascent?
4 How could these forces be reduced?
5 More water does not necessarily produce increased
ascent. Suggest why.
6 Suggest how trigonometry can be used to find the
height of the rocket.
CAUTION: The launch of this rocket must be done
outside. Everyone must stand clear of the launch.
You will need
1.25 L plastic soft-drink bottle, champagne cork (other
corks or rubber stoppers may do, but the fit must be tight),
sandpaper, Vaseline, safety glasses, access to bike pump or
electric pump, access to power drill with fine drill bit, access
to hacksaw, retort stand, clamp and ring
Prac 2
Unit 7.2
retort stand
bosshead
and ring
sanded and
cut cork
bike
valve
bike
pump
1
filled with water
3
1.25 L plastic bottle
Fig 7.1.9
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270
at work SCIENCE
1903 Russian schoolteacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
publishes his theories on multistage rockets.
1926 American engineer Robert Goddard launches the
worlds first rocket that uses liquid fuel. Previous
rockets used solid fuel. The rocket reaches a height
of 56 m and speed of 100 km/h.
June 1944 to March 1945 2419 Nazi V1 rockets and more
than 500 V2 rocket missiles bombard London and
other English cities, killing 8938 people.
4 October 1957 The Russians place the first artificial
satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit around the Earth.
Sputnik 1 sends a radio signal to Earth for twenty-
one days before burning up on re-entry into the
atmosphere.
3 November 1957 A dog named Laika becomes the first
creature in space. She orbits the Earth for seven
days aboard the Russian spacecraft Sputnik 2.
Sputnik 2 was not designed to return to Earth so
Laika dies when her oxygen supply runs out.
Fig 7.1.10
V2 rockets bombarded English cities in the
Second World War. Fig 7.1.11 Laika, the first dog in space
1947 The Woomera rocket testing range is opened in
the South Australian desert.
1950 The USA tests German V2 rockets captured
during the Second World War. These lead to the
development of rockets for the US space program.
31 January 1958 USA launches its first satellite,
Explorer 1, which detects belts of radiation around
the Earth. These are now known as Van Allen belts
after the scientist who analysed the satellites data.
7 August 1959 Explorer 6 launches. It takes the first
photograph of Earth from space. More than fifty
Explorer satellites are eventually launched.
14 September 1959 The Soviet unmanned craft Lunik II
lands on the Moon.
31 January 1961 The USA sends chimpanzees into
space before people. One of these, named Ham,
travels into space aboard a Mercury rocket and
demonstrates the ability to move levers in space.
History of rockets: Looking back
271
Fig 7.1.12 Vostok 1 carried the first person into space
Yuri Gagarin.
Fig 7.1.13 Ham, the space chimpanzee
12 April 1961 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes
the first person in space, making one orbit of the
Earth in Vostok 1.
stabilising
fins
command
module
(CM)
service
module
(SM)
lunar excursion
module (LEM)
instrument
unit
third stage
third-stage
engine
first stage
first-stage
engines
second
stage
second-stage
engines
Fig 7.1.14
Apollo spacecraft were carried to the
Moon by Saturn V rockets.
5 May 1961 Alan Shepard becomes the first American
in space when his Mercury capsule is launched. It
then drops back to Earth without going into orbit.
20 February 1962 John Glen is launched into an orbit
lasting four hours in another Mercury rocket. Glen
returns to space aboard the space shuttle in 1998.
16 June 1963 Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first
woman in space, spending seventy hours aboard
Soviet spacecraft Vostok 6.
16 July 1969 The Apollo 11 mission is launched using
a Saturn V rocket with Neil Armstrong, Michael
Collins and Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin aboard.
20 July 1969 After descending to the surface in the
lunar module Eagle, Neil Armstrong becomes the
first person to walk on the Moon. Aldrin follows
soon after. Collins remains aboard the command
module.
12 April 1981 First space shuttle flight (using the orbiter
Columbia).
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[
Student activities
]
Constructing
Timeline
Construct a labelled scale timeline of major events in rocket
history.
Surfing
Researching rocket history
Internet, etc.) to find details about one of the events in the
history of rockets. Whatever you choose you must find:
why it was important
what countries were involved
who went on the mission
what the mission achieved.
a poster
a newspaper front page announcing what has just
happened
a TV news report about the event.
Reviewing
Apollo 13
The film Apollo 13 is a realistic account of the third manned
mission to the Moon that went terribly wrong. Watch the
movie and prepare a film review about it. In your review
you must:
explain what the opening fire sequence is all about
identify the names of the astronauts involved in the fire
and in the Apollo 13 mission
list other missions these astronauts had been on
list the things that went wrong with Apollo 13, how they
affected the craft and what each required the astronauts
and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) to do
state whether Apollo 13 landed on the Moon
explain why Apollo 13 just didnt turn around
explain how Apollo 13 got home
describe what happened in the end.
special effects or the astronomer advising the director
or The Movie Show
TV Week.
Fig 7.1.15 Apollo 13 during launch
Fig 7.1.16
The Apollo 13 command module is retrieved
after a successful splashdown.
273
UNIT
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A satellite is any object that orbits another larger
object. The Moon orbits Earth, and comets, Earth
and the other planets of the solar system orbit the
Sun. These are examples of natural satellites.
Artificial satellites are those objects we have put
in orbit around Earth. They include the International
Space Station and all the satellites that have been
placed in space for many purposes, such as
communication, watching the weather, espionage,
surveying the land and ocean surface and studying
deep space.
altitude of 110 kilometres, the satellites protective
covering, or fairing, is jettisoned. At 140 kilometres
altitude, the main stage separates and disintegrates as
it re-enters the atmosphere. The engine of the upper
stage then powers the satellite to its final orbit.
A satellite needs to travel at an incredible speed
of about 7.8 kilometres per second if it is to remain in
orbit 200 kilometres above the Earths surface. Satellites
are just like all things: they fall towards Earth. At this
speed, however, the satellite keeps missing Earth,
staying instead at the same distance from the surface.
Structure of a satellite
Although artificial satellites may be specialised for
different uses they have several features in common.
A frame and body, called a bus, holds the satellites
various parts together.
Power is usually provided by solar panels that
convert sunlight into electricity.
An altitude control system (ACS) keeps the satellite
always pointed in the desired direction despite its
changing position and its movement at thousands
of kilometres per hour. This is needed, for example,
if the satellite is to take pictures of a particular
galaxy or of a particular country on Earth.
A radio receiver allows the satellite to be
controlled from Earth. This would be required, for
example, if its orbit needed to be adjusted. An on-
board computer would receive signals sent from
Earth, which in turn would activate small rocket
thrusters to adjust the course of the satellite.
A radio transmitter sends back information to
Earth where the signal is interpreted.
Placing satellites in orbit
Satellites are placed into Earth orbit by the space
shuttle or by rockets such as the Ariane that are able
to carry large cargoes or payloads. Arianes solid-fuel
boosters provide 90 per cent of the thrust during lift-
off, with the central main-stage engine providing the
remainder. After about two minutes, the boosters run
out of fuel and drop into the ocean from a height of
60 kilometres. When the remaining stages reach an
Fig 7.2.1 Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was
placed in orbit for twenty-one days in 1957.
Bullets eventually fall to Earth. If they were
fired fast enough and from high enough they
would orbit the Earth instead.
Earth
Fig 7.2.2
274
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Types of satellites
Satellites controlled from Earth are used to receive
and relay information from one location to another
almost instantaneously.
Communication satellites
If you ring internationally (say to a friend in Japan)
then your call is almost certainly travelling into space
to a communication satellite. These satellites regularly
relay telephone calls, television signals, emails and
Internet data. Your phone call is first directed to a
Rocket and two
side-strapped
boosters are
launched.
Exhausted boosters
separate at 60 km
and drop into ocean.
Protective fairing
is discarded at
110 km and
satellite is
exposed.
Satellite
separates
from the
main stage
at 140 km.
Main stage
disintegrates
on re-entry
over ocean.
Fig 7.2.3 Ariane 5 placing a satellite into orbit
The Intelsat 5 communications satellite
An antenna dish
sends and receives
signals.
The antenna can
focus on specific
regions on Earth.
solar panel
A transponder is
located inside
the satellite.
Fig 7.2.5
Satellite orbits
Depending on their function, satellites are placed in
one of three different types of orbit.
Geostationary orbits: Satellites in these orbits are
placed 35 900 km above the Earths surface. They
take twenty-four hours to revolve around Earth
and are always above the same point on it. Most
communications satellites are in geostationary
orbits.
Asynchronous orbits: Satellites in these orbits
move in the same rotational direction as the Earth,
but more quickly, so they pass over different parts
of the Earths surface.
Observation satellites are
placed into asynchronous
orbits.
Polar orbits: Satellites
in these orbits move in
a path at right angles
to the rotation of the
Earth, ensuring complete
coverage of the planet
over time as it
rotates under the
satellite.
Science fiction
becomes fact
The first person to suggest
the use of satellites for
communication was
science-fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke, author
of The Sentinel. This book
was the inspiration for
2001A Space Odyssey,
a science-fiction film
that many regard as the
greatest ever.
Prac 1
p. 278
Homework book 7.1 Orbit calculations
Types of orbit. The scale here is
exaggerated for the sake of clarity.
polar orbit
geostationary orbit
asynchronous orbit
36 000 km
Fig 7.2.4
Satellites Satellites
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nearby Earth station containing an antenna. This then
sends your call up in the form of electromagnetic
waves to a communications satellite such as Intelsat 5.
By now the signal has probably been distorted
and weakened by its journey through the atmosphere.
One of the many transponders in the satellite cleans
it and boosts it. The satellite then relays the boosted
signal back to another Earth
station at a distant location (such
as near Tokyo), which will then
send your call via the telephone
system to your friend. Although
electromagnetic waves carry
information at the speed of light, the
large distances involved via satellite
can add a delay of up to half a
second in conversations.
Fig 7.2.7 Twenty-four Navstar satellites in different orbital
planes provide global coverage for the GPS.
Navigation satellites
The global positioning system or GPS is probably the
best example of a navigation satellite system. GPS
consists of twenty-four satellites, each having the mass
of a small car, spread among six different orbits 20 000
kilometres above the Earth. The GPS satellites contain
solar panels for power, and atomic clocks.
Tracking stations on Earth send information about
each satellites position to a master control centre,
which in turn sends information to the satellites.
In this way the satellites know their exact position
Fig 7.2.6 Overlapping satellite footprints
Satellite footprints
The area on Earth reached
by a single satellite is
called its footprint. Many
communications systems
involve fleets of satellites
to provide wider coverage
produced by overlapping
footprints.
GPS car chases
The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) recently unveiled a new
way of tracking cars without actually chasing them. In the Pursuit
Management System, police use a launcher like a paintball gun to
shoot a dart at the car they want to chase. The dart sticks to the
car and then transmits a signal. GPS then informs the police where
the car is without the need to chase it. The system was developed
by Brisbane-based weapons manufacturer Metal Storm Ltd and is
manufactured by a US company, StarChase.
above Earth. A GPS receiver on
Earth receives signals from at least
four GPS satellites and uses them to
calculate your position to within a
few metres.
Some GPS receivers contain
electronic maps on which they
display your position. Many
bushwalkers now use hand-held
GPS receivers instead of maps and
luxury cars commonly include dash-
mounted GPS receivers.
Weather satellites
Weather or meteorology satellites
exist in both geostationary and
polar orbits. They record images
and measure temperature, pressure and humidity
using specialised sensors. Combined with data
collected on Earth, they help forecasters with their
Homework book 7.2 Global positioning
The US military are
monitoring you!
GPS is a set of US
military satellites and is
controlled and monitored
continually by the
United States Air Force.
Originally interference
was deliberately put into
the system to reduce its
accuracy to 100 metres.
The US military can at any
time close down, restrict
access or reduce the
accuracy of the system.
For this reason, China is
intending to develop its
own global system.
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weather predictions and can provide better advance
warning of life-threatening phenomena such as
cyclones or severe storms. Unfortunately, some
phenomena, such as tornadoes, form so quickly that
the data received from space is still too slow to give
much warning.
Remote-sensing satellites
All forms of electromagnetic radiation from visible
light to infrared radiation (radiated heat) are reflected
from the Earths surface. Special sensors mounted
on satellites can collect these reflections. Computers
can then add false colour to create images that reveal
information about the planet that would be otherwise
difficult or impossible to obtain, such as the degree
of land clearance and deforestation, ocean and land
temperatures, the health of crops, extent of floods,
smoke from bushfires or the location of valuable
mineral deposits.
The United States has a series of
Defense Support Program or DSP
satellites equipped with sensors to
detect ballistic missile launches and
nuclear explosions. The DSP program
is used to monitor compliance
with the Nuclear Weapons Non-
proliferation Treaty.
An Australian satellite, ARIES-1
was launched in 2002. It is able to
map forests, lakes, crops, soils and
mineral deposits.
Space junk
The space around Earth is becoming increasingly
crowded, particularly in the region where the
geostationary satellites are, 36 000 km from the
surface. Space junk is made up of old satellites no
longer under control, discarded rocket boosters,
payloads that have gone astray, debris from exploded
rockets and so on. There are over 20 000 large objects
in orbit around the Earth that can be tracked by radar
and many more pieces of space junk that are too small
for radar to track.
Fig 7.2.9 A satellite image showing Victoria, the
bays, the spread of suburban Melbourne,
farmland and bush
Dead centre of
Victoria
RMIT University has used
satellite technology to
determine the dead centre
of Victoria: it is the tiny
town of Mandurang, 5 km
south of Bendigo.
An artists impression of space
junk surrounding the Earth Fig 7.2.10
A satellite photograph of hurricane Katrina that
devastated much of southern USA in 2005
Fig 7.2.8
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Every piece of space junk is extremely dangerous
to astronauts and satellites, particularly when you
consider they may collide at speeds of up to 40 000
kilometres per hour. In 2003, the space shuttle
Columbia collided on launch with a piece of its
own foam that had shaken free. The damage caused
was enough to eventually destroy the orbiter when
it attempted re-entry. The International
Space Station is designed to be able to
move out of the way of space junk.
The space shuttle Columbia breaks up on
re-entry over Texas, USA, in 2003.
Fig 7.2.11
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Questions
]
13 A piece of space junk the size of a pea can have the
same effect as an exploding hand grenade if it hits a
satellite. Explain why.
Thinking questions
14 Identify three satellites of the Sun.
15 A satellite dish attached to an entertainment complex on
Earth always points in the same direction. What can you
say about the type of satellite it receives signals from?
16 Why are there twenty-four satellites in the GPS system
when only four are needed to pinpoint your position on
Earth?
17 A country wants to spy on troop movements in another
part of the world. Suggest what type of orbit would be
best for the spy satellite.
18 What would happen to a
satellite orbiting the Earth if the
Earths atmosphere suddenly
extended to beyond the
satellite?
Analysis questions
19 Why are the solar panels on
satellites more effective than
the ones on Earth?
20 Figure 7.2.12 shows the
footprint of a single satellite.
Copy the diagram and show
how, by adding two more
satellites, the entire Earth may
be covered by footprints from a
three-satellite system. Earth
satellite
Fig 7.2.12
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Revision questions
Structure of a satellite
1 It is important that a satellite be able to move to
always point its transmitter towards the same point on
the Earths surface. Explain why.
Placing satellites in orbit
2 Place the following in order from first to last for a
satellite launch.
main-stage separation
booster separation
launch
fairing removed
3 What happens to each of the following when they are
no longer needed after a satellite is launched using an
Ariane rocket?
a solid-fuel booster rockets
b main-stage rocket
Satellite orbits
4 Draw a diagram to show the differences between the
three types of satellite orbit.
5 Explain how a geostationary satellite always remains
over the same point on Earth.
Types of satellites
6 What do transponders do?
7 How can you tell that a phone call is travelling via
satellite?
8 How many satellites does GPS use?
9 Explain how the GPS system dramatically and
suddenly became more accurate.
10 Why is false colour added to some satellite images?
Space junk
11 What makes up space junk?
12 How many pieces are known to be out there?
278
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Prac 1
Unit 7.2
Satellite speed
You will need
A smooth hollow tube (such as the body of a pen),
cotton or thin string (50 cm), four small rubber
stoppers with holes
What to do
1 Construct the apparatus shown in Figure 7.2.13.
2 Spin the top stopper (the satellite) so that it orbits at a
steady speed about 15 cm from the top end of the tube
(the Earth). Adjust the speed of orbit until the orbital
radius remains steady at about 15 cm. Once you have
achieved a steady orbit, find the time taken for ten
revolutions.
3 Now reduce the force of gravity by cutting off one of
the lower stoppers.
4 Orbit the satellite once more at a steady speed, but
at a distance of 20 cm from the Earth. Again, find the
time taken for ten revolutions.
5 Reduce the force of gravity even more by cutting off
another stopper, and orbit the satellite steadily at a
distance of 25 cm from Earth.
6 Note the effect of spinning the satellite slower or
faster than that required for a steady orbit.
Questions
1 If a satellite is to be placed in a steady orbit around the
Earth, what effect does distance from the Earth have on
its orbital speed?
2 What may happen to a satellite in a steady orbit if it
suddenly:
a speeds up
b slows down?
3 Why were you asked to increase the radius of the orbit
when each stopper was removed?
Ensure rubber
stopper is not
hard up against
tube (always leave
a gap here).
Earth (imaginary)
satellite
gravity force
Fig 7.2.13
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find plans for model satellites by connecting
button.
Researching satellites
Internet, etc.) to:
prepare a list of the names and functions of some
important current satellites. Include at least one Australian
satellite (such as Optus Sat, ARIES-1, FedSat 1)
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prepare a diagram showing how an altitude control
system (ACS) works
prepare a poster, Word document or PowerPoint
presentation about the Star Wars program originally
proposed by former US president Ronald Reagan and
now being reconsidered by President George W. Bush.
Find out why Russia objects to it.
279
Humans have long been fascinated by space
and many have dreamed about living in it. This
fascination has led to a belief that one day large
populations will live for long periods aboard space
stations. That belief is fast becoming a reality
astronauts have lived for more
than a year at a time on the
Why live in space?
Long periods in space
enable scientists to perform
experiments and research
free from Earths gravity and
atmosphere. New materials
have already sprung from space
technologies and have been developed commercially.
Velcro and Kevlar (used to make bullet-proof vests and
Formula 1 fuel tanks) are just two of many materials
that were first developed for space.
Early space stations
Salyut
The first space station, the Soviet Salyut 1, began
orbiting Earth soon after its launch on 19 April 1971.
The first crew lived aboard the station for twenty-
four days, but died during re-entry on return to
Earth. Several more Salyut stations were launched,
and the experience gained with them later led to the
development of space station Mir.
Skylab
The American space station Skylab was launched on
14 May 1973 by a Saturn V rocket. It soon suffered
damage to a meteoroid shield and lost two solar
panels. The first crew boarded soon after and made
repairs, which included installing a sunshade to cool
the station. A total of three crews lived aboard Skylab,
conducting experiments and providing information
on the effects of microgravity on the human body. On
11 July 1979, Skylab crashed to Earth. Sections fell
into the Indian Ocean and parts of Western Australia.
Mir
The first stage of the Russian space station Mir was
launched on 20 February 1986 using a Proton rocket.
Soyuz spacecraft carried cosmonauts to the station,
while unmanned Progress craft delivered supplies
and removed waste. Originally intended to last only
seven years, Mir continued operation much longer,
hosting a total of seven NASA astronauts who arrived
via the space shuttle. They survived several dangerous
accidents, including a fire and a crash with a supply
ship. Mir allowed its occupants to gain space-station
experience and practice spacewalks in preparation for
the International Space Station.
Australian-born Andy Thomas was the last NASA
astronaut to live on Mir, completing his 141-day
mission on 13 June 2001. Russian ground controllers
fired rockets at Mir to send it plunging to Earth on
23 March 2001. It passed within 2000 kilometres
Record time
in space
Russian cosmonaut
Valeriy Poliyakov holds the
record for the longest stay
in space. He lived for
437 days aboard Mir.
Russian space station Mir and are now working in
three-month shifts to complete construction of the
new International Space Station (ISS).
Fig 7.3.1 The space shuttle Atlantis docks with the
Russian space station Mir.
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of northern Queensland. Though most of the space
station burnt up in Earths atmosphere, several pieces
weighing up to 700 kg plummeted into the Pacific
Ocean between New Zealand and Chile.
International Space Station (ISS)
In 1984, American president, Ronald Reagan
announced plans to build a permanent space station
named Freedom. The stations name changed to Alpha
and then became known as the International Space
Station (ISS) as more countries became involved in its
construction. The ISS is now being constructed while
in orbit around Earth, about 407 kilometres above its
surface. Construction has been slower than expected,
but, despite setbacks, the ISS has been occupied
continually by humans. It occupants have included
three space-tourists who paid $A26.5 million each for
the privilege.
An artists impression of the completed ISS
Fig 7.3.2
Fig 7.3.3 The Japanese Experimental Module (JEM)
will become part of the ISS. It will take three
shuttle missions to assemble in space.
The JEM is designed for scientific research
and has an external platform for space
environment experiments.
Homework book 7.3 Mirs plunge
Construction began with the Russian control
module Zarya being launched on 20 November 1998.
The American connecting section Unity was launched
on 3 December 1998. They docked to form Stage I,
the core of the station. More than forty missions
involving the space shuttle and Russian Soyuz and
Proton rockets will be required during construction of
the ISS, as well as around 1000 hours of spacewalks
or extra-vehicular activity (EVA). In March 2001,
Andy Thomas became the first Australian to make an
EVA when he assisted with wiring and construction
jobs. NASA is working on more efficient ways to
transport supplies and people to and from the ISS.
A specialised crew-return vehicle (CRV) named X-38,
for example, will be able to carry seven ISS crew back
to Earth.
Fig 7.3.4 The ISS in 2004. This photo was taken from a
departing shuttle.
Life in space Life in space
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that happens on some rollercoaster rides. Microgravity
is the apparent lack of gravity that produces a feeling
of weightlessness.
Research and the ISS
Some of the research projects being performed by
scientists on the ISS are:
to investigate the effects of microgravity and its
effect on humans during extended space flights
to study the way crystals grow in microgravity.
On Earth, crystal formation is affected by gravity,
leading to small imperfections. In microgravity,
however, almost perfect crystals can be made. Such
perfect crystals may lead to faster computers and
more effective medicines
to grow tissue cultures of human cells. Tissue
grows more quickly in space and it is hoped that
important breakthroughs might be made in this
field
to study combustion in an environment where
there are no convection currents. On Earth, gravity
forms convection currents that disturb a flame.
Perhaps research in space will discover a method
of burning that produces less pollution.
A space suit
video camera
light
communications
carrier
assembly
in-suit drink
bag
displays and
control
module
primary life
support
system
maximum
absorbency
garment
collects urine
lower torso
comprising
pants and boots
thermal
micrometeoroid
garment provides
insulation and
protection
liquid-cooling
and ventilation
garment
electric harness
for biomedical
monitoring
pressure
garment
maintains air
pressure
helmet and
visor gives
protection
against
UV radiation
Fig 7.3.5
Fig 7.3.6 An astronaut on an EVA inspecting an
experiment located outside the ISS. In this
experiment, 750 material samples were placed
outside the ISS for eighteen months to see how
different materials weather in space.
Spacewalks
Spacewalks or EVA are necessary during construction
and later for maintenance of the ISS. Before a
spacewalk, an astronaut must spend some time getting
used to the lower pressure of the suit and to breathing
pure oxygen. Space suits need to be refurbished after
every twenty-five space walks.
Weightlessness on the ISS
True weightlessness in space is almost impossible
because there is always a star or planet near enough
to exert an attractive gravitational force. While on
board the ISS, everything appears weightless. In fact,
everything is being pulled to Earth by Earths gravity,
at a rate of about 90 per cent of what you would
experience on the surface of the planet. Without this
gravitational pull, the space station would leave its
orbit and spin off into space.
When in orbit on board a space station, you are
falling at the same rate as the station. This makes it
appear that you are weightless. This is the same effect
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Eventually, the ISS will be used by governments,
industry and educational organisations for research in
fields including life science, medical research, earth
science and engineering.
Life on the ISS
While on board, the main aims of long-term crew
members are to set up and maintain the equipment
on the ISS and to conduct scientific experiments.
The weightless environment created by the
microgravity of their orbit poses some problems for
the crew and they must adjust their lifestyle and
behaviour accordingly.
Food is mainly in dehydrated or frozen form and
individually packaged to reduce the chance of
spillage. Sometimes food is coated in gelatine to
prevent crumbs.
Water is a precious resource aboard the ISS. It is
used for washing, drinking and cooling, and much
will be recycled from waste. Astronauts will take
sponge baths rather than have showers.
Toilets on the ISS have hand and foot restraints to
hold the user in place and operate using a vacuum
to avoid spillage.
For sleeping, astronauts are strapped into a wall-
mounted sleeping bag to prevent them floating
away and bumping into things.
Long-term crew need to exercise to reduce loss
of muscle and bone mass due to the effect of
weightlessness. Astronauts strap into a treadmill or
exercise bike for regular work-outs.
ISS fact file
Countries involved United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, Brazil, and eleven countries of the European space agency
(Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
United Kingdom)
Dimensions Length 110 metres, width 80 metres, mass 460 tonnes, volume 1200 cubic metres (pressurised)
Orbit Altitude 407 kilometres (average) at an angle of 51.6 degrees to the equator
Orbital speed 3000 kilometres per hour
Power source 4000 square metres of solar panels generating 20 kilowatts
Oxygen source Russian Elektron generator will make oxygen by splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen,
supplemented by solid-fuel oxygen generation (SFOG) cartridges as required; external oxygen tanks
will be fitted in later stages of construction
Heating More than enough is provided by on-board electronic equipment; excess heat is vented to outer space
Escape vehicle Soyuz capsule capable of transporting three people
Astronaut James Voss performs an experiment
in the Destiny laboratory aboard the ISS. Fig 7.3.7
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In space, astronauts need to be
Velcroed into their sleeping bags. Fig 7.3.9
Radiation
exposure
It is estimated that
astronauts aboard the
ISS receive additional
cosmic radiation
equivalent to about
three X-rays per day.
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Why live in space?
1 List two advantages of running experiments in space.
2 Name two materials that were first developed for space.
Early space stations
3 Complete the table below for the three space stations
shown.
Space
station
Country that
launched it
Launch
date
Launch
rocket
Problems
encountered in its life
Date of its
re-entry
Where it
crashed
Salyut 1
Skylab
Mir
International Space Station (ISS)
4 List the countries now involved in building the ISS.
5 At what height does the ISS orbit?
6 List the spacecraft that take equipment and astronauts
to and from the ISS.
7 Explain why weightlessness exists on the ISS despite
there being considerable gravity at that height.
8 List four research projects that can be performed
onboard the ISS that would be impossible to carry out
on Earth and the advantages that each may bring.
9 What provides the power for the ISS?
13 At the speed of 3000 km/h you would expect parts of
the ISS to break off. Suggest why they do not.
14 Beards are a good idea if you are a man on board the
ISS. Suggest why.
15 Where have you personally felt weightless or lighter than
normal?
16 Suggest why astronauts on the ISS have sponge baths
rather than baths or showers.
17 What would be the worst food to eat on the ISS?
18 EVAs are important in the construction phase of ISS.
Suggest why.
Fig 7.3.8 A space toilet
>>
10 Space is incredibly cold, so how does the ISS produce
more heat than it needs?
11 Why do astronauts lose muscle and bone mass?
Thinking questions
12 What evidence is there that there is gravity at the height
of the ISS?
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19 Space suits need to be replaced after twenty-five
spacewalks. Why?
20 Suggest why space suits operate at lower than normal
air pressure.
21 Astronauts often train underwater. Why?
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22 Suggest why Mir was deliberately shot down when it
was going to re-enter Earths atmosphere anyway.
Analysis question
23 Compare the length of the ISS with an athletics track.
Mission to Jupiter
We are into the seventh month of the journey to Jupiter and
there is a long way to go, but Im worried. Zugo hasnt been
himself for the last few weeks
What might have happened to Zugo? Continue the
above story. Be imaginative but be factual with your science.
You might consider the dangers involved due to launch, zero
gravity in deep space, high gravity near large planets, the
risk of collision with asteroids or space junk, being confined
with the same people for a prolonged time, cramped
and uncomfortable conditions, boredom and loneliness.
Whatever your story, include a law of physics or science and
explain what is done to help cope with it.
a short story
a set of cartoon strips
a short play or a script for one.
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out about the American National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) and their missions planned for the near future by
connecting to the Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website
Researching space stations
the space station Spacelab
the contributions of each of the countries involved in
construction of the ISS
qualifications and training that are required to be an
astronaut.
Present your findings as a single page of printed
information.
Designing
A space station
Design a space station to accommodate a small community.
Consider its purpose and its location. Also consider safety,
gravity, food, air, water, transport, entertainment and
employment.
Present your design as a model or a set of diagrams.
Imagining
Your space research submission
Write a submission to NASA outlining some space research
you wish astronauts on the ISS to conduct for you. Outline
the reasons for your area of research, and give details of
experiments you want carried out.
Present your submission in any form you think might win
support.
Fig 7.3.10
Could you survive a mission to another planet?
285
Current space travel is incredibly expensive, costing
about $50 000 to place just one kilogram into orbit.
Scientists are trying to develop new technology that
will hopefully reduce this phenomenal cost. Space
tourism will become a real possibility if they do.
Space tourism
Although unmanned spacecraft have travelled to Pluto
and beyond, and hundreds of men and women have
gone into orbit, less than twenty humans have gone as
far as the Moon.
Trips to the ISS
Only three people have ever been tourists in space;
they spent about a week each aboard the International
Space Station. Sixty-year-old American billionaire
Dennis Tito became the first, paying the Russian
space program $A26.5 million to do so. NASA
called him unpatriotic and was
concerned about protecting their
multibillion dollar investment.
Tito blasted off in April 2001
in a Soyuz rocket, accompanying
a regular resupply mission to
the ISS.
In April 2002, 28-year-old
South African millionaire
Mark Shuttleworth paid a
similar price for a similar
mission. American physicist
and millionaire Jeremy Olsen
travelled to the ISS in October
2005. All three had to undergo
six months of pre-flight
training.
Suborbital flights
About eight companies are actively exploring the
possibility of cheaper, specialised tourist flights to
space. Virgin Galactic is the most advanced. In 2005
it tested a three-person spaceplane (SpaceShipOne)
in suborbital flight. The first commercial suborbital
flight of a larger craft, SpaceShipTwo, is planned
for 2008 and Virgin hopes to
have launched 30 000 passengers
by 2015. Passengers will not
need to wear a bulky spacesuit
and will only undergo a couple
of days of training. Their craft
will be strapped underneath a
mothership aircraft. When 15 to
17 kilometres above Earth, the
spaceplane will disconnect and
rocket up to a maximum height of
110 kilometres. After six to seven
minutes of weightlessness, the
plane will then drop back into
the atmosphere. The spaceplanes
wings are designed to change their attitude depending
on what is needed of them. They will cause it to
flutter like a shuttlecock when it hits the atmosphere,
thus avoiding the intense heat of normal re-entry. At
about 17 kilometres from Earth, the wings rearrange
themselves once more so that the spaceplane can glide
into an airport landing.
Fly me to the Moon
All three tourist trips to
the ISS have been booked
through the US company
Space Adventures. In
August 2005, Space
Adventures (together with
the Russian company
that builds the Soyuz and
Progress rockets) began
to offer flights that would
orbit the Moon. For a
journey lasting twenty-one
days, you will have to pay
$133 million and wait at
least five years.
Although humans can travel to the Moon and
perhaps Mars, travel to the rest of the solar system
and to other stars is highly unlikely.
SpaceShipOne strapped underneath
its mothership White Knight Fig 7.4.1
Spaceport Australia
Launches are easier
when near the equator
because that is where
the Earths surface is
travelling the fastest. For
this reason, northern
Australia is being
suggested as a possible
tourist spaceport. Space
Adventures is looking
at establishing rival
spaceports in Singapore
and Dubai in the United
Arab Emirates.
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Fig 7.4.2 How SpaceShipTwo intends to take tourists for
a quick ride into suborbital space
Long-distance space travel
There are several major obstacles to long-distance
space travel.
Too far
Distances in space are phenomenal. The closest star,
after the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, 4.3 light years
away from Earth in the triple star cluster Alpha
Centauri. A light year is the distance that light travels
in one year and so it takes 4.3 years for light to reach
Earth from Proxima Centauri. Light travels at around
300 000 kilometres every second, making a light
year roughly equivalent to 9.5
trillion kilometres.
A perspective
on distances
Proxima Centauri is the
closest star outside the
solar system to Earth yet
it is roughly 100 million
times further away from us
than the Moon!
Object Type Distance (light years) Time light takes to reach Earth
Proxima Centauri star 4.3 4.3 years
Alpha Crucis star 230 230 years
Great Nebula nebula 1600 1600 years
Dorado large cloud of stars 170 000 170 000 years
Andromeda galaxy 2 million 2 million years
Sombrero galaxy 50 million 50 million years
Future space travel Future space travel
109.7km
99.97km
54.86km
30.5km
15.2km
0
Virgin Galactics maximum
planned sub orbital tour
Ansari Xprize sub
orbital height
Space entry
Highest manned
balloon flight
Concorde
Comemrcial
airliners
Virgin Galactic Tracker
Ascent
to space
Up to 15.2km Release
from Mothership and
launch to Mach 3.
30.5km Defeathers
into glider mode.
Back home to collect
your astronaut wings
54.86km Space entry
99.97km Ansari Xprize
sub orbital height.
109.7km Virgin Galactica's
maximum planned sub orbital tour.
54.86km re-entry.
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Too slow
At the speed of light, it would take a spacecraft
4.3 years to get to Proxima Centauri and 50 million
years to reach the Sombrero galaxy. Unfortunately,
current thinking is that nothing except light can travel
at that speed due to relativity: your mass increases to
infinity as you approach the speed of light, making it
more and difficult to reach it. Also, nothing can travel
faster than light, not even light.
Current technology limits spacecraft to less than
100 000 kilometres per hour or about 0.01 per cent of
the speed of light. The Voyager space probes (which
left our solar system in 2002) travelled at 60 000
kilometres per hour and would take 80 000 years to
reach Proxima Centauri, without the extra mass of
human occupants and their requirements. Perhaps
we need to find a way to put humans into suspended
animation and awake them when they arrive at their
destination.
Too little fuel
Current spacecraft must carry large amounts of fuel.
Ninety-five per cent of the space shuttles mass at
launch is fuel. Only 5 per cent is shuttle. The most
efficient rocket using the technology we have today
would need to carry fuel weighing more than all the
mass in the entire universe just to reach Proxima
Centauri. Perhaps we could find a way to use the stray
atoms and subatomic particles present in space as
fuel. They could be collected using a funnel-shaped
magnetic field.
New rocket technology
If humans are to travel deep into space then new
methods of propulsion will need to be developed.
Scientists have suggested some ideas.
Ion drives
Ion drive engines work in a similar manner to
conventional rockets, but emit a stream of faster
moving, positively charged xenon ions (an ion
is a charged atom). Unlike conventional exhaust
propulsion, ion engines emit a very small amount
of mass, and take a much longer time to accelerate a
craft. They are more efficient, however, and eventually
reach much greater speeds. NASA has been working
on prototypes of ion drive engines with a view to
using them on future missions.
Nuclear explosions
Car engines work using a series of controlled petrol,
diesel or gas explosions. Could a spacecraft do the
same, but with nuclear explosions? Project Orion and
Project Daedalus both imagine spacecraft powered
by blasting off nuclear explosions. Orion would need
three nuclear explosions every second, while Daedalus
would require an astonishing 250 every second! The
hot plasma produced would push against a giant plate
attached to the spacecraft and would theoretically be
able of producing speeds up to 10 to 12 per cent of the
speed of light.
Antimatter
Atoms of antimatter have a negative
nucleus surrounded by positive
electrons; the opposite charges to
normal matter. When antimatter and
matter combine, they destroy each
other and release huge amounts
of energy. If antimatter and matter
were stored in separate tanks, they
could provide energy for propulsion.
Some major problems must first
Mars missions
measly mass
Scientists have estimated
that one-millionth of a
gram of antimatter would
be enough to power a
mission to Mars.
Fig 7.4.3 An artists impression of a spacecraft powered
by antimatter.
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be overcome, however: first, less than a billionth of
a gram of antimatter has ever been produced, and
second, what would you store it in?
Laser and light drive
Light exerts pressure on anything it strikes, but the
effect is normally not noticeable because it is so
small and is overwhelmed by other factors such as
air resistance and friction. In space, however, lights
pressure may be more noticeable. Objects in near-
Earth orbit experience pressure from sunlight of
about 3.5 newtons per square kilometre. It is possible
that large solar sails could use it for propulsion.
American Robert Forward suggested aiming a
powerful laser mounted on an orbiting satellite at sails
on a spacecraft to accelerate it to one-fifth the speed
of light.
Change the rules
Historically, humans have been limited by what
they knew at the time and what they believed the
rules were that governed how the universe worked:
the Earth was flat; the elements were earth, air, fire
and water; the Sun revolved around the Earth. All
these theories were wrong and new ones took their
place. Maybe in time some of our current theories,
understandings and rules will change too. Below are
some possibilities. Although far-fetched, its worth
remembering that many things you take for granted
today (aircraft, TV, nuclear energy, silicon chips,
telephones, the Internet, satellites, CDs, DVDs and
iPods, for example) were once far-fetched too.
Warp engines
In the sci-fi series Star Trek, Captain Kirks Enterprise
starship was able to travel faster than light, powered
by fictional warp-drive engines.
This inspired Mexican physicist
Miguel Alcubierre to propose
that, rather than change the
speed of a spacecraft, we may
learn how to change or warp
the fabric of space and time by
expanding distances behind
a spacecraft, and shrinking
distances in front. Its a bit like
running on a rug. If you slip the
rug backwards then you get to
the other end quicker.
Fig 7.4.4 Light exerts pressure and could be used to
push a sail attached to a spacecraft.
A black hole
spacecraft
To warp space, a craft
would need to act like a
small black hole. It has
been calculated that a
spacecraft 50 metres in
diameter would need
a mass of about fifty
thousand Earths for it to
warp space sufficiently for
long-distance travel.
Fig 7.4.5 The fictional starship Enterprise about to
engage warp speed.
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Wormholes
American astrophysicists
Kip Thorne and Michael
Morris proposed in
1987 that there may be
wormholes in space. Their
idea is that wormholes
could be used as shortcuts
to reach places that would
be impossibly far by any
other routes. Although there
is absolutely no evidence
that wormholes exist, the
laws of physics do not rule
them out as a possibility.
Perhaps wormholes in space can be
found or created, and used to reach
distant stars almost instantly.
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Alpha
Centauri
Earth
4
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a
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s
wormhole
Fig 7.4.6
Worming between
black holes
Black holes have such a strong
gravitational pull that they
curve space enough to form a
point called a singularity. It is
suggested that a wormhole is
created when two singularities
join. To use a wormhole, space
travellers would therefore
need to enter a black hole,
which would probably crush
them into basic particles!
Even if the travellers survived,
their destination would be
completely unknown!
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Space tourism
1 a Which space-tourists have already visited the ISS?
b How much did each pay?
c How long did they stay aboard the ISS?
2 List the main stages in the expected flight of
SpaceShipTwo.
3 How does the re-entry of the Virgin Galactic
spacecraft differ from other spacecraft?
4 a What is the advantage of locating a spaceport
close to the equator?
b What three locations are being suggested as tourist
spaceports?
Long-distance space travel
5 Explain why even Proxima Centauri is too far for
realistic space travel.
6 What stops us from travelling as fast as light?
7 What is the maximum speed a spacecraft can reach
using conventional technology?
New rocket technology
8 What is the maximum speed that could be
theoretically reached using nuclear bombs?
9 What is the major problem with trying to store
antimatter in a tank?
10 How might spacecraft in the future resemble the ships
of old?
Change the rules
11 How is a warp drive a little like running on a rug?
Unlocking the mystery of gravity
Newton knew in the seventeenth century that
all masses attract all other masses. The effect is
only obvious, however, when at least one of the
objects is large (the Sun, the Earth or the Moon, for
example). Some scientists believe that
one day humans will learn to control
this gravitational force and revolutionise
transport.
>>
12 What might the potential dangers of using a wormhole
in space be?
Thinking questions
13 If a laser-drive spacecraft was powered by a laser
shot from Earth, what difficulties may arise as the craft
moves away from Earth?
14 The thrust of an ion engine is nowhere near enough to
lift a spacecraft through Earths atmosphere. Suggest
how an ion-engine spacecraft might be used.
15 Suggest how putting crew into suspended animation
would save energy on a long-distance space voyage.
Analysis questions
16 Estimate how much it would cost to place a person
into orbit around the Earth.
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17 Roughly how many lifetimes would it take to reach Alpha
Centauri travelling at the speed of the Voyager space
probe?
18 Calculate how long an atomic-bomb engine would take
to reach Proxima Centauri, 4.3 light years away?
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at work
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SCIENCE
Reviewing
Science-fiction movies
Watch one of the Star Trek movies, Mission to Mars or
Galaxy Quest and prepare a film review about it. In your
review you must:
accurate.
special effects or the astronomer advising the director
or The Movie Show
TV Week.
>>>
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about current space travel
and future directions by connecting to the
Designing
Travel time
Design an Excel spreadsheet that will calculate how
long it will take to reach the different planets of the
solar system and to reach the six objects in the table on
page 286 if travelling at the speed of light, 60 000 km/h or
100 000 km/h.
291
Fig 7.5.2
Could tourists visit space and stay in
a facility such as this one, designed
by NASA as a Moon base?
Chapter review
11 What are three major obstacles to long-distance space
travel?
12 How long would it take to reach Alpha Centauri
travelling at the speed of light?
[
Thinking questions
]
13 Space suits have several layers. Suggest why.
14 List several proposed new methods of propulsion, in
order from most likely to least likely in your opinion.
15 Would you become a space tourist if you had the
chance or would the dangers of the mission put you
off? Explain your choice.
[
Summary questions
]
so they become true:
a Tiny particles of exhaust push a rocket into space.
b Once started, liquid propellant engines cannot be
stopped.
c The Americans were the first to put a rocket into
space.
d Neil Armstrong was the first person to travel in space.
e The first space shuttle was named Enterprise.
2 Which of the following are satellites?
the Moon
the International Space Station
Mars
Halleys comet
3 Name two types of rocket used to place objects into
orbit.
4 Name and describe three types of orbit.
5 Describe four uses of satellites.
6 How many pieces of space junk are there in orbit around
the Earth?
7 List the launch date, name and country of origin for four
space stations.
8 What is Andy Thomass claim to fame?
9 Describe an area of research that may be conducted in
space.
10 Why is exercise important in space?
Homework book 7.4 Using space crossword
Fig 7.5.1
Astronaut Leroy Chiao exercises on a
treadmill equipped with bungee harnesses
on board the ISS.
8
Electromagnetism
electronics
<Fig 8.0.1 for opening page>
<SF4 p79 fig 3.3.10>
Standards:
and
Students:
understand how science is empirical and non-empirical,
creative and methodical, and speculative and logical
investigate how energy may be responsible for
the changes observed in physical processes
and applications, such as electromagnetism, the
polarisation of light and the operation of electronic
systems
communication satellites
learn that scientific theories are both powerful and
never final
conduct scientific investigations of their choice
use correct units of measurement when recording
quantities
prepare investigation reports, using symbols and
diagrams extensively
develop an understanding of the constancy of the
big ideas of science.
Students:
explain change in terms of energy in a range of
physical contexts.
1 What is the difference between AC and DC?
2 What do AM and FM stand for on a radio dial?
3 How can light travel through the vacuum of space when
sound cannot?
4 What is the voltage and frequency of the AC electricity
that comes from the powerpoints in homes?
5 How do mobile phones find each other?
6 Is there any difference between electricity and
electronics?
7 Are microchips really just small French fries?
8 How has the invention of the transistor changed
our lives?
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Learning focus
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UNIT
UNIT
You use electricity everyday in many different
ways. Although less common, you will also have
used magnets. They are the basis of all compasses
and are used to hold notes on the fridge and to
keep cupboard doors shut. There is an important
connection between electricity and magnets:
electricity can make magnetic fields and magnetic
fields can make electricity! This connection is
responsible for most of the appliances you use
everything from speakers to televisions, and trains
to vending machines.
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An electric current causes a
magnetic field
In 1820, Danish physics professor Hans Oersted was
carrying out experiments with electric circuits when
he noticed that the needle of a compass on his desk
was deflected whenever an electric current flowed
nearby. Oersted was able to move a compass needle
without touching it, as if by magic.
The compass was doing what compasses do
it was reacting to a magnetic field. In this case,
the magnetic field was produced by the electric
current. Oersted had discovered that electricity could
cause magnetism. It was discovered that the reverse
is also true: magnetism can cause also electricity.
This connection between these two quite different
phenomena is known as electromagnetism.
The magnetic field produced around a straight
current-carrying wire is circular. If the wire is looped,
several circular magnetic fields combine to produce
a stronger field down the centre of the loop. If a wire
is coiled so that several loops are placed
together, the magnetic field is stronger again
and you have what is called a solenoid. An
electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core
that further concentrates the field down
its centre.
current
card iron filings
current
field
compasses
Fig 8.1.1 The magnetic field around a straight, current-
carrying wire. The right-hand grip rule may
be used to determine the direction of the field,
which is the way a small compass needle would
point. Current here, and in Figure 8.1.2 is the
flow of positive charges.
The magnetic fields from several loops
are combined and concentrated in an
electromagnet.
fingers indicate
current direction

N
S
N S
thumb points
to N pole
iron core
N

S

a
b
c

Fig 8.1.2
Prac 1
p. 301
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Using electromagnets
Unlike permanent magnets, electromagnets can be
switched on and off. This makes them very useful.
Electromagnets are an essential part of many of the
electrical devices you use every day. Many electro-
magnets are very small and often not noticed. They are,
however, the reason why you can listen to your iPod or
speak on your mobile phone. Other electromagnets are
huge and only have industrial applications.
traditional musical instruments do not need speakers,
electric guitars and electric keyboards do. So do your
phone and the answering machine.
A speaker receives varying electrical current
that flows through a coil, causing it to become an
electromagnet. The speaker also contains a permanent
magnet that interacts with the electromagnet. The two
magnets attract when the current fed into the speaker
flows one way and repel when the current flows the
other way, producing vibrations in the cone. These
vibrations cause particles in the air to vibrate, creating
sound waves that you will eventually hear.
How a speaker operates
coil
permanent magnet
cone
Fig 8.1.5
An electric bell
switch
electromagnet
spring
contacts
electromagnet
attracts striker
bell
circuit
breaks
Fig 8.1.6
Fig 8.1.3 The ability to switch magnetism on and off is
extremely useful in industry.
switch

door latch

spring attached
(1) to latch
(2) to recess

electromagnet
door recess
door frame
Fig 8.1.4 An electromagnetically operated door latch. When
a current flows in the coils, the resulting magnetic
field attracts the latch out of the door recess.
Bells and chimes
When the switch on a doorbell is pressed, the
electromagnet attracts the striker, causing it to sound
the bell and simultaneously break the circuit by
moving the contacts apart. With the contacts apart,
current no longer flows and the electromagnet is
turned off. This allows the striker to return to its rest
position where the contacts touch once more, causing
current to flow again, and the cycle repeats, resulting
in the familiar doorbell sound.
Speakers
Most of the music you hear, whether it is on the
radio, TV, on a CD or on your iPod, you hear through
speakers or headphones (tiny speakers). Although
Electromagnetism Electromagnetism
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Maglev trains
The experimental maglev
(magnetic levitation) train uses
superconducting electromagnets to
lift it 10 centimetres above the track,
position it correctly and propel it
at speeds of over 500 kilometres an
hour. Such high speeds are possible
because of the trains streamlined
shape and the lack of friction
between the train and track.
The small disc magnet generates currents in the
ceramic superconductor below it, causing the
superconductor to produce its own magnetic
field and repel the disc.
Fig 8.1.8
Relays
The starter motor in a car contains a relay. A relay
allows a small current within a thin wire to control a
much larger current within a larger cable. This reduces
the cost of connecting wires and increases its safety.
Relays are also found in much industrial machinery.
A magnetic field causes an
electric current
In 1831, the English scientist Michael Faraday
demonstrated that an electrical current was produced
whenever a magnet and a coil of wire moved relative
to each other. If the magnet stopped then so did the
current. If the magnet changed direction, then so
did the current. By continually moving the magnet
in and out of the coil, he produced a continuous but
alternating current (AC). Faraday had found that
he could generate an electrical current simply by
changing the magnetic field inside a coil. He had
created a simple generator.
A relay in a car starter motor
battery
heavy duty cable
light duty cable
coil
contacts
ignition switch
turning ignition
key activates
electromagnet,
which attracts
contacts and
closes the starter
motor circuit
starter motor
Fig 8.1.7
A maglev train on trial in Germany.
Other maglev trains are being tested in Japan. Fig 8.1.9
Fig 8.1.10 A maglev train floats due to the repulsion
between electromagnets, providing a
frictionless track.
Superconductors
When metals like tin and
lead are cooled to 270C
they lose all electrical
resistance and allow large
currents to flow with
little loss of energy. But
there is a problemit
costs a lot to cool metals
this far. A more recent
development is the use
of high-temperature
superconductors made
of ceramic material such
as yttrium barium copper
oxide. Ceramics like
this need to be cooled
to only 200C, a huge
saving compared to
previous superconductors.
Applications of
high-temperature
superconductors include
maglev trains and
devices that can detect
tiny magnetic fields such
as those produced by
the brain.
Homework book 8.1 Inside MLX101
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Applications of generators
Apart from battery-powered devices, most of the
electricity you use is AC that comes from electrical
generators of some sort. Generators can be small
enough to fit on your bike or can be huge, feeding
the power grid of a city. Microphones and vending
machines also use the principle of generators to carry
out their task.
Dynamos
Bikes often have small AC
electrical generators called
dynamos attached to their
wheel rim. A rotating magnet
inside the dynamo produces
alternating current similar to
that produced by moving a
magnet in and out of the coil
in Faradays experiment.
Turbines
Dynamos do not generate sufficient electrical power
for the needs of a city, so massive turbines are spun by
water or steam. They are attached to magnets that then
spin inside a coil to generate AC electricity.
V
V
magnet and coil
move closer together
S
S
N
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moving wire
induced current
Fig 8.1.11 The relative motion of a
magnetic field and a coil
produces a current.
Prac 2
p. 302
Fig 8.1.12 A dynamo provides electrical
power to a bike.
Compare the size of the person in this
photo with the steam-driven turbine
used to generate electricity.
Fig 8.1.13
coil
diaphragm
magnet
Fig 8.1.14 A moving-coil microphone is really an
electrical generator.
Microphones
A moving-coil microphone contains a diaphragm that
vibrates a coil in response to sound waves, generating
a current that varies with the strength and frequency
of the vibrations. This current can be fed into an
amplifier and converted into a louder sound by
attaching speakers.
Vending machines
Not only coils have currents induced in them by
magnetic fields. A solid coin passing through an
electromagnet in a vending machine has swirling
currents created within it. These currents in turn
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create magnetic fields and
interact with the electromagnet
to slow the coin down. Coins
that are not the correct weight
or are made from a non-metal
are not slowed down the right
amount and are rejected.
Transformers
Sometimes the voltage provided
is either too much or too small
for its intended use. Mobile
phones, for example, need
only 5.7 volts to recharge. The
240 volts available from the
powerpoint would damage
them if used directly. At the
other end of the scale, the best voltage for efficient
long-distance transmission of electricity is between
220 000 and 500 000 V, but electricity is generated at
much lower voltage. Transformers use solenoids and
the magnetic fields they produce to either boost (step-
up) voltage or reduce (step-down) voltage to the value
required.
An alternating current is fed into one side of the
transformer. This produces an alternating magnetic
field which is then channelled to the other side of
the transformer by an iron core. Here, the alternating
magnetic field is like a magnet moving in and out of
the secondary coils, and so a new current and voltage
is produced.
In a step-up transformer, the voltage is boosted.
This type of transformer has more secondary
coils than primary ones. A step-down transformer
reduces voltage by having fewer secondary coils than
primary ones.
Vending machines are a type of generator.
E PLURIBUS UNUM
FIVE CENTS
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Coins of the
wrong metal
slow down
and fall into
the reject
chute.
Non-metallic
objects are not
slowed down, hit
the upper plate
and fall into the
reject chute.
Coins of correct metal slow just
enough to pass over the reject chute
into the vending machine.
upper plate
Fig 8.1.15
Traffic light magic
How do traffic lights
know there is a car
waiting? Pads under the
road have a coil in them
that carries a current. The
electromagnetic field it
produces induces a current
in the car, which in turn
interferes with the current
in the road. When this
interference is detected,
the lights know that they
should change to let the
car through.
iron core
primary coil
input voltage
output
voltage
secondary
coil
Fig 8.1.16 A transformer
Power transmission
Most power stations use steam to
spin their turbines. Water is boiled
by burning coal or gas or by using
the heat from nuclear fuel. Water
can also be used directly to spin
hydroelectric turbines and wind
can be used to spin wind turbines.
The electrical power produced
is then transmitted through an
extensive network of overhead and
underground power lines.
Power is lost whenever
electricity passes through a
wire. This is a major problem
given the distances around the
country that electricity must be
transmitted. Because high-voltage
transmission is most efficient,
a step-up transformer is placed
close to the power station. These
boosted voltages would be far too
dangerous, however, if fed directly
into your suburb or home and so
a series of step-down transformers
are used to reduce the voltage to
the final (but still deadly) 240 V
you use everyday.
A bright idea
American Thomas Edison
invented much of the
apparatus that allowed
people to use electricity:
he invented light sockets,
switches, transmission
lines, fuses, circuit breakers
and even power stations. In
1882, his first power station
generated enough electrical
power to sustain eighty-five
subscribers and their 400
light bulbs in New York
City. Contrary to popular
belief, he did not invent the
light bulb. A light bulb is
really just a high-resistance
tungsten wire suspended in
a vacuum in a sealed glass
bulb. If it were not sealed,
it would quickly burn in the
oxygen of the air and break.
Vacuum light bulbs were
first produced by Henry
Woodward and Matthew
Evans in 1875, followed
soon after by Hiram Maxim
(1878) and later Joseph
Wilson Swan (1878). It
wasnt until 1879 that
Edison released
his bulb.
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Force on a current in a
magnetic field
An electric current produces a magnetic field and
a magnetic field may produce an electric current. If
you start with both an electric current and a magnetic
field, then it is possible to produce a force on the wire
carrying the electric current.
This effect is most noticeable when the direction of
the electric current is at 90 degrees or perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic field. It is the
principle behind the electric motor, which
converts electrical energy into movement.
that can be shifted around by a magnetic field. On the
screen are spots or rectangles called pixels, coloured
red, green or blue, which illuminate when struck by
an electron. Electromagnets control which pixels on
the screen are illuminated.
Red, green and blue pixels on a TV screen Fig 8.1.19
The electron beams in a TV are not
coloured but are shown here coloured to
indicate that there is one beam for each
colour pixel in a section of screen.
beam of electrons
electron beam sweeps
across screen
shadow mask keeps
electron beam aligned
electromagnet for
deflecting electron beams
Fig 8.1.20
How power reaches your home from the power station
power station
16.5 kV
step-up
transformer
step-down
transformer
step-down
transformer/sub-station
step-down
transformer
transmission lines
220 kV500 kV
consumer 66 kV 11 kV
underground cable to home
(or overhead lines)
240 V
Fig 8.1.17
The right-hand slap rule. The force on
a current is outwards from the palm
when the fingers are pointing in the direction of
the magnetic field and the thumb is pointing in
the direction of the current. The current here is
the direction of flow of positive charges.
field
current
push or
force
(out of palm)
right hand
Fig 8.1.18
Prac 3
p. 302
TV and computer monitors
The bulging tube at the back of a television or
computer monitor is really a gun, shooting electrons
at the back of the screen. Although not trapped in a
wire, these electrons still make up an electric current
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Inside an electric motor
magnet
coil
armature
brush
commutator
shaft
Fig 8.1.22
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
An electric current causes a
magnetic field
1 In what year did Oersted discover that a current
produced a magnetic field?
2 Sketch the shape of the magnetic field around a
straight wire.
3 Explain how a solenoid and an electromagnet differ.
4 Identify the key advantage an electromagnet has over
a conventional magnet.
Using electromagnets
5 a List three devices that use an electromagnet.
b In each of your examples, identify the purpose of
the electromagnet.
6 List the steps in converting an electrical signal from a
CD into music that you hear from a speaker.
A magnetic field causes an electric current
7 In which of the following situations would an electric
current be generated?
a A magnet enters a wire coil.
b A magnet sits still inside a wire coil.
c A magnet is removed from a wire coil.
d A wire coil moves towards a magnet.
e A wire coil moves away from a magnet.
>>
Electric motors
An electric motor uses the interaction of an electric
current and a magnetic field to convert electrical
energy into movement or kinetic energy. This produces
a spinning or rotary movement. Motors are in most
devices that have moving parts, such as
CD and DVD players, hair dryers, slot cars,
windscreen wipers, washing machines and
electric toothbrushes.
Prac 4
p. 303
How an electric motor works
+ +
+ +
magnetic field
coil
brush
commutator
permanent
magnet
(north pole)
battery
A Current flows through
the coil, and the field of
the permanent magnet forces
the right side of the coil down
and the left side up, in accordance
with the right-hand slap rule.
B The coil continues turning towards
the vertical, and its inertia carries it beyond
this position.
C On passing the vertical, the
commutator reverses the
connections and hence reverses
the current in the coil. The forces
on the coil reverse and keep it
moving clockwise.
D The coil continues
spinning and its
inertia carries it past
the vertical position again.
The reversal of current each
half turn causes the coil to
spin continuously.
Fig 8.1.21
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Applications of generators
8 What is a:
a dynamo b turbine?
9 List in order what happens when you speak into a
microphone.
10 How does a soft drink machine know when an
incorrect coin has been inserted?
Transformers
11 Identify the two main differences between a step-up and
a step-down transformer.
12 Identify whether a step-up or a step-down transformer
would be needed:
a for a laptop computer
b near a power station for long-distance transmission
c at a substation on the outskirts of a town
d to recharge a mobile phone.
13 Classify the transformer shown in Figure 8.1.16 as a
step-up or step-down transformer.
Power transmission
14 List four different fuels that can provide the heat to
provide the steam for turbines.
15 By what other means can turbines be spun to generate
electrical power?
16 Explain why power companies do not transmit all the
power produced at 240 volts.
17 What range of voltages is most efficient for long-
distance transmission?
18 List the main stages in electricity transmission in order
from its production to your home.
Force on a current in a magnetic field
19 a On a TV, what colours and shapes are the pixels?
b What causes pixels to become illuminated?
c How does a TV control which pixels are illuminated?
S N
switch
Fig 8.1.23
20 What type of energy conversion occurs in an electric
motor?
21 List ten devices that contain an electric motor.
Thinking questions
22 Suggest why high-voltage power lines are always kept
well above the ground by tall pylons.
23 Why do electric motors contain so many windings of
copper wire?
24 What would happen if the commutator in an electric
motor was not split into two parts?
Analysis questions
25 The input voltage of the transformer shown in
Figure 8.1.16 was 240 V. Suggest its output voltage.
26 In which direction is the force on the wire in
Figure 8.1.23?
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Find out more about electromagnets and their
use in the maglev train by connecting to the
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SCIENCE
Researching electromagnetism
Internet, etc.) to:
find out how electromagnetism is used to record and
erase magnetic audiotapes
find out about some of the discoveries made by Joseph
Henry (17971878) in the area of electromagnetism
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toys are ideal. Take off the outer cover and carefully draw
a labelled diagram showing the internal parts of the motor.
Compare your diagram and the parts you identify with
Figure 8.1.21.
Ammeters and voltmeters
Carefully study the inner workings of an ammeter or
voltmeter from the science laboratory. Your teacher
may allow you to dismantle the ammeter or voltmeter
if it is already broken. Investigate how the meter uses
electromagnetism to take its measurement.
at work SCIENCE
>>
research some of the possible electromagnetic dangers
posed by living near high-voltage power lines
find how Flemings left-hand rule gives the direction of
the force on a current in a magnetic field.
Present your work as a series of labelled diagrams.
Investigating
The electric motor
Collect a small electric motor that can be thrown out after
the investigation. Motors from hairdryers, slot-car racers or
[
Practical activity
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Oersteds experiment and the electromagnet
Prac 1
Unit 8.1
5 Now wind the wire around the cardboard tube as
shown in Figure 8.1.25. Use tape to secure the
windings to the tube.
You will need
Power supply, switch, insulated copper wire
(1 m), tape, switch, small compass, cardboard
tube, large iron nail
VOLTS
power pack
0
2V
compass
switch
1 m section of
connecting wire
+
Fig 8.1.24
What to do
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.1.24.
Ensure the power supply is set to 2 V.
2 Hold the switch down and note any effect on the
compass needle.
3 Investigate the effect of moving the compass further
away from the wire.
4 What happens if the voltage is turned down (and the
current reduces)?
VOLTS
0
2V
power pack
compass just
inside tube
switch
+
tape tape
Fig 8.1.25
6 Compare the strength of the magnetic field inside the
tube with that produced in step 2.
7 Now wind the wire around the nail instead of the
cardboard tube. Use tape to secure the coils.
8 Hold the pointed end near the compass while holding
the switch down.
9 Hold the head of the nail near the compass while
holding the switch down.
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3 Do several coils cancel each others magnetic fields
or reinforce them?
4 Is an electromagnet stronger or weaker with an iron
core?
5 How does the magnetic field differ at each end of
the nail?
Questions
1 What happens to the strength of the magnetic field as
you move further from the wire?
2 Does a larger current produce a stronger or weaker
magnetic field?
A simple generator
Prac 2
Unit 8.1
3 What effect did the speed of the magnet have?
4 What difference is there when the magnet is withdrawn
compared to when it enters the solenoid?
5 Does changing the pole (north or south) that
approaches the solenoid have an effect?
6 What effect do you think a stronger magnet would
have?
You will need
A solenoid, a bar magnet, connecting wires,
galvanometer or microammeter
What to do
1 Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 8.1.26.
Note: A galvanometer is like a very sensitive ammeter,
and detects small currents. In each step below, observe
the reading on the galvanometer as you carry out
the step.
2 Move the north end of the magnet into the solenoid.
3 Leave the magnet resting in the end of the solenoid for
several seconds.
4 Now withdraw the magnet from the solenoid.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4, but move the magnet more quickly.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5, but move the south end of the
magnet into the solenoid.
Questions
1 Why wasnt a globe used to detect current?
2 Does a magnet in a solenoid always produce a current?
Explain.
solenoid
G
galvanometer
N S
Fig 8.1.26
Force on a wire
Prac 3
Unit 8.1
3 Hold the horseshoe magnet as shown and quickly
close then open the switch. Note: the powerpack might
trip and you will need to wait until it resets before
attempting the rest of the prac.
4 Note in which direction (if any) the strip of aluminium
foil flexes.
5 Reverse the terminals on the power pack and repeat.
6 Reverse the orientation of the magnet (swap poles)
and repeat.
You will need
Small sheet of cardboard, scissors, sticky tape,
aluminium foil, retort stand, bosshead and
clamps, wires with alligator clips, switch, power
pack with circuit breaker or auto cutoff, horseshoe
magnet
What to do
1 Cut a picture frame out of the cardboard and stick a
single thin strip of aluminium foil across it.
2 Construct the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.1.27 and
set the powerpack at its lowest voltage.
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switch
VOLTS
AC
DC
retort
stand
power pack
N S
aluminium
foil
cardboard
picture frame
horseshoe
magnet
Fig 8.1.27
Questions
1 Copy the right-hand rule diagram in
Figure 8.1.18.
2 Use the right-hand rule to check on the
directions that the aluminium foil flexed
in each part of the experiment.
3 Write a conclusion for the experiment.
A simple electric motor
Prac 4
Unit 8.1
You will need
1.5 volt battery (D size), Blu-Tack, two rubber
bands, two paperclips, 1.5 metres of enamelled
copper wire, a small but strong disc magnet or a
bar magnet, emery paper, pliers (optional)
What to do
1 Wind the enamelled copper wire around the battery to
make a solenoid.
2 Remove the wire from the battery and straighten 5 cm
or so at each end.
3 Wind a centimetre or two of the ends around the loops
of wire to keep them together.
4 Now, using emery paper, scrape the underside of each
straight end to expose the copper (see magnified view
of straight ends in Figure 8.1.28).
5 Use fingers or pliers to shape the two paperclips as
shown in the diagram.
6 Use the rubber bands to attach the paperclips to the
battery.
7 Place the magnet so it sticks to the top of the
battery. Alternatively, hold a bar magnet near the coil
(see Figure 8.1.28).
8 Stabilise the battery using Blu-Tack.
9 Add the loops to complete the motor and check that
measurements and positioning match the diagram in
Figure 8.1.28.
View from above
coil
magnet
Ensure part of coil is
directly above magnet
enamelled
copper wire
less than
1 cm
less than
1 cm when
coil is
vertical
paperclip
strong magnet
rubber band
battery
(1.5 volts)
enamelled/insulated copper wire
exposed copper
Blu-Tack
Fig 8.1.28
10 Give the loops a nudge (you may need to try spinning
the coil both ways) to start the motor. You may need to
experiment with the position of the magnet.
Questions
1 Why are several loops better than a single one?
2 What would happen if the entire wire (loops included)
was not insulated?
3 How does scraping half the coating from the straight
ends of the wire help? Suggest what might happen if
you didnt do this.
4 Explain the main requirements for an electric motor.
5 Suggest possible improvements to your model motor.
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UNIT
UNIT
Visible light is only one section of a wide variety
of waves known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
While visible light allows us to see, other invisible
forms, such as X-rays, give us the ability to see
into the body without invasive surgery. Other
invisible forms give us the radiant heat of sunlight
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One of the special
characteristics of waves is their
ability to transfer energy from
one place to another without any
particles actually moving along
the full route. When a transverse
wave travels from A to B, for
example, the actual particles
merely vibrate up and down. In
a longitudinal wave, the particles
vibrate back and forth. Think
of a surfer on a board or a boat
floating in the ocean. Rather than moving
along with waves, both simply bob up and down on
the spot. If the coils of a slinky or the particles of
water did move the full distance from A to B, they
would all end up at B, leaving nothing at A. If this
happened, water waves would
soon drain the entire ocean onto
the shoresthis clearly does not
happen.
Properties of waves
Imagine you are shaking a slinky back and forwards
to generate transverse waves at a steady rate. This rate
has another name: frequency. If you are producing
two waves every second, then the wave frequency
is two waves per second or 2 hertz (2 Hz). The unit
hertz is used to describe anything that has regular
repetitive behaviour. It means per second. For
example, a wheel that rotates ten times per second has
a frequency of 10 hertz. Likewise, a sound wave that
hits your eardrum with 200 compressions per second
has a frequency of 200 hertz.
Two kinds of waves
There are several different types of waves, but the
main two are transverse and longitudinal (sometimes
known as compression) waves. Water waves are
examples of transverse waves, while sound waves
are examples of longitudinal waves.
and the basis of most communication from radio
to TV to mobile phones. Its fairly easy to visualise
ocean waves or ripples caused by a stone dropped in
a pond, or even those generated in a slinky, but its a
little harder to imagine the waves that make up light
and the electromagnetic spectrum.
wave direction Longitudinal wave
wave direction Transverse wave
compression rarefaction
particle
movement
particle
movement
A
A
B
B
Fig 8.2.1 What happens when a transverse
and a longitudinal wave passes
down a slinky?
Jam session beneath the sea
Beneath the sea seems to be a very quiet place to us humans but this
is only because our ears are full of water. Divers get some idea of how
noisy it really is, however, because they often hear constant cracking, like
the sound of bacon cooking. It is actually the sound of shrimp cracking
their claws and forming a small bubble, which then pops. Scientists
from Curtin University of WA have recorded thousands of underwater
sounds. Shrimp, fish and sea urchins form loud choruses, their sounds
ranging from similar to an electric guitar to a chainsaw to monkeys
squawking to lightning storms to a lions growl. Its all so noisy because
sound travels further in water than it does in air. Sound cannot travel
through a vacuum.
Prac 2
p. 312
Prac 1
p. 311
Breaking waves
When an ocean wave
reaches shallower water,
friction from the sea bed
slows the bottom of the
wave more than the top,
with the result that the top
may break away, allowing
some particles of water
(possibly carrying a surfer)
to move with the remains
of the wave.
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The distance between successive crests (or
successive troughs) in a series of transverse waves is
called the wavelength. The height of crests above their
normal middle position is called the amplitude of the
wave. In a longitudinal wave, the wavelength is the
distance between compressions (or rarefactions), and
the amplitude is the distance that particles vibrate
from their normal, middle position.
Amplitude and wavelength for transverse
and longitudinal waves
wavelength
wavelength
wavelength
wavelength
wavelength
Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave
particles
middle
position
middle
position
amplitude
maximum
movement
amplitude
Fig 8.2.2
Light waves
When sound or light travels
from A to B, energy is
transferred but no particles
actually move from A to B.
This observation suggests
sound and light behave
like waves in water and
slinkies. Sound waves
are longitudinal waves
requiring particles to pass
vibrations from one layer
to the next. Sound can
therefore travel through
gases, liquids and solids
but not through a vacuum
where there are no
particles. Light, however,
can travel through space,
so how can it be a wave?
There also seems to be
The invention of
non-existent aether
Until about 1900, scientists
were incredibly confused
about light and how it
travelled through the vacuum
of space. They believed that
all waves needed a material
to travel through and so
they invented an imaginary
material called luminiferous
aether to fill space. Although
there was absolutely no
evidence for aether, most
scientists were convinced it
existed that is until the
Scottish physicist James
Clerk Maxwell developed
his idea of light as an
electromagnetic wave which
could travel through
a vacuum.
nothing vibrating back and forth when you shine a
torch, although you can see where its beam strikes
an object.
How light waves travel
A magnetic field can cause an electric current and an
electric current can cause a magnetic field. A mass
will only fall if there is a gravitational field; likewise,
an electric current will only flow when there is an
electric field. Although magnetic fields and electric
fields are invisible, they can be detected by the effects
they have on their surroundings. For example, the
electric field around a Van de Graaf generator can
make your hair stand on end and the magnetic field
of a magnet can move iron filings around.
Light can be understood as a series of changing
magnetic and electric fields: a changing magnetic
field causes a changing electric field, which causes
another magnetic field, which causes another electric
field and so on and so on. These changing fields
form the basis of an electromagnetic wave that has
the ability to travel through a vacuum at light speed
(300 000 kilometres per second).
magnetic field
electric field
Fig 8.2.3 The magnetic and electric fields of light waves
are perpendicular to each other.
Visible light
The light that you can see is the visible spectrum
and includes red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo
and violet (sometimes abbreviated to the acronym
ROYGBIV). Whatever its colour, the wavelength
of light is extremely small, being less than one
thousandth of a millimetre. Each colour has a different
wavelength. Special cells called cones in the retinas of
your eyes respond to different ranges of wavelengths,
and determine the colour you see. The white light that
comes from the Sun and light bulbs is a mixture of
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all the colours of the visible spectrum. It consists of
mixed waves of different wavelengths and frequencies
all travelling at the same speed.
Visible light is released from atoms when excited
electrons drop to a lower energy level.
Electromagnetic spectrum
The visible spectrum is only a small part of the group
of electromagnetic waves. In order of smallest to
largest wavelength, electromagnetic waves include
gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light,
infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves. These
waves make up the electromagnetic spectrum.
Although you cannot see these other types of waves,
they can be detected and are used in a
variety of applications.
400 500 600 7400
Wavelength (nanometres)
S
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y

o
f

t
h
e

e
y
e
1 nanometre =
1 000 000 000
of a metre
1
Fig 8.2.4 The human eye is more sensitive to some
colours than to others.
The electromagnetic spectrum. All these
waves travel at the same speed, 300 000
kilometres per second.
gamma rays X-rays ultraviolet rays visible light infrared rays radio waves microwaves
10
20
10
19
10
18
10
17
10
16
10
15
10
14
10
13
10
12
10
11
10
12
10
11
10
10
10
9
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
5
10
10
10
9
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
short-wave
radio
long-wave
radio
Frequency in hertz (Hz)
1 gigahertz
(GHz)
1 megahertz
(MHz)
AM radio
FM radio
Wavelength in metres (m)
1 pico-
metre (pm)
1 nano-
metre (nm)
1 millimetre
(mm)
1 metre
(m)
1 kilometre
(km)
1 micro-
metre (m)
Fig 8.2.5
Gamma rays
Gamma rays are extremely high-energy electromagnetic
waves that have very short wavelengths and very
high frequencies. They are released in bursts from the
nucleus of radioactive atoms such as uranium and
plutoniumhence they are a form of nuclear energy.
Gamma rays can be detected using photographic
film or a Geiger counter and are used in radiotherapy
to destroy cancer cells, which are more sensitive to
radiation than normal, healthy cells. Some normal cells
are killed as well, however, resulting in unpleasant side
effects such as queasiness, fatigue and loss of hair.
Fig 8.2.6 Gamma rays are used to produce scans like this
one of a human head. A radioactive isotope is
injected into the blood vessels supplying the region,
and tends to concentrate in tumours and cancerous
bone. Variations in emitted gamma ray intensity
result in different areas showing up in the image.
Waves Waves
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electric field vibrating
in one direction
electric field vibrating
in several directions
Fig 8.2.9 Polarisation
X-rays
X-rays are electromagnetic waves
that have a range of wavelengths.
X-rays of short wavelengths can
penetrate dense metals such as
lead. X-rays of long wavelengths
penetrate flesh but not bone
and can be used to create an
image of the inside of the body.
The term X-ray is also used to
refer to the actual photograph
produced.
X-rays are produced when
fast-moving electrons lose
energy suddenly, such as when
they smash into a metal target.
An X-ray machine
electron gun electron beam target
X-rays
Fig 8.2.7
Fig 8.2.8 X-rays can penetrate skin.
A handy discovery
In 1895, Wilhelm Konrad
Roentgen was passing
electrons through a gas in
a device called a discharge
tube when he noticed
that a card coated with a
barium salt nearby began
to glow. He noticed the
card even glowed when
he placed objects between
it and the tube. When he
placed his hand in the way
he was amazed to see a
shadow of his hand bones
on the card. Roentgen had
discovered X-rays.
Ultraviolet radiation
Whenever the Sun shines on you, warmth, visible
light and invisible ultraviolet or UV radiation
are delivered to your skin. A small amount of UV
radiation is vital as it helps produce vitamin D. Too
much UV radiation, however, damages the skin
in the form of a suntan, sunburn or skin cancers.
Some washing powders contain
special chemicals which absorb
ultraviolet light and then re-
emit it as visible light to give the
impression of whiter than white
clothes. UV light can be used to kill
bacteria; it is used for this purpose
in airconditioning systems and
hairdressing salons.
Polarisation
Sunlight consists of waves
in all sorts of orientations.
Polarising materials
allow only waves whose
electric fields vibrate
in a certain direction
to pass. All other waves
are absorbed. This reduces
the glare dramatically,
and makes them very
useful in sunglasses and
in camera filters.
Prac 3
p. 312
Infrared radiation
Infrared (or IR) radiation has a frequency below
that of red light. It is often associated with heat and
is released from vibrating atoms or molecules. All
objects contain vibrating atoms and molecules, so all
objects emit infrared radiation. The
hotter the object, the more vibration,
and so the more energy released as
infrared radiation. When high-energy
waves are emitted, they become
visible as red lighthence the
expression red hot.
Remote control devices emit
infrared waves that are detected
by special components within
televisions and sound systems. They
are then converted into electrical
energy to control functions such as
volume and channels.
Remote
The first remote control
was developed in 1956 by
Austrian physicist Robert
Adler while working in
the USA. It used high
frequency sound waves
to control a specially
designed TV. Eventually
sound waves were replaced
by infrared radiation.
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Radio waves
Vibrating (or oscillating) electrons also generate radio
waves that can be used to transmit radio and TV.
Radio waves have a range of wavelengths.
Long radio waves have wavelengths that can
reach hundreds of metres. They are useful for
communicating around the Earth as they bend to
follow the Earths surface. Bending around objects
is called diffraction.
Short waves have wavelengths that might be as
short as tens of centimetres. Short radio waves can
also travel around the Earth, but by reflecting from
the ionosphere.
An infra-red image of a person: the warmer the
colour, the warmer that part of the body
Fig 8.2.10
Microwaves
Microwaves typically have a wavelength of a few
centimetres and are sometimes called shortwave
radio waves. They are easy to direct, can pass through
the Earths ionosphere and are used in satellite
communication, radar and mobile phones. In a
microwave oven, the water molecules in food vibrate
at the same frequency as the microwaves. The food
absorbs them, converting their energy into heat energy,
cooking the food in the process. Microwaves are
generated by vibrating electrons in electrical devices.
The behaviour of different types of radio waves
space satellite
ionosphere
reflects
medium
radio waves
long radio
waves
diffract round
the Earth
short radio waves
(microwaves)
pass through
the ionosphere
microwaves
used for
line-of-sight
links
Fig 8.2.12
AM and FM
Electromagnetic waves such as radio waves can
be made to carry information (sound or vision, for
example). This information must first be converted
into a wave in a process called modulation. Radio
stations and TV stations, for example, can broadcast
using:
amplitude modulation (AM), a process in
which information is carried as changes in wave
amplitude
frequency modulation (FM), a process in which
information is carried as changes in wave
frequency.
Receivers detect these changes and convert them back
to sound or vision or some other form.
Radio stations transmit sound using both AM and
FM, while television stations transmit sound using FM
and vision using AM. Australias national broadcaster,
Marconi
Italian engineer
Guglielmo Marconi is
generally credited with
inventing radio. In 1895
he transmitted a signal
2.4 kilometres in the
grounds of his fathers
property. He patented the
first wireless telegraphy
system in 1896.
Fig 8.2.11 This microwave dish receives signals from
a satellite and relays them to Earth-based
parts of the communications network.
Waves Waves
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the ABC, for example, transmits AM carrier waves
of frequency 774 kilohertz (1 kilohertz equals 1000
hertz) that will be detected by a radio tuned to this
frequency.
The radio station 101.9 Fox FM transmits
frequency-modulated carrier waves at 101.9
megahertz (1 megahertz equals 1 million hertz). The
higher frequencies of FM stations are less affected
by interference and provide a better quality sound,
though they have less range.
Sound
wave
(pressure
wave)

Microphone
Oscillator
Amplifier
Amplified
electrical
signal
Electrical
signal
Electric
carrier
wave
added
FM (frequency
modulation)
AM (amplitude
modulation)
Radio
antenna
Receiver
Waves cause electrons
in radio antenna to vibrate.
Modulated
waves
transmitted
by radio mast
Electrical signal created
and amplified. Carrier wave
removedfrom electrical
signal (demodulation).
Speaker converts
electrical signal
to sound waves.
Fig 8.2.13 Modulation is one of many steps in the
transmission of sound via radio waves.
Homework book 8.2 Electromagnetic spectrum
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Two kinds of waves
1 Outline the main differences between a transverse wave
and a longitudinal wave.
Properties of waves
2 Construct a diagram to define the terms wavelength
and amplitude.
Light waves
3 What is the speed of light in a vacuum?
4 Identify two ways in which light is very different from
other types of waves.
5 Identify the two types of waves that interact with each
other to produce a light wave.
Visible light
6 List the colours of the visible spectrum.
7 Apart from their colour, what is different about the
different colours in the visible spectrum?
8 Which colour of visible light has:
a the greatest wavelength
b the highest frequency?
9 Which colours is the human eye most sensitive to?
Electromagnetic spectrum
10 Which type of electromagnetic wave has a wavelength
of:
a 1 m
b 1 km
c 0.5 mm
d 1 millionth of a millimetre?
11 List the main types of waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum from shortest to longest wavelength.
12 True or false?
a All electromagnetic waves move at the same speed.
b Each different colour of light has a different
wavelength.
c The visible spectrum contains the electromagnetic
spectrum.
d Waves transfer a disturbance by moving particles
along with them.
13 Which type of radio wave can penetrate the Earths
atmosphere?
14 What are the harmful rays released in a nuclear
explosion?
15 Construct a table with headings as follows and enter
information about each type of electromagnetic wave.
>>
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a What is the period for the waves in question 26?
b If wave frequency increases, the period will:
A increase
B stay the same
C decrease
D not enough information to answer the question.
28 What is the wavelength of the wave shown in
Figure 8.2.14?
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Complete a tutorial on waves and the
electromagnetic spectrum by connecting to
8
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SCIENCE
>>
Fig 8.2.14
16 What do the terms AM and FM mean?
17 Construct a diagram showing:
a a frequency-modulated carrier wave
b an amplitude-modulated carrier wave.
18 Give an advantage of each type of carrier wave.
19 What is the frequency of carrier waves transmitted by:
a 87.7 WOW FM
b 1278 3AW (an AM station)?
Thinking questions
20 Why doesnt it make sense to talk about the wavelength
of white light?
21 Suggest how infrared cameras might help find a lost
bushwalker.
22 UVA radiation from sunlight is less dangerous than
UVB and UVC radiation. Suggest why in terms of their
frequency and energy.
23 Explain how UV radiation can both be good and bad.
24 Suggest how a Geiger counter and gamma radiation
may be used to measure the thickness of an object.
Analysis questions
25 Draw a transverse wave that has:
a a wavelength 3 centimetres and amplitude
2 centimetres
b a wavelength 10 centimetres and amplitude
1 centimetre.
26 A student shakes out twenty waves on a slinky in
10 seconds. What is the frequency of the waves?
27 The time between each wave passing is called the period.
Researching scientists and engineers
Fig 8.2.15
Type of electromagnetic
radiation
Typical wavelength
(approx.)
Source How detected Uses
visible light 1/1 000 000 m the Sun, very hot objects cones in the eye, photographic film sight, photography
29 Convert:
a 600 nanometres to metres
b 0.000 000 850 metres to nanometres.
30 What would you expect to see if the following polarising
filters in Figure 8.2.15 were placed in front of a light
source as shown?
Waves Waves
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Transverse waves on
a slinky
You will need
Slinky, stopwatch, masking tape, floor or corridor
space in which to generate waves between points
5 to 10 metres apart
What to do
1 With a partner, stretch a slinky to a length of 5 metres or
so without permanently deforming it.
2 Use masking tape to mark points along the slinky every
metre or two.
3 Generate a transverse wave as shown in Figure 8.2.16
by flicking the slinky left and right (not up and down,
too much energy is lost this way as it hits the ground).
Carefully observe the masking tape labels as the wave
passes them.
4 Generate a small wave and calculate its speed by
measuring the length of the spring and the time it takes
to travel down it.
5 Keeping the slinky stretched by the same amount,
generate a bigger wave and calculate its speed.
Prac 1
Unit 8.2
6 Generate waves at a high frequency and calculate the
speed of one of the waves.
7 Generate waves at a low frequency and calculate the
speed of one of the waves.
8 Investigate what happens when waves are generated
simultaneously from both ends of the slinky:
a on the same side
b on opposite sides.
>>
at work SCIENCE
>>
the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell and his
work on electromagnetic wave theory
the development of radio communications made by the
American engineer Edwin Armstrong
the first transmission of radio waves by Guglielmo
Marconi
John Logie Baird and his contributions to the
development of TV.
Present your research in one of the following ways:
a short biography of the scientist or engineer
an interview for a magazine or TV
a segment for a show like New Inventors on which the
scientist explains his new invention or theory.
Researching the electromagnetic spectrum
Internet, etc.) to:
find what LW, MW, SW, VHF and UHF stand for when
discussing radio waves. Find why radio waves are
classified like this and list uses for each type
find some of the properties of gamma rays, what
radioactive elements release them and what their effect
are on living organisms.
Present your findings as a Word document that includes
the position of the radio waves and gamma rays in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Investigating
Ripples
Design and carry out an experiment to find how the depth of
the water affects ripples in a tank or a pond.
and conclusion.
Constructing
Crystal set
Find a design or a kit for a simple radio or crystal set (from
an electronics shop or from the Internet), then construct
and test it.
side to side movement
direction in which
wave travels
Fig 8.2.16
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3 Describe what happens when waves meet:
a on the same side of the slinky
b on opposite sides of the slinky.
Other waves on the
slinky
Prac 2
Unit 8.2
will generate a standing wave. When you produce one,
mark the position of its nodes and note whether they
separate the spring into halves, thirds or quarters.
6 Flick the slinky faster or slower to produce other
standing waves.
Questions
1 For your longitudinal wave, in which direction did the
masking tape labels move relative to the direction of
the travelling wave?
2 Draw a simple diagram for each of the standing waves
you produced.
You will need
Slinky, masking tape, floor or corridor space in
which to generate waves between points 5 to
10 metres apart
What to do
Longitudinal waves
1 With a partner, stretch a slinky to a length of 5 metres
or so without permanently deforming it.
2 Use masking tape to mark points along the slinky every
metre or two.
3 Generate a longitudinal wave by either bunching up and
releasing coils or moving the end of the slinky quickly
back and forth.
Standing waves
Standing waves are waves that seem to go nowhere; they
simply stand on the spot. They are produced when waves
come from either end of the slinky at just the right rate to
create them. Standing waves often form when waves are
being reflected off the opposite end to which they were
originally generated.
4 As before, stretch a slinky to a length of 5 metres or so
without permanently deforming it.
5 With a partner firmly holding one end, generate
transverse waves with a constant sideways movement.
The wave will reflect and interact with the other waves
you generate. If you flick at just the right frequency, you
node
Fig 8.2.17 Although standing waves bounce up and down,
they seem to go nowhere. Nodes are where
there is no movement in the spring.
Polarised!
Prac 3
Unit 8.2
You will need
Two polarising filters
What to do
1 Look through one of the filters at a nearby window or
other light source.
2 Now hold a second filter in front of the first and rotate it
while keeping the first filter still.
3 Now do the same while looking at an appliance with a
liquid crystal display (LCD) such as a digital watch or a
mobile phone.
Questions
1 Describe what you saw in each case.
2 Explain your observations.
Questions
1 In which direction did the masking tape labels move
relative to the direction of the travelling wave?
2 How is wave speed affected by:
a the size of the wave
b the frequency of the waves?
>>>
Waves Waves
313
Microwaves cook from the inside
by Karl S. Kruszelnicki, 2004
Microwaves are weird. They will make food hot,
but they are not hot themselves. We humans started
using fire to heat our food about one million years
ago. And for most of that million years, we used
variations on that themesuch as baking, boiling,
steaming, poaching, roasting, grilling, frying and so
on. There was no really new way to cook food until
we started using microwaves, about half-a-century
ago. Even today, most people dont really understand
microwaves. But most people wrongly believe that
microwaves cook the food from the inside first.
The first real use of microwaves was in radar units
during the First World War. Radar gave the British the
huge advantage of being able to detect approaching
enemy planes at night, or through thick cloud.
Wartime radar began in 1940, when Sir John
Randall and Dr H. A. Boot invented the magnetron,
a device to generate microwaves. The magnetron
squirted out the microwaves for only a brief instant,
and then stopped transmitting. A different part of the
radar unit then listened for the echo bouncing back.
There would be an echo only if the transmitted radar
beam happened to land on a target. Some of the radar
beam energy would be bounced off the target back to
the radar unit. If the radar unit had to wait for a long
time, the incoming planes were far away, but if there
was only a short time before the echo arrived, then the
planes were very close.
During the Second World War, the British
government got the American government to help with
the development of radar. The Raytheon Corporation
in the USA became involved. Dr Percy L. Spencer, an
engineer with Raytheon, redesigned the radar units,
and worked out how to boost the production from
seventeen units per week, to 13 000!
The idea of using microwaves to cook food came
accidentally, around 1946. It was the same Dr Spencer
who hit on the idea. He had been working long and
hard, testing a magnetronand he needed a break.
Luckily, he had a stash of chocolate in his pocket,
but, not so luckily, the chocolate bar had melted, and
had ruined his trousers, leaving him still hungry. But
why had the chocolate melted? After all, it wasnt a
hot day.
He was an engineer with both an appetite and a
good sense of curiosity. So he got a bag of popcorn
kernels and blasted them with microwaves out of
his magnetron. Soon, he had delicious popcorn all
over the laboratory floor. He also tried cooking raw
eggs, but that experiment wasnt so successful. The
pressure inside rose so rapidly that the eggs burst. So
the microwaves could cook foodbut with varying
degrees of success.
Raytheon took up his ideas and developed a
commercial microwave oven, the Radar Range. It was
enormous (as big as a fridge and with a mass of 300
kg) but with a very small cooking volume (roughly
the same as a modern microwave oven). The sales,
unsurprisingly, were quite modest.
at work SCIENCE
Fig 8.2.18 Blasting popcorn with microwaves led to the
development of the microwave oven.
So how did the microwaves
cook?
The Raytheon engineers soon found out that
microwaves pass right through glass, paper, pastry,
fats and most china. On the other hand, water absorbs
314
microwaves very well indeed. The microwaves shake
the water molecules directly. The molecules of water
vibrate about 2.45 billion times each second, and as
they rub against each other, this friction produces the
heat for cooking. This is how microwaves cook.
centimetre, only 81 per cent is left, and so on. You can
see that more of the microwave energy is absorbed in
the outside layers, with hardly any getting to the very
centre.
Food in a microwave oven cooks from the outside
to the inside. So how did this myth that microwaves
cook from the inside start? There are two possible
explanations.
First, pastry and other fatty crusts are low in water.
So if you heat a baked potato or a meat pie in your
microwave, the pastry crust wont get very hot, but
the contents inside will. As you bite into the potato or
pie, you pass through the cool (low water) pastry crust
into the hotter innardsand you burn your mouth.
Second, in that original post-war experiment by
Spencer, the egg that he exploded did seem to cook
from the inside. But that was because it had a shell
that was low in water, and an inner core that was high
in water. So the egg looked normal until the water on
the inside turned into steam and exploded the egg
apart. In this case, the inside (the water) cooked, and
the outside (the shell) did not.
So while the invention of radar turned the art of
war upside down, it did not turn the art of cooking
inside out
at work SCIENCE
Fig 8.2.19
This X-ray of a microwave oven shows the
magnetron (purple, lower right).
The magnetron is the tube in which electrons are
generated. These electrons are affected by magnetic
and electric fields to produce microwaves that are
directed at the food.
What about microwaves cooking
from the outside in?
Think of the food as being in spherical layers, like
an onion. Lets assume that each layer is a centimetre
thick, and that it absorbs 10 per cent of the incoming
microwave radiation. After the first centimetre, only
90 per cent of the energy is left. After the second
[
Student activities
]
Surfing
Researching microwaves
Internet, etc.) to research the following topics.
1 Find other uses for microwaves apart from cooking. This
could include one of the following applications: ovens,
satellite communications, mobile phones and radar.
Present your research as an advertisement that is
to sell the microwave technology you have researched.
You must think of your target audience; that is, who
you are aiming at. Include the following:
uses for the technology
a comparison of this technology with its alternatives.
2 Children have been badly burnt while using microwave
ovens and recent safety campaigns have targeted
them and their parents. Find what risks there are for
children from microwave ovens and what injuries are
common when using them.
Present your research as a safety label to be stuck
on new microwave ovens.
3 Find more about the development of microwaves, their
discovery, early uses and the people involved in their
development.
Present your findings as a labelled and decorated
timeline or poster.
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UNIT
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The first Europeans who settled at Sydney Cove
received all their messages from the outside
world by sailing ship. Most communication was
with England, messages taking a year to get
there and another year for the answer to return.
The first telegraph cable was laid
across the English channel in 1851.
In 1858 the first cable across the Atlantic Ocean
was laid. It failed after a monthany tiny hole in
the cables insulation gave the electrical current
an alternative path and so destroyed the signal.
In 1866, the trans-Atlantic cable was successfully
re-laid.
By 1869, a cable under Bass Strait connected
Tasmania to mainland Australia.
In 1872, the Overland telegraph line was
completed from Adelaide to Darwin where it was
joined to an undersea cable to Java. From Java, the
line connected to Europe and England. This cable
provided rapid communication with Europe, with
messages taking hours instead of the normal two
months by ship.
The telegraph was the main form of telecommuni-
cation until the emergence of the telephone.
Telegraph
Long-distance communication was once based
on drums, smoke signals and mirrors and flags
(semaphore). Then the invention of the telegraph (tele
means at a distance) changed communication forever.
It was a system that sent electrical pulses along a wire.
The first telegraph was demonstrated in 1835 by
Professor Moncke of Heidelberg, Germany.
In 1837, Englishman William Fothergill Cooke
demonstrated his own system (developed with
Charles Wheatstone), transmitting a signal a
distance of 1.6 kilometres. These early telegraphs
made use of the magnetic effect of a current to
move small pointers.
In 1844, American Samuel Finley Breese Morse
used a code involving dots and dashes to send a
message 60 kilometres by telegraph. By opening
and closing a simple switch (telegraph key),
dots or dashes were sent along the telegraph and
transferred to a paper-tape printout or converted to
sounds for translation by a telegraph operator.
Communication now is obviously very different to
what it was in 1788 and it will continue to develop in
the future. Many of these methods might seem to be
science fiction right now, but remember that email and
the Internet were hardly known only ten years ago!
A
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COMMA
J
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X
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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0
(zero)
Fig 8.3.1 In Morse code, the most commonly used letters
have the shortest codes.
Fig 8.3.2 A telegraph receiver used to
print Morse code messages
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Fig 8.3.3 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrating his
telephone
Telephone
In 1874, Scottish inventor
Alexander Graham Bell came
up with the idea of converting
varying sound (speech) into
varying electrical impulses for
transmission along a wire and
then converting the impulses
back to sound at the other end.
On 10 March 1876, in Boston,
USA, Bell spoke to his assistant, Thomas Watson, in
Cambridgeport, 3.2 kilometres away. This was the first
ever telephone call, Bells words being Mr. Watson,
please come hereI want to see you.
Fig 8.3.4 The mobile phone is an important part of many
peoples communication networks.
Early telephone exchanges
required an operator to use a
switchboard to physically connect
a wire from the callers telephone to
another wire going to the telephone
being called. This was called a
line. This manual system became
far too cumbersome as the number
of calls on the system increased.
Mechanical exchanges were then
developed to find free lines and
connect callers automatically.
In 1981, the first fully
automatic exchange in Australia
started operating in Endeavour
Hills, Victoria. Nowadays all
Australian exchanges are fully
The call of the dead!
Almon B. Strowger was
an American funeral
director who invented the
first automatic telephone
exchange. It is rumoured
that he did so to stop the
flow of business going to his
opposition. The operator at
his local manual exchange
was apparently directing
all funeral queries to her
husbands funeral business!
By establishing an automatic
exchange in 1892, his
competitors wife could no
longer manipulate calls.
automatic and switching is
computerised, resulting in a
system that is quick and very
reliable, with calls able to be
continually rerouted to make
best use of available lines.
Mobile phones
Mobile phones use microwaves to transmit digital
signals within a network of regions called cells.
Each cell uses a different set of frequencies, with no
adjacent cells using the same
frequency. When you turn on a
mobile phone, it sends a signal
to the network, which registers
your location. As you move from
place to place, base stations
within the network detect
signals from your mobile phone.
The base station receiving the
strongest signal sends it to the
exchange. When a call is made
to your mobile phone, the
exchange knows where you are
and sends the call to the base
stations in the cell you are in.
Imagine the
phone bill!
US Presidential candidate
Howard Dean held a
conference call with 3466
people in 2003!
Dont shout into
your mobile
Mobile, landline and
portable phones have
automatic gain control
(AGC), which amplifies
your voice if you speak
too soft and softens your
voice if you shout. The
only way to make yourself
clearer on your mobile is
to try to shield it from the
surrounding noises.
Todays communications network
The current global communication network must
handle a huge amount of traffic, including voice,
written data, computer data, static images and moving
vision. It copes by transmitting several signals at once
in each line.
Communications network Communications network
Patent problems
Italian inventor Antonio
Meucci is credited in his
home town of Florence
with inventing the first
telephone, but was unable
to afford the US$250 to
patent his idea. Alexander
Graham Bell went on to
invent the first machine
that could record sound
(the phonograph).
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Analogue signals
When you talk into a telephone, the initial input is
in the form of smoothly varying sound waves. These
are converted into smoothly varying electrical signals,
otherwise known as an analogue signal. Today, most
homes are connected to the network via copper wires
designed for use with analogue signals. Different
signals can be sent simultaneously by using different
frequencies. They can then be separated or filtered
at the receiving end. Hence, one way of transmitting
several calls at once is to use several carrier waves
of different frequencies. This is known as frequency
division multiplexing, or FDM.
Digital signals
Information can be represented
by combinations of the digits
1 and 0. This makes it much
easier to accurately transmit
because short pulses of light
or electricity can represent
the 1 and 0 combinations. For
example, any number can be
represented as combinations
of 1 and 0 by imagining place-
value columns as shown in
Figure 8.3.5. Starting from the right, the 1 and
0 digits are used to build up the number in digital
form. For example, 5 in digital form is 101 (pulse, no
pulse, pulse). Numbers in this form are called binary
numbers. Each 1 and 0 (pulse and no pulse) is called a
bit, so the binary number 101 is composed of 3 bits.
be cut into chunks, interspersed and sent in the one
data stream at a single frequency, to be sorted out
again at the end of the transmission. This is called
time division multiplexing, or TDM.
The amount of information that may be carried by
a network is referred to as bandwidth. Bandwidth can
be maximised by combining FDM with TDM.
The numbers 5 and 13 in digital form
5
only 1 or 0 allowed
4 2 1
1 0 1
a 3-bit binary number
13
only 1 or 0 allowed
8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1
a 4-bit binary number
Fig 8.3.5
One-bit bonfires
News of Greek victory
in the Trojan war was
communicated to Greece
using a chain of bonfires
on hilltops. This was
an example of a one-bit
message, where a single
pulse is transmitted.
Multiplexing
frequency 1
frequency 2
Time division multiplexing
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data stream 1
data stream 2
Second signal/call First signal/call
Second signal/call First signal/call
Fig 8.3.6
Digital signals are particularly suited to
transmission by optical fibres. Each call is sampled
8000 times per second and is converted into a signal
comprised of bits (1 or 0). Several different calls can
Comparing analogue and digital
Compared to analogue transmission, digital
transmission:
is easier to manipulate
contains the complete code for reconstructing the
original signal, giving perfect reproduction at the
other end
is far less likely to be misinterpreted. Some
distortion invariably creeps into analogue signals,
making it impossible to determine which parts of
the signal to keep and which to remove to exactly
reproduce the original signal.
Components in the communication
network
While small-scale links in the network are copper
wire, major links are provided by coaxial cable, fibre-
optic cable and radio waves (including microwaves),
sometimes via satellites. Signals need to be converted
back and forth between analogue and digital as
required, depending on the section of the network.
This conversion needs a modem.
Modem
A modem converts digital signals from a computer
into analogue waves in a process called modulation.
Most of the telephone network is made from copper
wires that are only designed to carry analogue waves.
Hence the need for a modem. A modem is also needed
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to convert received analogue
signals into digital ones (called
demodulation) for processing by
a computer. This dual capability
is where a modem gets its name:
modulatordemodulator.
Coaxial cable
Most coaxial cables contain
several tubes, each consisting
of an inner copper core and an
outer cylindrical copper mesh
layer separated by an insulating
material. A tough outer sheath
surrounds these tubes and
protects the cable from damage.
The inner core carries analogue
or digital signals. The outer
copper layer protects the signal
from interference between tubes in the same cable
or from outside sources and also reduces attenuation
(loss of signal strength). The first major coaxial cable
in Australia opened in 1962, linking Melbourne,
Sydney and Canberra.
protective cladding. Using total internal reflection, the
fibre traps and conducts light along its length. (This
phenomena is discussed in more detail in Science
Dimensions 3). Melbourne and Sydney are currently
linked by over 1.5 million kilometres of optical fibre.
Lasers
To use optical fibres for communication, the original
signal must first be converted into an electrical
signal, which is in turn converted into pulses of
light, the light being provided by a laser. Laser light
is different to normal light, say from a light bulb, in
that it is coherent. All of its waves are of the same
frequency and wavelength and are in step, resulting
in a powerful beam that may carry vast amounts
of information with little loss due to dispersion
(spreading out). Lasers can be switched on and off
many millions of times every second, making them
ideal for transmitting digital data.
electrical signal
insulation
copper wire
braiding
tough plastic
sheathing
copper core
Fig 8.3.7 Coaxial cable can carry both analogue and
digital electrical signals. Several of them may
be packed into one larger cable.
Many optical fibres can fit in a single cable.
optical
fibre
plastic
sheath
protective
layer
outer
covering
laser light
steel core
Fig 8.3.8
A light bulb produces a mixture of
light of various wavelengths that we
perceive as white light. A laser produces
coherent light of only one wavelength.
Incoherent light
(many wavelengths, not in step)
Coherent light
(one wavelength, waves in step)
Fig 8.3.9
Optical fibres
When optical fibre was invented in
the 1930s, no-one had any use for it.
Despite this, its inventor patented the
method of manufacturing it. Today,
optical fibre forms the backbone of
the global communications network.
An optical fibre is a hair-thin tube
or strand of glass surrounded by a
Thats clear!
The glass used in optical
fibres is so clear that
you would be able to see
through a 100-kilometre-
thick window made of it.
www.TIM
The very first message
sent from one computer
to another was login, in
1969 from the University
of Los Angeles (UCLA)
to Stanford Research
Institute. The Stanford
computer couldnt cope
and crashed! In 1969,
scientist Tim Berner-Lee
developed a software
system that enabled people
to access computer-based
documents; he called it
TIM (The Information
Mine). It later became the
Information Mesh, which
later became www (World
Wide Web). In 1972 there
were just thirty-seven
Internet sites!
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Microwaves
Microwave links can be used to transmit digital
signals through the air from repeater station to
repeater station. These stations
transfer signals from one area
to another and boost signals as
required. Microwaves travel in
straight lines, so each repeater
station must be in sight of
the next one in the network.
Signals may be modulated to
carry pulses of two different
frequencies within the wave
one representing 1 or on, the
other representing 0 or off.
Microwaves are used to
link to satellites for long-
distance communication, as
well as within the mobile
phone network. The first
microwave link in Australia
was established between
Melbourne and Bendigo in
1959.
fully
reflective
mirror
partially
reflective mirror
(allows some laser
light to leave)
laser beam
Fig 8.3.10 How a ruby laser works
The global
communications network
digital signal
Ordinary
phone
Fax machine
fax transmissions
are sent over the
telephone network
Fax machine
Optical fibres
transmitting digital information
by light pulses enables many
calls to be sent down one fibre
simultaneously
Mobile phone exchange
calls are routed to the
main exchange or
direct to a base station
by the mobile
phone exchange
Main exchange
the main exchange
handles
communications
between ordinary
phones and the
mobile phone
network and
routes long-
distance and
international calls
Local exchange
local exchange
digitises calls
for long-distance
transmission
Analogue signal
analogue signals
from ordinary
phones are
carried by
copper cable
to the local
exchange
Cell
the mobile phone
network is divided into
hexagonal cells, each
with a base station in
the middle
Microwaves
digital information
is sent from mobile
phones to base
station using
microwave
frequencies
Base station
the base station
receiving the
strongest signal
from a mobile
phone routes the
call to the mobile
phone exchange
Urban cells
cells are smaller
in urban areas,
giving the network
greater capacity
Digital
signal
Seamless reconnection
as the mobile phone moves from one
cell to another, the call is rerouted
from one base station to the next,
without a break in the conversation
Moving mobile
phone
mobility is the
prime asset of
the cell phone
Weakening signal
as the mobile phone moves
further away from the base
station, the signal weakens
Satellite uplink
encrypted digital
information is
sent to satellites
using microwave
frequencies
Communications satellite
orbiting satellites are used to route calls
between places not linked by cable
Digital signal
digital information is multiplexed,
allowing multiple signals to be
transmitted simultaneously
Line-of-sight microwave link
digitised calls from local
exchanges are routed to the
main exchange via terrestrial
microwave links
Mobile phone exchange
the mobile phone exchange sends
out control signals to locate the
base station receiving the strongest
signal from a mobile phone
Mobile phone network
base stations send digital information
to the cell phone exchange over
optical-fibre or copper cable
Mobile
phone
Long-distance or
international
connection
optical fibres are
used to transmit
long-distance calls;
many optical-fibre
cables are laid on the
seabed

Fig 8.3.11
Active denial system
The US military are testing
a 95 GHz microwave beam
on volunteers as part of
research on non-deadly but
effective weapons, mainly
for use against protestors.
The microwave beam has
demonstrated that it will heat
up metal parts of protestors
clothing until it becomes
unbearable and they flee
the scene. Concerns with
the project have however
arisen: the beam may also
heat up contact lenses and
glasses and one volunteer
has already been burnt by the
beam being on the
wrong setting.
Prac 1
p. 322
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Ruby red light
The most common laser is a ruby laser, so named because energy from
a flash tube excites chromium atoms in a ruby. These atoms then emit
light, which reflects between the ends of the ruby rod, stimulating more
atoms to emit light of the same wavelength. The partially reflective end
allows some ruby-red light to escape as a laser beam.
The word laser is an acronym of light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.
320
>>>
A microwave repeater station Fig 8.3.12
Repeater stations
All of the above methods of transmission require
repeater stations every 50 kilometres or so to boost
weakened signals. The table below shows the different
capacities of each type.
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Telegraph
1 Where did the term Morse code come from?
2 Write your name in Morse code.
3 Decode the Morse code message shown in Figure 8.3.14.
Homework book 8.3 ADSL: Digital communication
Fig 8.3.14
Wireless Internet connection allows users to
access to information from any location. Fig 8.3.13
Wi-fi
Many airlines now offer onboard wireless Internet access, known
as wi-fi. When over land, connection is provided by transmission from
a transmitter on the plane to an Earth base-station. Once about 200 km
away from land, transmission is via satellite and then to an Earth
base-station. Although mobile phone calls are normally banned in
flight, wi-fi allows phone calls to be made via the Internet.
Transmission
method
Maximum number of
two-way conversations
Copper 600
Coaxial cable 2 700
Optical fibre 28 720
Microwaves 1 920
The future
It is difficult to imagine the communication
systems of the future: video phones are
likely but what about virtual reality phones?
Currently B-ISDN (an acronym of broadband
integrated services digital network) is
expanding the global communications
network, allowing simultaneous connection
to telephone, fax, Internet connection, video
on demand, video conferencing, pay TV,
news, interactive video and games, on-line
shopping and downloading music and
movies.
>>
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Fig 8.3.15
20 It is recommended that you should not use a landline
phone during a lightning storm. Suggest why.
21 When discussing communication, the word signal is
used rather than call. Suggest why.
22 Suggest why repeater towers in the mobile phone
network are arranged in a zigzag pattern.
return spring
vertical-drive finger
rotary-drive finger
contacts
contact arm
Fig 8.3.16
Telephone
4 Over what distance was the first telephone call?
5 Define the following terms.
a line
b switchboard
c exchange
Mobile phones
6 Suggest why mobile phones are sometimes called cell
phones.
7 Explain how a mobile phone knows where it is.
Todays communication network
a analogue signal
b digital signal
c FDM
d TDM
9 What are some advantages of digital signals over
analogue ones?
10 Explain why some of the signals on the communications
network are analogue while others are digital.
11 a Name the two types of multiplexing.
b How does each type of multiplexing allow several
calls on the one phone line?
12 What is a main advantage of having several different
communication paths between two cities?
Components in the communication network
a modem
b attenuation
c coherent
d repeater station
14 Why is the light provided by laser ideal for use in
optical-fibre communication?
The future
15 How would your behaviour be different if you were
involved in a video phone conversation compared to a
non-video phone conversation?
Thinking questions
16 Long delays made communication in the past very
different to what we have today. Suggest how it would
change your life.
17 List communication services and devices available today
that were not available fifty years ago.
18 Devise a way of remembering the Morse code for the
digits 1, 2, 3, , 0.
19 Did the telegraph use digital or analogue-type signals?
23 What might be the effect of using several single-core
copper wires instead of coaxial cable to carry phone
calls between two cities?
Analysis questions
24 Match the following signals with the description best
describing them:
1011101000010110 analogue
2314089287025110 digital
25 Analyse the Strowger switch shown in Figure 8.3.16 to
determine whether it is connecting to a telephone with
the number 33 or 34.
26 Although Melbourne and Sydney are only 1000 km
apart, there is about 1.5 million kilometres of optic fibre
between the two cities. Calculate the number of lines
or individual optic fibres this represents.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Visit the Telstra classroom and complete a
tutorial on communications by connecting to
Researching communications
Internet, etc.) to:
write a short biography of Cooke, Strowger, Bell, Morse
or Meucci, listing their inventions and contributions to
the communications system
construct a timeline showing the development of the
phone system. On your timeline, include diagrams or
photos and the names of the inventors. In particular,
include Strowgers automatic exchange
draw a labelled diagram showing the route of the
original Overland Telegraph Line and how it could
transmit electrical signals despite being only a single
strand of wire
8
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Prac 1
Unit 8.3
Questions
1 What was required for you to see the laser beam?
2 What colour is the laser light and why?
3 What evidence is there that the laser showed little if
any dispersion?
4 Why can laser beams travel further than the light from
a normal source such as a light bulb?
The laser
WARNING: Never look directly at the source of a laser
beam, and do not direct a laser beam near anyones
eyes. Beware possible reflections that may redirect a
beam near peoples eyes.
Your teacher may demonstrate a laser beam and some of its
properties by:
directing a beam into some chalk dust scattered in the
air in a darkened room
directing a beam through a narrow slit, twin-slits,
diffraction grating or CD.
Teacher Demonstration
construct a poster showing the development of the
Internet. Find what role routers and servers have in the
network
prepare a Word document explaining how the Teredo
worm played havoc with early communications and
how viruses and worms interfere or damage the Internet
today
prepare a written analysis of the possible dangers of
mobile phone radiation on users brains, recent research
on its effects and the conclusions from that research
construct a table showing what the following stand for:
Telex, STD, PABX, IDD, DRCS, CDMA, and EFTPOS.
Imagining
Future communications
What communication system would you like in the future?
Design a home that makes use of several futuristic
communications services and devices and explain how each
is used.
Present your imaginings as a brochure from the future
advertising your new home.
323
Mobile phones, the communications network,
security systems, televisions, computers,
supermarket barcode scanners, microwave ovens,
digital watches, MP3 and DVD players all involve
electronics. Electronics is the use of electric
circuits containing miniature components to
control electric current.
Electronic components
Resistors
A resistor is a small banded cylindrical device
commonly made of compressed carbon or glass or
ceramic tube coated with a thin film of metal. It
is used to control current and voltage in a circuit,
converting electrical energy into heat.
The miniature components of electronic circuits
are designed to work with very small currents
(compared to those needed for a torch globe, for
example). These circuits need resistors in series to
reduce the current so that their sensitive electronic
components are not damaged. The resistors must
therefore have high resistances. The multiplier prefix
k is used to indicated 1000 ohms (1000 ), and
M is used to indicate 1 000 000 . For example,
8 k = 8000 , and 3 M = 3 000 000 .
Variable resistors are used as volume controls on
radios, iPods, TVs and sound systems.
Electrical circuit basics
Before looking at the components of electric circuits
in more detail, its worth revising some key terms
and ideas.
A circuit is a path from one side of a power
source (such as a cell, battery or power pack) to
the other.
A cell or battery may be thought of as a charge
pump. It provides the energy and voltage to
charges (usually electrons), getting them moving.
Current is the flow of charge, usually electrons.
Current is measured in amperes, often called
amps (A). The easier a path is, the greater the
current that takes that path will be.
Voltage is a measure of the energy available to the
charges. Voltage drives the current around a circuit
and may be thought of as the size of the push.
Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is sometimes
referred to as potential difference.
Resistance is the ability of a substance to reduce
the flow of current. Resistance is measured in
ohms, which uses the symbol as an abbreviation.
In parallel describes that part of a circuit where
there are two or more (parallel) branches between
the same points.
In series describes that part of a circuit where there
is only one possible path for the current. It means
in the same line.
Components are the small or miniature parts used
to construct electronic circuits.
Fig 8.4.1 A circuit board containing several different
electronic components
Homework book 8.4 Revising electric circuits
UNIT
UNIT
8
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8
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4
324
>>>
Thermistors
A thermistor is a device whose resistance drops when
it is warmed up. This property makes thermistors
useful in circuits that respond to changes in
temperature (such as a fire alarm).
Resistor colour code
The coloured bands on resistors are not for
decorationthey are a code representing the
resistance in ohms. The digits 0 to 9 are represented
by colours as shown in Figures 8.4.2 and 8.4.3.
Digit Colour
0 black
1 brown
2 red
3 orange
4 yellow
5 green
6 blue
7 violet
8 grey
9 white
4 band resistor
first
digit
second
digit
number
of zeros
tolerance
(4th band)
gold 5%
silver 10%
no colour 20%
yellow
4
violet
7
red
2 zeros (00)
= 4700
5% tolerance
5 band resistor
yellow
4
violet
7
black
0
brown
1 zero (0)
= 4700
5% tolerance
Fig 8.4.3 Resistor colour codes
Prac 1
p. 329
Homework book 8.5 Ohms Law
Light-dependent resistors
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photoresistor also
has a variable resistance. Its resistance decreases when
the intensity of light falling on it increases. LDRs are
ideal in circuits that need to respond to changing light
conditions (such as those that control street lights).
Capacitors
Capacitors store small amounts of
charge, but only for a short time
because eventually the charge
leaks away. The charge is stored
on two metal-foil sheets separated
by an insulating material called
a dielectric. Because the metal
sheets are separated, charge can
flow into a capacitor for only
a short time before the plates
fill. More charge can be stored on larger metal
sheets and so the various layers are rolled up like
a Swiss roll. This allows larger metal plates to fit
Fig 8.4.2 Resistors resist the flow of current, and can
be used to control voltages.
Fig 8.4.4 Heat decreases the resistance of a
thermistor. This is the opposite of what
happens with most conductors.
Fig 8.4.5 More light decreases the resistance of an LDR.
Thats shocking!
A TV and many other
electronic devices contain
capacitors. Fiddling with
their circuitry can give you
an electric shock because
capacitors in them are still
storing charge.
Electronics Electronics
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sound
wave
fixed plate
battery
processing
circuit
electric
signal
moveable
plate
Fig 8.4.8 A condenser microphone
into a smaller volume. The charge storing ability of
capacitor is called capacitance. Although capacitance
is technically measured in farads (F), the most
commonly used units are microfarads (F). Capacitors
are used in circuits to control the time taken for
various actions (such as lights flashing). They also
block steady currents and allow changing ones to pass.
Diodes
A substance that conducts electricity is called
a conductor, while one that doesnt is called an
insulator. A semiconductor is strange because it
acts as an insulator when cold and as a conductor
(although a poor one) at room temperature.
Semiconductors are commonly made of silicon or
germanium.
A diode is made from two different layers of
specially treated semiconductor, giving it properties
that make it very useful as an electronic component.
metal
foil
dielectric
Fig 8.4.6 A capacitor is built like a Swiss roll
to maximise its surface area and
charge storage.
The microphone
A condenser microphone contains two plates acting as a capacitor.
The first of the plates vibrates back and forwards as sound waves
strike it, causing the separation of the plates and their charge storage
capacity to change. Changes in this capacity cause charge to flow on
and off the plates, producing an alternating current. This signal can
then be connected to an amplifier and converted into sound.
Prac 2
p. 330
Prac 3
p. 330
Fig 8.4.7 Capacitors store charge.
Diodes: the band indicates the
negative side of each diode. Fig 8.4.9
Diode LED
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>>>
Diodes are extremely useful in electronic circuits
because they only allow electrical current to flow
in one direction. When a diode is forward-biased,
it conducts very well. When
reverse-biased, the diode
effectively blocks all current,
allowing very little through.
This property means that
diodes can:
protect circuits from current
going the wrong way and
damaging sections of a
circuit
convert alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC).
A special kind of diode is
the light-emitting diode (LED)
that is used in indicator lights
and digital displays.
AMPS
A

0

0.2 0.4
0.6
0
.8

1
.0

5A

1A

9
V

current flows
diode
forward biased
ammeter
+

AMPS
A
0
0.2 0.4
0.6
0
.8
1
.0

5A
1A
no current flows
(or very small
current flows)
diode
reverse biased
ammeter
+
9
V
Fig 8.4.10 Two very different results using the same diode
LED the light shine
LEDs are far more energy
efficient than light bulbs,
but you need a lot of them
to produce the same light.
Traffic lights are gradually
being changed from single
bulbs to banks of LEDs.
The main advantage here is
that LEDs dont all blow at
once there are always
some left to keep the traffic
light operating until its next
regular servicing.
Transistors
Transistors are like diodes in that they are a type
of semiconductor made from treated silicon. The
transistor, however, contains three layers of treated
silicon. The legs or terminals of a transistor connect
to these layers and are known as the emitter, base and
collector or E, B and C for short.
Transistors have amazing properties when placed
in a circuit with other components, making them
extremely useful.
A transistor can act as:
a switch, although with no moving parts (apart
from electrons)
a current amplifier. When no current flows through
the base, the transistor is off, and no current flows
from collector to emitter either, despite a voltage
being applied. When a small current flows through
the base, the transmitter is on and allows a larger
current (an
amplified
copy of the
base current)
to flow from
collector to
emitter.
C
B
E
emitter
current
basic
current
Fig 8.4.12 Note the position of each leg in this diagram of
a transistor. One way of remembering this is to
use the mnemonic collect brown eggs.
Fig 8.4.11 Transistors come in many shapes and sizes
four are sitting here on a 50-cent coin.
PNP transistor
NPN transistor
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The transistor was invented in 1947 by a team from
Bell telephone laboratories in the USA. Transistors
soon replaced much larger components called valves
and vacuum tubes that were used to amplify radio
signals. This allowed electronic circuits to become
miniaturised: valve radios were large and far too
heavy to carry around, whereas transistor radios are
easily portable.
William Shockley (team leader), Walter Brattain
and John Bardeen invented the transistor in 1947.
They shared the 1956 Nobel prize for doing so.
Fig 8.4.13
Integrated circuits
Miniaturisation did not stop with the invention of
the transistor. Photographic processes are now used
to sketch millions of connected semiconductor
components onto thin wafers of treated silicon,
sometimes called silicon chips. The finished product
is called an integrated circuit (IC) or microchip.
Microchips are used in amplifiers and computers.
Scientists are continually finding ways to pack more
components onto a single chip: since 1965, the
number has doubled every year.
Fig 8.4.14 Compare the size of the old-style valves with
modern transistors capable of performing the
same job.
Prac 4
p. 331
Fig 8.4.15 The first electronic computer: ENIAC is an acronym
of electronic numerical integrator and calculator.
Colossus and ENIAC
Colossus was the first electronic programmable
digital computer. It was built in 1943 in England to
decipher the Enigma code used by the Germans in
the Second World War. Colossus was, however, kept
secret until 1975 when it was de-classified. ENIAC
was unveiled in 1947 by a typewriter company called
IBM and is generally considered to be the first, since
it was the only computer people knew about! ENIAC
contained 18 000 valves and took up 170 square
metres of floor space, equivalent to a room 17 metres
by 10 metres!
Most of the size of an IC component is due
to the need for legs required to connect it
into circuit boards. Fig 8.4.16
Prac 5
p. 332
Prac 6
p. 332
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[
Questions
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Revision questions
Electrical circuit basics
1 What units are the following values in a circuit measured
in? Give the full name and abbreviation in each case.
a voltage
b resistance
c current
Electronic components
2 Copy and complete the following table for electronic
components.
a
b
c
d
Fig 8.4.17
>>
3 What do each of the following stand for?
a LED d k
b LDR e F
c IC
Component Sketch Use Symbol
resistor
detects light
transistor
4 What type of component described in this unit may be
a key part of:
a a fire detector
b automatic doors?
5 What is the main element used to make
semiconductors?
6 Name the members of the team that developed the first
transistor.
7 Explain why radios were large before the invention of
the transistor.
8 Draw a diagram explaining how to identify the base,
collector and emitter legs of a transistor.
Integrated circuits
9 Explain what comprises:
a a silicon chip
b an integrated circuit.
Thinking questions
10 Explain the difference between electricity and electronics.
11 List five modern electronic devices.
12 Show how the digits 10 to 9 on a digital clock display
may be made using several small, rectangular light-
emitting diodes.
13 Many bicycle lights involve one or more flashing LEDs.
What are advantages of having the LEDs flash?
Analysis questions
14 What is the
resistance of
each of the
resistors in
Figure 8.4.17?
15 Name the
colours
(in order) of
the first three
bands for
each of the
following
resistors.
a 560
b 3300
c 470 000
d 1 200 000
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Note: Depending on experience and equipment, the following circuits may be constructed using a variety of methods, such as card
and sticky tape, soldering, circuit breadboards, drawing pins and balsa wood. The card and tape method is not recommended for
more complex circuits such as those in Pracs 5 and 6. Resistor colours below are based on the four-band system.
Prac 1
Unit 8.4
Resistor colour code
You will need
A selection of resistors mounted on small pieces
of cardboard and labelled alphabetically
Fig 8.4.19
16 3K8 is another way of labelling a 3800 resistor.
Predict the size of a resistor of resistance:
a 4K9
b 2M5.
17 Draw a circuit diagram for the set-up in Figure 8.4.18.
18 Make a rough estimate of how many times smaller a
transistor is than an old-style valve.
19 Would ENIAC fit in your bedroom? If not, how many
rooms that size would be needed?
20 Predict how many more components will probably be
able to be fitted on a silicon chip next year compared to
this year.
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at work
Surfing
Companion Website
Complete tutorials on resistors and
their colour codes by connecting to the
Researching electronics
Internet, etc.) to:
find what p and n type germanium is and how it is
used to make diodes
8
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find how diodes can be used to convert alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC) and the name given
to such a conversion circuit
what logic gates are and their different types
what a microprocessor is
where the term Silicon Valley came from and where
Silicon Valley is located
what CSIRAC was.
Present your work as a short paragraph including any
relevant symbols or circuits.
9
V

+

330 F
Fig 8.4.18
>>
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>>>
1 Draw a larger version of the table partly shown
opposite.
2 Complete a row of the table for each resistor.
Capacitor
Prac 2
Unit 8.4
You will need
A selection of capacitors (such as 100 F, 470 F,
100 F and above), resistor (about 470 k or so),
9 volt battery, 1 LED
What to do
1 Charge a capacitor as shown in Figure 8.4.20, ensuring
the positive terminal on the capacitor touches the
positive battery terminal for a couple of seconds.
Connecting the wrong way is dangerous and could
damage either object. Carry out step 2 as soon as
possible after charging the capacitor.
2 Connect the capacitor to an LED and resistor as shown
in Figure 8.4.21.
9

V

+

100F
Fig 8.4.20
+
+

470 k resistor
LED
Fig 8.4.21
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 for different capacitors, noting
any differences in your results.
Questions
1 What effect does using a larger capacitor have in
step 2?
2 Why is it important not to wait too long after step 1
before performing step 2?
3 What effect do you think placing another capacitor
side-by-side with the original one would have?
Combine with another group to test this out.
A diode and resistor circuit
Prac 3
Unit 8.4
You will need
A light-emitting diode (LED), 330 resistor
(orange, orange, brown), 470 resistor (yellow,
violet, brown), 1 k resistor (brown, black, red),
9 volt battery, battery snap, connecting wire (two
pieces, each 10 cm), a piece of card on which to
lay out the circuit, sticky tape or Blu-Tack
What to do
1 Assemble the circuit exactly as shown in Figure 8.4.22
(otherwise you may damage components).
2 Notice that one of the legs of the LED is longer than
the other. Try placing the LED in the circuit both ways
around. Note whether the longer leg must be either as
close to or as far away as possible from the positive
terminal of the battery.
Resistor Colours (first 3 bands) Value
A
B
C
>>
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Transistor
Prac 4
Unit 8.4
You will need
A transistor (type BC548), 1 light-emitting diode
(LED), 470 resistor (yellow, violet, brown),
1.5 k resistor (brown, green, red), 9 volt battery,
battery snap, connecting wire (two pieces, each
10 cm), piece of
card on which
to lay out the
circuit, sticky
tape or Blu-Tack
BC548
collector
base
emitter
Fig 8.4.23
Blu-Tack or tape
9

V
Fig 8.4.22
Blu-Tack or tape
9

V
E
B
C
long leg
short leg
Fig 8.4.24
Blu-Tack or tape
9

V
E
B
C
long
leg
short
leg
Fig 8.4.25
What to do
1 Connect and observe the circuit in Figure 8.4.24.
Note that the transistor terminals can be identified
as shown.
2 Add a 1.5 k resistor and an extra LED in series
between the transistor base and the positive battery
terminal.
Questions
1 How can you tell when current is flowing (or not flowing)
in the circuits above?
2 Comment on the size of the current going into the
base of the transistor compared to that going into the
collector in the second circuit.
3 Why is a transistor sometimes referred to as an
electronic switch?
4 Draw a circuit diagram for step 2 of this prac.
3 Try different resistors in the circuit, both ways
around.
Questions
1 When an LED lights up, the positive leg is the
one that goes closest to the battery. Which leg
(long or short) is the positive one on an LED?
2 What effect does a larger resistance have on the
LED?
3 Does it matter which way around a resistor goes?
4 Why is a resistor used in this prac?
5 Draw a circuit diagram for this prac.
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Moisture detector
Prac 5
Unit 8.4
3 Lie detectors work using similar circuits, but ones that
are more sensitive than the one above. Explain how
such a circuit could detect when a person tells a lie.
470V
9
V

E
B
C
long
leg
short
leg
+

BC548
transistor
probe
probe
Fig 8.4.26
You will need
A transistor (type BC548), 1 light-emitting diode
(LED), 470 resistor (yellow, violet, brown),
100 k resistor (brown, black, yellow), 9 volt
battery, battery snap, connecting wire (two
pieces, each 10 cm), piece of card on which
to lay out the circuit, sticky tape or Blu-Tack
What to do
1 Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 8.4.26.
2 Touch the probes together to test the circuit. The LED
should glow brightly.
3 Keeping the probes apart by a few millimetres, touch
them to a dry object, then a damp one (lick a finger if
its clean).
Questions
1 How could this circuit be used as:
a a water detector
b a soil-moisture-content detector?
2 What can you say about the resistance of:
a a dry finger
b a wet finger?
Flasher
Prac 6
Unit 8.4
3 Besides the capacitor, what else might you change to
alter the flashing rate? Sketch a diagram for a circuit
that includes your suggestion.
You will need
A circuit breadboard, two transistors
(type BC548), two 100 F capacitors,
two light-emitting diodes (LED), 470 resistor
(yellow, violet, brown), two 10 k resistors
(brown, black, yellow), 9 volt battery, battery
snap, connecting wire (eight pieces, each
10 cm), other capacitors (such as 470 F,
330 F, 220 F)
What to do
1 Use the circuit diagram in Figure 8.4.27 as a
guide to construct a flasher circuit.
2 Once the circuit is working, try changing one
of the capacitors for a different one and note
the effect on the circuit.
Questions
1 What effect does the size of a capacitor have?
2 Explain your answer to question 1 in terms of
charge movement.
9 volt
battery
470 10 K 10K 470
LED
LED
100F 100 F
BC548
BC548
+
+ +
+

Fig 8.4.27
>>>
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Chapter review
9 What are each of the following famous for?
a Samuel Morse
b Alexander Bell
c Almon Strowger
d William Shockley
10 Give three ways messages are sent within todays
global communications network. Give an advantage of
each method.
11 What type of component:
a stores charge for a short time
b changes its resistance when the temperature
changes
c controls current and voltage
d acts as a switch and amplifier?
12 Identify each of the following components:
[
Summary questions
]
to make them true:
a A magnetic field is produced by a coil or coils of wire,
not by a straight wire.
b Electricity can cause magnetism and magnetism can
cause electricity.
c Electromagnets can be turned on and off.
d A relay is an electromagnetic switch.
e A generator produces current when a magnet sits
inside or near its coils.
f More energy is lost in power transmission lines when
the voltage is higher.
g Only charges in wires experience a force due to a
magnetic field.
2 Which type of transformer is used close to homes?
Why?
3 Name the parts of the electric motor labelled in Figure
8.5.1.
4 Name two types of wave possible in a slinky.
5 Name four categories of electromagnetic waves. Give a
use for each type.
6 What is the difference between the visible spectrum and
the electromagnetic spectrum?
7 What happens to the wavelength of electromagnetic
waves as the frequency increases?
8 How did early telegraphs use electromagnetism?
Fig 8.5.1
Fig 8.5.2
13 Why were radios so large and
heavy before transistors were
invented?
14 What are integrated circuits, and
what are they made from?
>>
a b c
334
Fig 8.5.3
Fig 8.5.4
What is the:
a frequency
b wavelength
c amplitude?
20 State the resistance of each of the resistors in
Figure 8.5.4.
[
Thinking questions
]
15 Suggest how the numbers 0 and 1 could be used to
send a digital message originally written in words.
16 How is laser light different to light from the Sun?
17 What might happen if the same frequency was used for
two different calls in a mobile phone cell?
18 Design and sketch a circuit that dims a light when it
gets dark. (Some digital clocks contain such a circuit to
reduce bedside glare.)
[
Analysis questions
]
19 The series of waves shown in Figure 8.5.3 was produced
in 10 seconds.
Chapter review
21 The following signal consists of two messages sent
using time-division multiplexing in groups of four
characters. Separate the signal into two messages.
MYHO THEP VERC RICE RAFT OFEG ISFU GSHA
LLOF SGON EELS EUP!
Homework book 8.6 Electromagnetism and electronics crossword
>>>
a
c
b
9
Global issues
G
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s
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a
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Learning focus
Standards:
L
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6
Students:
observed in biological, chemical and physical processes and
applications
consider waste treatment and management options
investigate strategies that explore the responsible use and
management of natural and processed resources
make links across related areas of science, such as resource
management
develop an understanding of the constancy of the big
ideas of science
debate science-related issues that are reported in the popular
media
explore the ways in which science concepts can be
misunderstood and misrepresented
society, such as personal safety, a clean and healthy environment,
energy use, ecological footprints, the history and philosophy of
science, ethics and science research.
Students:
explain the behaviour and properties of materials in terms of their
constituent particles and the forces holding them together
identify and classify the sources of wastes generated within the
community, and describe their management
use a specific example to explain the sustainable management of
a resource
explain change in terms of energy in a range of biological,
chemical and physical contexts.
1 Most people like warm weather so why is global warming
a concern?
2 Aerosol cans used in the past are now putting us in danger. How?
3 You probably have some very radioactive material in your
home. Where is it?
4 Radiation can cause cancer and cure it. How?
5 What happens at ANSTO in southern Sydney?
6 What is an alternative energy?
336
>>>
UNIT
UNIT
Most people like warm weather and you might
think that global warming is a good thing longer
summers, warmer winters. It all sounds nice
until you realise that it would also lead to more
frequent cyclones, storms and bushfires and that it
would flood coastlines, cities and entire countries,
displacing millions of people from their homes
and lands.
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Greenhouse effect
A car left in the Sun on a fine day quickly becomes very
hot; heat enters easily, but much of it cannot escape.
On mild days (between 20C and 30C), the inside
temperature can easily reach 50C. A temperature this
high can kill, and for this reason animals and young
children should never be left in cars. The greenhouse
effect could have been called the hot car effect, but
instead is named after greenhouses that trap heat from
the Sun to help plants grow more quickly.
How does it work?
Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere behave like the glass in car windows
or a greenhouse. Energy from the Sun reaches the
Earth as electromagnetic waves with a short
wavelength. These waves are able to pass through the
atmosphere (and glass). The energy is absorbed by
the Earth and re-emitted into the atmosphere as long-
wavelength radiation. Greenhouse gases effectively
block the transmission of long-wavelength radiation,
stopping it from reaching space. Much of this energy
is therefore trapped in the atmosphere, warming the
Earth to a temperature suitable for life. If not for the
greenhouse effect, the Earth would, on average, be
about 30C colder!
Warm but not too warm
Although the gases oxygen (O
2
) and nitrogen (N
2
)
account for 99 per cent of the Earths atmosphere,
they are not responsible for global warming. Global
warming is caused by so-called greenhouse gases.
They only make up a tiny part of the atmosphere,
and for this reason are also called trace gases. Carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) is the main greenhouse gas and yet
it only comprises 0.036 per cent of the atmosphere.
Together with the other greenhouse gases, carbon
dioxide provides a blanket that keeps the Earth
warm. Too little carbon dioxide and the planet would
be too cold to sustain life. Too much carbon dioxide
and the atmosphere will start to overheat, melting ice,
changing weather patterns and making it too hot for
some forms of life.
Fig 9.1.1 a Too little: the surface temperature on Mars is 100C because its atmosphere it too thin to heat it further.
b Too much: the surface temperature of Venus is around 500C because of its thick CO
2
atmosphere.
c Just right: the Earth.
a
b c
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Enhanced greenhouse effect
The amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
particularly carbon dioxide, have increased
dramatically throughout the last century, thickening
the blanket that keeps Earth warm. This has resulted
in an enhanced greenhouse effect. The heat coming in
from the Sun is the same, but less and less is escaping
back into space, increasing the average
temperature of Earth. This is global warming.
Prac 1
p. 345
a The natural greenhouse effect
b Global warming is caused by the
enhanced greenhouse effect. Fig 9.1.2
Short wavelength radiation
penetrates atmosphere
Some energy
escapes back
into space
Most energy
is trapped in
the atmosphere,
warming the
Earth
Inner layer of
greenhouse gases
in atmosphere acts
like a greenhouse
Earth absorbs radiation
and emits longer
wavelength radiation
Short wavelength radiation
penetrates atmosphere
Less energy
escapes back
into space
More energy is
trapped in the
atmosphere
Inner layer of
greenhouse gases
in atmosphere acts
like a greenhouse
Earth absorbs radiation
and emits longer
wavelength radiation
Greenhouse gases
The main greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide is released during the natural respiration of
plants and animals and also when they decay after
death. Humans are adding massive and unnatural
amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
through all the day-to-day activities that we take for
granted in modern life. Although living plants use
carbon dioxide when undergoing photosynthesis,
they cannot possibly absorb the extra gas that is
being produced.
Too much CO2
The factories, steamships and locomotives of the
industrial revolution of the late eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries needed fuel to fire their boilers.
This came mainly in the form of timber or coal. The
modern world also needs fuel. In mainland Australia,
coal is still used, mainly to fire the boilers of electrical
power stations.
Coal is a fossil fuel, as is gas, petrol, aviation
fuel, diesel and oil. All are made from the fossilised
remains of long-dead plants and animals. Carbon
dioxide is released whenever fossil fuel is burnt. In
effect, burning unlocks carbon that has been stored
in the Earth for millions of years, producing CO
2
as
it does so. Car exhausts, coal and gas power stations
and industry are leading producers of
carbon dioxide.
The clearing of land (deforestation) by burning
forests has a double effect.
Not only are greenhouse gases
released when forests burn,
but the destroyed trees are
no longer available to store
carbon dioxide.
Humans are currently
releasing more carbon
dioxide than ever before.
Currently about 20 to 30
billion tonnes of carbon
dioxide are released into
the atmosphere per year.
Between 45 to 60 per cent of
this stays in the atmosphere.
The rest is either absorbed
by plants when they undergo
photosynthesis or dissolves
in the water of the lakes
and oceans.
Emergency!
Have you ever noticed
those green and white
exit signs in cinemas and
shopping malls? There
are lots of them and
they all need electrical
power. It is estimated that
in Victoria alone they
generate 126 000 tonnes of
greenhouse gases (mainly
CO2), equivalent to the
output of 25 000 cars!
Self-illuminating signs
that draw their power from
sunlight or from other light
sources are available, but
only make up 1 per cent of
the worlds exit signs.
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Other greenhouse gases
Although carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas,
others include the following:
Methane (CH
4
) is produced when vegetation breaks
down in the absence of oxygen. This happens, for
example, in rice paddies and rubbish tips, and
in the digestive systems
of animals, so that when
cattle (or you!) burp or
fart, methane is released.
Methane is twenty-one
times more effective than
carbon dioxide in blocking
the escape of radiant heat
from Earth. Luckily, less
methane is produced than
carbon dioxide.
Nitrous oxide (NO
2
) is
produced from burning
forests, car exhausts and
artificial fertilisers.
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs were, until relatively
recently, used in aerosol spray cans, in refrigerators
and air conditioners, to clean circuit boards and
in the manufacture of polyurethane foam used in
packaging. They are now banned in Australia and
many other countries.
Surface ozone (O
3
) is generated as part of
photochemical smog, produced by the action of
sunlight on motor vehicle and industrial pollution.
Youve got gas!
If the CO2 produced each
year by Australia was
spread over the surface of
Tasmania it would form a
3 metre high blanket over
the island!
Each year, Australia
produces 542 600 000
tonnes of greenhouse
gases, of which 70 per cent
is CO2. One tonne of CO2
occupies 556 000 litres or
556 m
3
(about the volume
of a four-bedroom house). Fig 9.1.3 a Fossil fuels such as petrol and coal release CO2 when they burn. b Land clearing releases
stored CO2 into the air and removes the trees that can use it.
Burping cows
Cattle emit around 280
litres of methane each
every day, while sheep
produce roughly 25 litres
each per day. Two ideas
being developed to reduce
these emissions are the
Moo Plug (an antibacterial
insert), and a vaccine.
Fig 9.1.4 Concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane
between the years 1000 and 2000
C
H
4

(
p
p
m
)
1800
1700
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Year
Ice core samples
C
O
2

(
p
p
m
)
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Year
Global warming Global warming
a b
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The number of alpine plant species found growing
in the mountains in Germany has fallen, suggesting
that it is now too warm for them to grow.
In Australia, snowgums do not normally grow
on the top of mountains because it is too cold
there. The treeline has shifted 40 metres up the
mountains around Mt Hotham and Falls Creek
in the last twenty-five years,
suggesting the mountain tops are
now warmer.
Large coral reefs in the Caribbean
are now permanently bleached.
This happens when the water is
too warm and the coral expels the
algae that give it colour. Although
rare in the past, bleaching on the
Great Barrier Reef now occurs
every three to four years. Repeated
bleaching kills coral.
Studies of ice cores collected
from Antarctica indicate that
carbon dioxide levels are at
abnormally high levels. When
snow falls it lands on top of ice
formed from compacted snow
that had fallen in previous years.
Deep layers of ice are thus older
than shallow layers. As snow
falls, it traps air bubbles in it
and so an accurate history of
the atmosphere over Antarctica
Fig 9.1.5 Glaciers are retreating, shrinking back as global
temperatures rise.
A slice from an ice core from Antarctica,
showing tiny bubbles of trapped air
Fig 9.1.6
Why doesnt
Australia sign?
Carbon dioxide build-up
results in global warming,
so it makes sense that
governments across
the world should get
together to reduce their
emissions. This was the
aim of the 1997 Kyoto
Protocol, an agreement
that mandated signatory
nations to reduce their
CO2 emissions. The
governments of Australia
and USA have refused to
sign. Both believe that it
will unnecessarily hurt
their economies because
they will need
to reduce emissions by
5 per cent.
Australia produces approximately 1.4 per cent
of the worlds greenhouse gases. Per person, this
makes Australia one of the worlds worst greenhouse
polluting countries.
Australian greenhouse gas production
(excluding land clearing)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 60%
Methane (CH4) 26%
Nitrous oxide (N02) 6%
Other 8%
Source: CSIRO 2002 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, released April 2004
Greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for
many years. Carbon dioxide persists for more than
100 years, while methane remains for eleven years.
You can see why we need to take action now to
reduce emissions.
Evidence of global warming
There is evidence that global warming may already
have had an effect:
Glaciers have been gradually melting and retreating
over the last 200 years and are smaller than ever
before.
Massive icebergs are currently breaking off from
Antarctica more frequently than before.
The ice sheet in Greenland is getting thinner.
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can be obtained by analysing the gases trapped in
each layer. In this way, scientists have gathered data
on carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere over
the last 420 000 years, equating to a depth of 4.7
kilometres.
as would many of the low-
lying cities of the world. The
inhabitants of these areas
would become refugees
requiring somewhere to live,
leading to overcrowding in
other cities and lands, and
strain on food supplies and
infrastructure. The influx of
large numbers of refugees
could also put pressure on
the political systems of each
country that would need to
absorb them.
20

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10
CO
2
and temperature over 420 000 years
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
T
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p
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e

(
C
)
C
O
2

(
p
p
m
)

400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 now
Years before present
CO
2
Temperature
Current level
Predicted level CO
2
in 2100
Predicted
temperature
rise by 2100
Fig 9.1.7 Although carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures
have fluctuated over the past 420 000 years, they have
both shown dramatic increase in the last century. The
graph shows a prediction for the year 2100 if humans
keep increasing carbon dioxide levels at the current rate.
The future
Predicting the temperature rise
Earths average surface temperature has increased by
about 0.5C over the last century. A further increase of
between 1C and 4C is expected by
the end by the year 2100. Although
seemingly small, such a rise would
melt huge amounts of ice currently
locked up on land (for example, in
glaciers, Antarctica and Greenland).
This would increase the water in the
oceans and would raise sea levels
between half to one metre. Massive
flooding of low-lying coastlines
would result. Many of the island
nations in the Pacific and Indian
Oceans would virtually disappear
Antarctic meltdown
If all the ice in Antarctica
were to melt, sea levels
would rise by 61 metres!
If the rest of the ice in
the world were taken into
account, the rise would
be 68 metres, with many
inland areas becoming
beachside.
Fig 9.1.8 Antarctica covers twice the area of Australia.
Antarctic statistics
Area: 14.2 million
square kilometres or
10 per cent of Earths
surface (double that
of Australia)
Ice thickness:
average 2.5 kilometres,
maximum 4.7 kilometres
Elevation: average
2300 kilometres
(Australias average
elevation is 340 metres)
Ice content: 90.6 per cent
of the worlds ice
Fresh water: 70 per cent of
the worlds fresh water
See us while were here!
The island nation of the Maldives is only a little above the waters
of the Indian Ocean. Breakwaters have been constructed in the past
ten years to protect its capital Mali from rising waters. In 2004, the
Maldives completed construction of a rectangular artificial island that
will accommodate the population of Mali, which is expected to go
under in the next 40 years. Before the Boxing Day tsunami of 2004,
the tourist board was marketing the Maldives as a destination that
would be impossible to visit in the future. Some cities around the
world, such as New Orleans (USA), are already below sea level. Others,
such as London (UK) and Venice (Italy), are just above sea level and
are threatened with every storm surge or king tide. Barriers have been
built to protect London and Venice is planning theirs. Will this be
commonplace in the future? Imagine a wall between Sydney Heads or
across the rip in Port Phillip Bay!
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Predicting local effects
Weather forecasting for a week in advance can be very
difficult, let alone for ten or a hundred years ahead, so
most scientists are unsure of the exact nature of future
climate changes. Although it is extremely difficult to
predict exactly what will happen if global temperatures
continue to rise, some regions will become drier, some
wetter, some cooler and most will be hotter.
Scientists also predict that the changes in world
temperatures may:
increase the number and intensity of wild storms
and cyclones. Cyclones could move into regions
normally too cold to sustain them. Cyclones would
move further south in Australia and hurricanes
further north in the USA
cause less rain and snow to fall in some areas
Temperatures in Australia compared to the 196190 average
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
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e

a
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

(
C
)
1.0
0.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Reference period
5 year mean
Fig 9.1.9
T
e
m
p
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r
a
t
u
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e

c
h
a
n
g
e

(
C
)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
Year
range due to emissions
uncertainty and climate
response uncertainty
range due
to emissions
uncertainty
Fig 9.1.10 Predicted global warming compared to 1990
With global warming, the alps of Victoria and NSW are expected to have fewer days each year covered in snow.
Present 2050
1 30 60 100
2020
Number of days per year
expected to have snow cover
Fig 9.1.11
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increase the frequency of droughts and heat-waves,
resulting in more bushfires
cause the extinction of animals and plants that
require specific, cooler habitats
increase the occurrence of disease in humans,
plants, crops and animalsdisease-causing
bacteria grow faster when it is warmer
cause some plants to grow faster in the warmer
climates, but less rain may mean poor
crop yields and fewer plant varieties,
leading to food shortages, famine or
simply less choice
increase the chance of heat stroke and
illness.
push this warmer water west towards the east coast
of Australia, where high levels of evaporation cause
normal amounts of rainfall. Every few years, the
El Nio effect occurs in which trade winds weaken
or reverse, allowing warmer water to move towards
the west coast of South America around Christmas
time (El Nio means Christ child in Spanish). The
result is that Australia experiences drought, and South
America experiences increased rainfall.
What can we do?
Use of renewable energy sources reduces fossil fuel
consumption and therefore would decrease the amount
of greenhouse gases released. Some of these alternative
energies use the wind, waves, falling water (hydro),
biomass and the tides, or use technologies that exploit
the heat of the Earth itself (geothermal) or light from the
Sun. The Crookwell wind farm, in New South Wales,
for example, produces enough energy to service 3500
homes and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 8000
tonnes per year. Alternative energies were investigated
in more detail in Science Dimensions 3.
Another way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions
is to use nuclear instead of fossil fuels. This has its
own problems, however, and will be investigated in
more detail in Unit 9.4.
Will this become a more common
sight in the future? Fig 9.1.12
Trade winds fail to keep
warm water in the west
Evaporation of warm
water produces
storm clouds over
South America
Pacific Ocean
water cooler
than usual
Current helps to push warm
water towards South America
cold water trapped under warm water
water warmer
than usual
Fig 9.1.13 The El Nio effect
Prac 2
p. 345
El Nio
Another factor adding to weather extremes, possibly
blurring the effect of global warming, is the El Nio
effect. The water of the Pacific Ocean is warmer
than other oceans. In a normal year, trade winds
Homework book 9.1 Temperature change predictions
Homework book 9.2 Global warming
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Questions
]
Revision questions
Warm but not too warm
1 Give the percentage abundance of the two most
abundant gases in Earths atmosphere.
2 What is the main greenhouse gas and how abundant
is it?
Greenhouse effect
3 Explain why it is dangerous to leave small children or
pets in a car, even on a mild day.
4 In terms of wavelength and energy, explain how
greenhouse gases keep Earth warm.
>>
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18 Suggest why global warming might increase rainfall in
some areas.
19 Predict what changes might happen in the area in
which you live due to global warming.
20 It is not in the best interests of some companies to
produce more efficient car engines. Suggest why.
21 Given adequate rainfall and suitable temperatures,
wheat yields may actually increase in response to higher
CO
2
concentrations. Suggest why.
22 Permafrost is permanently frozen soil and is found in
many resorts and villages in European mountain ranges.
Predict what might put these regions in danger as a
consequence of global warming.
Analysis questions
23 Refer to the graphs shown in Figure 9.1.4.
a Describe the levels of carbon dioxide and methane
in the atmosphere between the years 1000 and
1400.
b Explain why the amounts of carbon dioxide and
methane suddenly increased and roughly when it
happened.
c Estimate the rise in CO
2
and CH
4
concentrations
between the years 1800 and 2000.
d Calculate as percentages your answers to part c.
24 A single cow emits an amazing 280 litres of methane
as burps and farts every day. The number of cattle in
Australia (referred to as the national herd) is about
27 million. Estimate the volume of methane the national
herd emits in:
a a day
b a year.
25 Refer to Figure 9.1.10. By how many degrees is the
temperature expected to rise compared to that of 1990:
a in 2040
b in 2080?
26 There is roughly one car for every two people in the
USA (population 293 million people), while in China
(population 1300 million or 1.3 billion people) there
is roughly one car for every 1400 people. There are
currently about 500 million cars in the world.
a Estimate how many cars are in the United States.
b Estimate how many cars are in China.
c Calculate how many cars would be in China if they
had the same ratio of cars to people as the USA.
d Suggest the consequences for global warming if
China had the same ratio of cars to people as
the USA.
5 The greenhouse effect is essential for life on Earth, yet
the enhanced greenhouse effect might put it at risk.
Explain the difference between the two.
Greenhouse gases
6 Give two reasons why carbon dioxide has built up in the
atmosphere.
7 Although methane blocks the escape of radiant heat
much more than carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is
considered the main greenhouse gas. Explain why.
8 Copy and complete the following table to summarise the
main greenhouse gases:
Greenhouse gas Chemical formula Sources
Evidence of global warming
9 List four pieces of evidence that indicate that global
warming is real.
10 Explain how ice cores from Antarctica trace the history
of the atmosphere.
11 Compare carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
with the Earths average temperature over the past
420 000 years.
The future
12 The average temperature rise during the past 100
years is:
A 0.3C
B 1.0C
C 0.5C
D 5C.
13 List four likely effects of global warming.
El Nio
14 What is meant by the term El Nio?
15 Outline two ways in which El Nio affects Australia.
What can we do?
16 Identify two ways in which greenhouse gases can be
reduced.
Thinking questions
17 Imagine all greenhouse gas emissions stopped today.
What impact would this have on concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
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at work
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Rest of the World 5%
Japan 5%
India 4%
Canada 2%
Mexico 2%
Australia 1%
Indonesia 1%
USA
24%
Western Europe
11.6%
China
14%
Eastern Europe and
former U.S.S.R. 12%
Middle East 5%
Africa 4%
Central and
South America
4%
Taiwan 1% Thailand 1%
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Fossil Fuels, 2003
Fig 9.1.14 This pie chart shows the amount of CO2 emitted
by different countries in the production of their
energy. It does not include car emissions, factory
emissions or any other source.
a Construct a bar graph that displays the same
information.
b The publication implies that this proves the
greenhouse gas emissions from Australia are
minimal. Comment on this implication.
Locating
Rising sea levels
On a map highlight the countries, coastlines and islands
that are most likely to disappear due to rising sea levels.
Debating
Kyoto Protocol
The governments of a handful of countries (including
USA and Australia) have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol
and are reluctant to agree to definite targets for reduction
of greenhouse gases. They think this could harm their
economies. What does this mean? What is your opinion?
In groups, analyse all the information given in Unit 9.1
and decide on your position. Prepare notes to debate the
question Should Australia ratify the Kyoto Protocol?
Present your work as a class debate.
Surfing
Companion Website
Calculate the household gas emissions
from your household by connecting to
Australian Greenhouse Calculator on the
Researching climate change
Internet, etc.) to research:
the climate projections of organisations like the
CSIRO and the United States Environment Protection
Agency
El Nio, La Nia and the North Atlantic Oscillation
and how each of these is thought to be linked to
global warming. Evaluate the impact of these
phenomena on the Australian climate.
Present your research as a poster that includes graphs
or maps.
Graphing
Greenhouse gases
1 Using data from Unit 9.1, construct a pie chart that
compares the Australian production of different
greenhouse gases.
2 Carbon dioxide emissions per person for several
countries are listed below.
a Construct a column graph showing this information.
b From these figures and the graph, write a conclusion.
Country Carbon dioxide emissions per capita,
2003 (tonnes per 1000 people)
Australia 18.9
United States 19.8
Canada 16.2
New Zealand 8.3
Germany 10.2
United Kingdom 9.3
Japan 9.6
3 The pie chart in Figure 9.1.14 was recently publicised
in a publication for schools from the Australian federal
government.
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The greenhouse effect
Prac 1
Unit 9.1
4 What would another layer of glass or plastic represent if
this prac models the Earth?
light source
glass or perspex sheet
shoebox
temperature probe
to
datalogger
Fig 9.1.15
Icebergs
You will need
Four to six ice cubes, cold water, a large beaker,
another identical beaker containing frozen water
as shown in Figure 9.1.16
Prac 2
Unit 9.1
Method
1 Place some ice cubes (representing icebergs) in the
empty beaker.
2 Add the same amount of water to each of the two
beakers and mark the water level on the outside of each
beaker.
3 Allow each beaker to warm enough so a significant
amount of ice melts in each.
4 Compare the water level to that initially marked on each
beaker.
Questions
1 Global warming will melt floating icebergs. Would this
contribute to a rise in sea levels?
2 Land ice will also melt. Would this contribute to a rise in
sea levels?
You will need
Small cardboard box (such as a shoebox),
two thermometers or temperature probes
and datalogging equipment, sheet of glass or
polythene plastic, lamp
What to do
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 9.1.15.
2 Turn on the lamp and measure the temperature at
regular intervals (such as every minute) for 10 minutes.
3 Turn off the lamp, but continue to measure temperature
for another 10 minutes.
4 If time permits, investigate the effect of an additional
layer of glass or plastic.
Questions
1 Construct a graph showing temperature versus time for
each section of the box.
2 Compare the temperature patterns in each section.
3 In the global greenhouse effect, what takes the place of
the glass or plastic sheet?
water
ice cubes
mark water
levels
ice
Fig 9.1.16
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UNIT
UNIT
In the stratosphere, 20 to 30 kilometres above the
Earths surface, is the ozone layer. Here it provides
a protective layer that acts as a shield, absorbing
around 90 per cent of the harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the Sun. Though you need some UV
rays on your skin for production of vitamin D for
healthy bones, high levels increase the likelihood of
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to think of this layer as a blanket.
In reality, the ozone is very thinly
spread out and would form a layer
only 5 millimetres thick
if all the ozone in the
layer was brought to
ground level.
What is ozone?
When people refer to oxygen, they usually mean the
oxygen we use when we breathe. This type of oxygen
(O
2
) consists of molecules made of two oxygen atoms.
Ozone (O
3
) is another naturally occurring form of
oxygen, each molecule comprising three oxygen atoms.
Ozone is a colourless gas that has a very pungent odour.
While performing a vital role in the stratosphere, ozone
at ground level is a pollutant. It is poisonous, causing
eye, nose and throat irritation and lung damage.
oxygen molecule
(used when we breathe)
O
2
oxygen
atom
O
ozone molecule
O
3
Fig 9.2.1 Oxygen atoms (O), may combine with each other
to form oxygen (O2), or ozone (O3).
Ozone layer
Ozone is created when UV light splits oxygen
molecules (O
2
) into single oxygen atoms. These single
oxygen atoms then join other oxygen molecules to form
triplets of oxygen atoms, or ozone molecules (O
3
).
O2 + O
O3
UV light also splits ozone molecules, so ozone is
continually being created and destroyed, with UV
light being absorbed in the process. This happens
in the stratosphere, 20 to 30 kilometres above Earth.
This region, in which ozone is thinly distributed, is
referred to as the ozone layer. It is wrong, however,
Ozone creation in the atmosphere
oxygen molecules
in atmosphere
UV light
free oxygen atoms
newly created
ozone molecule
Fig 9.2.2
skin cancers and eye damage. High
UV levels also slow photosynthesis
in plants. The ozone layer is vital to
life on Earth. Its depletion poses a
major threat to us all.
Monkey asthma
A team of researchers
at the University of
California ran a series
of tests in which rhesus
monkeys were exposed
to varying levels of
ozone and found that
young moneys exposed
to higher ozone levels
developed lung problems
similar to asthma in
humans, while adult
animals were less
affected.
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented in the
1920s and were once called wonder chemicals
because they were non-poisonous, odourless, stable
and cheap to produce. Until recently, they were used
extensively as propellants for aerosol sprays and as
coolant gases in refrigerators and airconditioners.
They also made the bubbles within polystyrene and
other foam packaging. We now know that CFCs are
greenhouse gases and can destroy ozone. They do
this by drifting upwards into the stratosphere
where they break down, releasing chlorine. Each
chlorine atom released this way reacts with ozone
molecules, breaking them apart into oxygen molecules
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and oxygen atoms. The chlorine acts as a catalyst and is
not part of any new substance formed. It is then free to
go on and destroy more ozone molecules.
is misleading. In considering ozone layer thickness,
we imagine all the ozone brought down to ground
level and concentrated into in a pure layer. For
example, 100 Dobson units correspond to a layer
of pure ozone one millimetre thick at ground level.
Remote sensing satellites collect data on the amount of
ozone in the stratosphere. If all the ozone molecules in
the ozone layer were brought to ground level, it would
form a sheet averaging only 500 DU (5 mm) thick.
A value of less than 220 DU is considered to be an
ozone hole. The ozone hole, situated over Antarctica,
was discovered by British scientist Dr Joseph Farman
in 1985. The Antarctic ozone hole appears around
the end of winter in August each year, and is most
pronounced by the end of October when the day
breaks after the Antarctic winter. At this time chlorine
is very effective at breaking down ozone molecules.
ozone
molecule
chlorine atom
released by
CFC molecule
that has drifted
into stratosphere
chlorine
monoxide
oxygen
molecule
chlorine released to attack
another ozone molecule
+
+
Fig 9.2.3 Chlorine atoms continue a cycle
of ozone destruction.
Ozone layer thickness over
Antarctica in past years
400
359
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
T
o
t
a
l

o
z
o
n
e

(
D
o
b
s
o
n

u
n
i
t
s
)
Year
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Monthly averages for October
Fig 9.2.4
A
r
e
a

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

s
q
u
a
r
e

k
m
)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
9
7
9
1
9
8
1
1
9
8
3
1
9
8
5
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
Year
area of Australia
Fig 9.2.5 A graph of the size of the ozone hole
between 1979 and 2003, obtained from
satellite-based instruments
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Other ozone attackers
CFCs are not the only chemicals to destroy ozone.
Nitrogen oxides also speed up ozone destruction.
These gases are produced when jet aircraft engines
burn fuel. Supersonic aircraft fly higher and inject
these gases directly into the stratosphere.
The space shuttle releases ozone-attacking hydrogen
chloride (HCl) when its boosters fire during launch.
Each launch releases 68 tonnes of hydrogen chloride
gas (gaseous hydrochloric acid) into the atmosphere.
Volcanoes also release hydrogen chloride.
Lightning causes reactions that split ozone
molecules.
CFCs and the other ozone attackers last for many
years in the atmosphere and so continue to cause
damage well after their release:
Gas Chemical
formula
Average life in
atmosphere (years)
CFC 11 CCl
3
F 65
CFC 12 CCl
2
F
2
110
CFC 13 CClF
3
160
freon (halon 1301) CF
3
Br 110
nitrous oxide N
2
O 130
methane CH
4
11
The hole
The thickness of the ozone layer is measured
in Dobson units (DU). Ozone is spread throughout
a region of the stratosphere, so the term thickness
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Homework book 9.3 Analysing ozone
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
What is ozone?
1 Where is ozone found in the atmosphere?
2 Use a diagram and a chemical formula to show the
difference between oxygen and ozone.
3 List two physical properties of ozone.
4 Outline the harmful effects of ozone.
Ozone layer
5 Use a diagram to show how ozone is formed in the
upper atmosphere.
6 Explain why it is wrong to think of the ozone layer as a
blanket.
Chlorofluorocarbons
7 List three properties of CFCs that made them wonder
chemicals when first invented.
8 Use a diagram to describe how CFCs destroy ozone.
>>
Fig 9.2.6 A NASA satellite image of the record size of the
ozone hole, taken on 9 September 2000. Blue
denotes regions of low ozone concentration.
In November, winds carry ozone-rich air from other
regions over the Antarctic, repairing the hole, but
leaving lower ozone levels over Australia and
New Zealand.
The future
One hundred nations agreed in the Montreal Protocol
of 1987 to either stop manufacture or limit their use of
CFCs by the year 2000 or earlier. Despite most nations
honouring their commitment to the protocol, levels
of CFCs in the atmosphere are still rising, as it takes
ten years or more for them to reach the ozone layer.
It is expected that ozone levels will return to normal
by 2045.
Already there is some evidence that the reduction
in the use of CFCs is starting to have an effect. Recent
monitoring has indicated that the ozone hole is now
not as big as the record hole in September 2000. It is
hoped that international co-operation to repair the
damage is working. Time will complete the story.
Meanwhile, apply that sunscreen!
9 List four ways in which CFCs have been used in the
past.
Other ozone attackers
10 Apart from CFCs, what else can destroy ozone?
The hole
11 What is the name and abbreviation of the units for
measuring ozone?
12 How much ozone is described by 100 DU?
13 Identify the level of ozone measurement that indicates
an ozone hole.
14 The Antarctic ozone hole varies throughout the year.
At what time of year is the ozone layer the thinnest?
The future
15 What was the major outcome of the Montreal
Protocol?
16 CFC levels are still rising in the atmosphere. Will their
levels ever reduce? Explain your answer.
Thinking questions
17 UV radiation can both be beneficial and harmful.
Explain how.
18 A thinner ozone layer could affect food supplies.
Suggest how.
19 The ozone layer occupies a space between 20 and
30 kilometres above the Earth. Although this is a layer
10 kilometres thick, it is also described as only being
5 millimetres thick. Explain this apparent contradiction.
Ozone layer Ozone layer
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20 The term ozone hole is not entirely correct. Explain
why.
21 The ozone hole is not directly over Australia but we are
still concerned about it. Suggest why.
22 High levels of UV can reduce the number of plankton
(microscopic plants and animals in the oceans). Predict
likely consequences of this.
Analysis questions
23 Use Figure 9.2.5 to identify:
a the largest area of the ozone hole recorded
b when this record-sized hole occurred.
24 Refer to Figures 9.2.5 and 9.2.6 and estimate:
a the area (in millions of square kilometres) of the
ozone hole:
i in 1982
ii in 1995
b when the ozone hole first measured:
i 20 million square kilometres
ii 150 DU
c when the ozone hole became larger than Antarctica
(which has an area of about 14 million square
kilometres).
25 Imagine bringing to ground level all the ozone in an
ozone layer that measures 220 Dobson units. Calculate
the thickness of this pure ozone.
26 Sketch a graph of the ozone thickness you could
expect if:
a CFC use stopped immediately
b CFC use continues at the same rate as the present
c CFC use increases.
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at work
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SCIENCE
Imagining
Ozone holefact or fiction?
Articles have appeared in the press suggesting that the
ozone hole is part of a natural cycle, and will disappear
without the need for humans to take corrective action.
Present your thoughts as a newspaper or magazine
article, letter or email in response either supporting or
arguing against these articles. Include an attention-grabbing
headline and scientific evidence to back your opinions.
Listing
Propellants
List the chemicals used as propellants in spray cans that you
have around your home. Assess whether the ozone layer is
at risk from each of these products.
Present your work as a table showing the results of your
survey.
Surfing
Researching the ozone layer
ozone-friendly chemicals that are being used in place of
CFCs. Investigate two of these chemicals and evaluate
their effectiveness. Prepare a pamphlet to be distributed
with products that use these new chemicals
the specific types of eye damage and cancers caused
by UV radiation. Construct a brochure aimed at
increasing the publics awareness of the risk of UV
exposure to the eyes
TOMS, an instrument that measures the ozone layer.
Examine the data collected by TOMS and produce a
news report commenting on the current status of ozone
over Australia
the Montreal Protocol. Prepare a written summary of
Australias participation in the agreement.
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UNIT
UNIT
Three isotopes of hydrogen
hydrogen-1
(hydrogen or protium)
hydrogen-2
(deuterium)
hydrogen-3
(tritium)
Key: Proton Neutron Electron
H
1
1
H
2
1
H
3
1
Fig 9.3.1
Sunlight is a form of radiation, as are radio waves
and microwaves. The term radiation refers to
energy in the form of fast-moving particles or
electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves were
discussed in detail in Chapter 8. Nuclear radiation,
as the name suggests, is radiation that comes from
the nucleus of an atom. Controlled nuclear radiation
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have three neutrons. The rest have four. Hence lithium
has two isotopes, which we can write as:
Mass number = number of protons + neutrons
6
Li
7
Li
3
and
3
Atomic number = number of protons
Uranium atoms always have 92 protons. The most
common isotope has 146 neutrons, a less common
isotope has 143 neutrons and a few have 142 neutrons.
Hence they can be written as:

238

U
235

U
234

U

92

92

92
Radiation and radioactivity
There are ninety-two protons in the nuclei of uranium
atoms. They are all positively charged and each one
repels the other. Logic says they should fly apart
and the nucleus should disintegrate into ninety-two
parts. But this doesnt happen. Protons in a nucleus
stay together because of another more powerful force
called the nuclear force.
Nuclear force acts between all
particles in a nucleus and is more
than sufficient to hold the nuclei
of small atoms together. When
a nucleus becomes very large,
however, the nuclear force might
not be strong enough to hold the
nucleus together and bits might
break off. In doing so, the nucleus
gets smaller and more stable.
Nuclear radiation is the energy and
the particles that are released from
the nucleus in its break-up. An
element whose atoms emit nuclear
radiation is said to be radioactive.
Uranium and most of the elements
after it in the Periodic Table
(atoms of higher atomic number)
are radioactive.
Atoms and isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons belong to
the same element. Isotopes are atoms of the same
element that have different numbers of neutrons in
their nuclei. For example, all lithium atoms have three
protons. Ninety-three per cent of all lithium atoms
can be beneficial. Radiotherapy is commonly used
to treat cancer, for example. It can also be extremely
dangerous if it leaks accidentally from nuclear waste
from medicine or from power plants.
Discovery of
radioactivity
When French scientist
Henri Becquerel placed
some uranium in a dark
drawer containing some
wrapped photographic
plates in 1896, he was
surprised to find later that
the plates had become
foggy. He deduced that they
must have been affected by
something coming from the
uranium, something able to
penetrate the wrapping. He
had observed one effect of
radioactivity.
Not surprisingly, a radioactive isotope is called a
radioisotope. When referring to a radioisotope, often just
its mass number is given. Since all uranium atoms are
radioactive, the radioisotopes of uranium could be
written as uranium-234, uranium-235 and uranium-238.
Actinium, astatine, carbon, francium, thorium,
protactinium, polonium, radon and radium are all radio-
active elements and, like uranium, occur naturally. Many
synthetic or artificial elements are also radioactive.
Hydrogen has three isotopes. Roughly 99 per cent
is normal (stable and not radioactive), 1 per cent is
deuterium (stable but toxic in high doses) and a very
small amount is tritium. Tritium is unstableit is
a radioisotope.
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Beta decay
carbon-14 nitrogen-14
beta particle
14
6
C
14
7
N
0
1
+
+
Fig 9.3.4
Three types of
nuclear radiation
When a radioisotope emits
radiation, it usually transforms
into another element. We say
it has undergone radioactive
decay. There are three main
types of radioactive decay, each
emitting a different type of
radiation. The three are:
alpha radiation ( radiation)
beta radiation ( radiation)
gamma radiation
( radiation).
Alpha radiation
One way radioactive nuclei
can get smaller and more
stable is by throwing out a
cluster of two protons and
two neutrons. This cluster is
known as an alpha particle (denoted by ), but is
really just a helium nucleus,
4
2
He.
Uranium-238 emits an alpha particle and in doing
so decays into thorium-234, as shown in Figure 9.3.3.
The equation is balanced, with the same number of
Fig 9.3.2 Marie Curie
Marie and
Pierre Curie
Polish-born Marie Curie
and her French-born
husband Pierre Curie, are
famous for their pioneering
work with uranium and
other radiation-emitting
elements. Marie first used
the term radioactivity,
her birthplace gave us
the name for the element
polonium (Po), and their
surname became the name
for curium (Cm). The
couple shared the 1903
Nobel Prize for physics
with Henri Becquerel.
In 1911, Marie became
the first person to win two
Nobel prizes when she was
awarded the Nobel Prize for
chemistry for her discovery
of radium and polonium.
Pierre was killed in an
accident with a horse-
drawn vehicle in 1906 and
Marie died of leukaemia in
1934, probably as a result
of working so closely with
radioisotopes for most of
her life.
protons and neutrons on each side. You can check by
adding up the mass numbers on the product side of the
reaction: they add up to 238, the same as we started
with. Likewise, the atomic numbers add up to 92.
Alpha particles move at speeds of up to one-tenth
of the speed of light. Alpha decay can be thought of
as nuclear fission because a parent nucleus splits into
two daughter nuclei.
Beta radiation
When there is an imbalance of neutrons and protons
in a nucleus, a neutron may change into a proton and
an electron. The newly created electron is called a
beta particle (denoted by ), which is then emitted
from the nucleus.
Carbon-14 is a radioisotope that decays into the new
element, nitrogen, by emitting a beta particle from its
nucleus. This decay is represented in Figure 9.3.4.
Alpha decay
uranium-238 thorium-234
alpha
particle
238
92
U
234
90
Th
4
2
+
Fig 9.3.3
An extra proton has been created from a neutron
so the atomic number of the atom increases from 6
to 7, meaning that a new element has been formed.
The mass number of the beta particle is zero since
it really is just an electron, and they have negligible
mass. The 1 at the bottom indicates the negative
charge on a beta particle. Once again, the mass
numbers give the same total on each side of the
equation (14 = 14 + 0) and the atomic numbers give
the same total (6 = 7 + 1).
Beta particles move at speeds of up to nine-tenths
the speed of light and so pass through materials better
than alpha particles.
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Half-life
The time taken for half the atoms in a sample to decay
is its half-life. For example, the quantity of radon-222
halves every four days.
Gamma decay
iodine-131 xenon-131
beta particle
gamma ray
I
131
53
Xe
131
54

0
1

0
0
+ +
+
Fig 9.3.5
Gamma radiation
Both alpha and beta radiation consist of particles.
Radiation can also be in the form of electromagnetic
waves or rays. Sometimes when an alpha particle
or beta particle is emitted from a nucleus, the new
nucleus is still unstable and emits extra energy in the
form of a gamma ray to become even more stable. A
gamma ray (denoted by ) is a burst of high-frequency
electromagnetic radiation that has no mass or charge.
Gamma rays are more powerful than X-rays.
The beta decay of iodine-131 is accompanied by
gamma emission as shown in Figure 9.3.5.
Like all electromagnetic radiation, gamma rays
move at the speed of light (300 000 km/s). Their
incredible speed means they penetrate materials even
more than beta particles.
beta
particle
gamma
ray
alpha
particle
thick sheet
of paper
1 mm sheet
of aluminium
several centimetres
of lead or concrete
Fig 9.3.6 The penetration abilities of alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Alpha particles are stopped by a thick sheet
of paper or human skin; beta particles are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium; and most gamma rays
are stopped by a thick layer of lead or concrete, though some still get through.
Homework book 9.4 Uranium decay series
The number of atoms of a radioactive element
in a sample halves after each half-life. How
many radioactive atoms would you expect to
remain after one more half-life?
after 1
half-life
after 2
half-lives
after 3
half-lives
Fig 9.3.7
Some common radioisotopes and their half-lives
Radioisotope Half-life
radon-222 4 days
iodine-131 8 days
cobalt-60 5.3 years
americium-241 460 years
carbon-14 5730 years
plutonium-239 24 000 years
uranium-238 4.5 million years
A one-kilogram sample of pure uranium-238 would
decay over time to leave the amounts shown in the
following table.
Nuclear radiation Nuclear radiation
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molecules, they are more likely to become involved in
chemical reactions. If these radiations hit body cells,
they may cause chemical reactions that can:
destroy cells, which may appear as a burn. Cells
on that site may not be replaced
cause abnormal cell growth, which may appear as
a tumour or cancer.
Measuring radiation
Nuclear radiation may be detected using a Geiger
counter. Gas molecules within a tube are ionised by any
radiation that enters. The resulting ions produce a pulse
of electrical current that is fed to a small speaker and
counter. The speaker makes a clicking sound with each
pulse of current. The activity of a radioactive sample
is the number of disintegrations per second; it gives an
indication of the number of radioisotopes present.
People at risk of exposure to high radiation levels,
such medical staff or workers at nuclear facilities,
wear special detectors called dosimeters.
Time Mass of U-238 in sample
0 years 1 kg
4.5 million years 500 g
9 million years 250 g
13.5 million years 125 g
18 million years 62.5 g
Sources of nuclear radiation
Nuclear radiation may be produced artificially by
bombarding atoms with neutrons or other subatomic
particles. Most radiation we receive comes from
natural sources, however. The Earth is continually
being struck by solar radiation and cosmic radiation
produced, for example, by collapsing stars. Terrestrial
radiation originates from substances in the Earths
crust. The decay of natural underground uranium
produces radioactive radon gas, which we inhale in
the air we breathe.
Source Approximate
percentage of annual
radiation received
terrestrial (from natural radioactive
underground deposits)
75%
solar and cosmic (from space) 13%
medical (from medical procedures
and X-rays)
10%
manufactured (from burning coal,
electromagnetic devices, fallout from
weapons testing)
2%
Effects of nuclear
radiation
Alpha, beta and gamma
radiations are sometimes called
ionising radiation because of
their ability to ionise, or charge,
atoms or molecules, causing
them to become charged.
Charged atoms or molecules
are called ions. Alpha particles
have high ionising ability, while
beta and gamma radiation have
low ionising ability. Because
ions attract other atoms and
Radioactive water
In Fujian province in
China, millions of people
obtain drinking water
from wells in granite rock.
Radon-222 leaches from
the granite into the water,
making it 150 times more
radioactive than water in
more developed counties.
Not surprisingly, cancer
rates in the region are the
highest in China.
A Geiger counter Fig 9.3.8
There are several units for measuring nuclear
radiation doses. One of the main units is sieverts (Sv).
The table on the next page refers to millionths of a
sievert, or microsieverts (Sv).
A dose measured in sieverts or microsieverts takes
into account the energy per kilogram delivered
by nuclear radiation and its ability to ionise. You
receive a dose of about 300 Sv annually from cosmic
radiation, and 1400 Sv from terrestrial radiation.
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Uses of nuclear
radiation
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear radiation is not always
bad. Radioisotopes can cause
cancers but are also used in nuclear
medicine to diagnose and treat
them. Radiotherapy involves
directing high, localised doses of
radiation to cancer sites either by
using an external focused beam, a
surgical implant or by swallowing a
radioactive medicine. Rapidly dividing
cells such as cancerous cells are more sensitive to
nuclear radiation than other cellsthey self-destruct
if their DNA is damaged. Unfortunately, some nearby
healthy cells are also killed, leading to short-term
illness and side effects.
Nuclear medicines are also used to give images
of internal organs, blood vessels and bones. Gamma-
emitting radioactive tracers are swallowed or injected
and tend to collect in particular parts of the body.
They are then detected by a gamma-ray camera placed
outside the body. The gamma rays coming from inside
the body are then converted to an image. For example,
iodine-123 concentrates in the thyroid gland and so
may be used to help diagnose thyroid conditions.
Radioactive money!
Between 1945 and 1989
Germany was divided into
two separate countries
(East Germany and West
Germany). As part of the
cold war, East German
secret police used
radioactive scandium-
46 to invisibly label
political opponents so
they could be tracked
using hidden Geiger
counters that vibrated in
response to radioactivity.
Labelling occurred in a
variety of ways. Floors
were treated as were
documents and money.
This practice exposed
victims and anyone near
them to dangerous levels
of radioactivity because
scandium-46 is both a
beta and gamma emitter.
Radioactive cash in your
pocket would both give you
away to the secret police
and very likely reduce your
fertility!
This device directs gamma rays from cobalt-
60 onto cancerous growths within the body. Fig 9.3.9
Fig 9.3.10 A krypton (Kr) tracer being administered
as a gas to a patient
Biological effects of nuclear radiation
Dose (Sv) Short term Long term
Less than 10 000 none possible effect on unborn babies
10 000 to 100 000 none unborn babies likely to contract
leukaemia
100 000 to 500 000 cell damage increased likelihood of cancer
(including leukaemia)
500 000 to 1 000 000 radiation sicknesssymptoms include nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea, hair loss, internal bleeding;
white blood cell count drops
greater likelihood of contracting
cancer
1 000 000 to 8 000 000 severe radiation sickness, possible death within
a month
very high probability of cancer
Industrial applications
Nuclear radiation can be added to liquids or gases
flowing in pipes to trace leaks or check for fractures.
The thickness of metal or rubber sheets can be verified
by measuring the amount of radiation transmitted
through the material.
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Dirty bombs
Since 11 September 2001, there has been much
discussion regarding the threat from terrorism and the
methods terrorists might use to strike. One concern is
the possibility of a dirty bomb. Although a dirty bomb
contains nuclear material, it is not a nuclear bomb.
Instead it uses a normal bomb or explosive to spread
its radioactive material far and wide, to float in the air
and eventually settle, contaminating water, land and
food supplies. Because any radioactive material can
be used, there must be tight controls on all radioactive
waste, whether it is from a hospital or a nuclear
power plant.
Carbon dating
All living things contain radioactive carbon-14.
It is continually decaying but is constantly being
replenished. While the organism is alive, the
percentage of carbon-14 it contains will be constant.
When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-
14 reduces due to its continuous beta decay into
nitrogen-14. In contrast, the amount of normal
non-radioactive carbon (carbon-12), stays constant.
The approximate age of once-living matter can be
determined by comparing the amounts of both types
of carbon in it and then by using the graph shown in
Figure 9.3.13.
Here bone is being carbon dated.
Fig 9.3.12
Radiation can be used to check the
thickness of materials.
beta or
gamma
source
radiation
detector
roller
control
sheet
of metal
rollers

Fig 9.3.11
Smoke detectors
Smoke detectors contain a small amount of americium-241. Alpha
particles emitted by the americium ionise the air and create a small
current that keeps the alarm from sounding. When smoke enters, the ions
are attracted to the larger smoke particles and move more slowly. The
reduced current is now unable to stop the alarm sounding and a high-
pitched sound is emitted.
C
a
r
b
o
n
1
4

a
t
o
m
s

r
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

(
%
)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5730 11460 17190 22920 28650 34380 40110 45840
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (years)
Half-lives
Fig 9.3.13 Decay graph for carbon-14
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Golden poo!
What was the source of balls of matter washing up on Sydney beaches?
Did they come from sewage or another source such as waste from a
passing tanker? Scientists labelled outgoing sewage with radioactive
gold-198, a radioisotope with a half-life of 2.7 days. Soon after, the balls
washing up on beaches were found to be radioactive, showing that they
indeed came from discharged sewage.
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Other uses
Food that has been exposed to gamma radiation
lasts much longer than normal, without becoming
radioactive itself, because bacteria and fungi are
killed by the radiation. Unfortunately, vitamins
may be destroyed as well and new chemicals might
be created within the food. For this reason, many
consumers are uncomfortable with the idea of food
irradiation.
Nuclear radiation is also used to sterilise medical
and surgical equipment. Needles used by diabetics
are sterilised in this way.
Radioisotopes can be injected into or fed to
animals in order to trace their movement using
radiation detectors, or to trace the movement of
nutrients through the food chain.
Fertilisers with added radioisotopes are used to
study the uptake of nutrients by crops.
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Radiation and radioactivity
1 Identify the force that acts on particles in
the nucleus of an atom that:
a holds them together
b pushes them apart.
Atoms and isotopes
2 List four radioactive elements.
3 Explain why large atoms are more likely to be
radioactive than small ones.
4 Identify which atom is an isotope of atom
40
20
X. Is it
atom
40
22
Y or atom
42
20
Z?
Three types of nuclear radiation
5 List the three main types of radiation and write
equations showing typical reactions that might
produce them.
6 Identify the type of nuclear radiation that:
a is the same as a helium nucleus
b can pass through paper but not aluminium
c is not made of particles
d requires the conversion of a neutron into a proton
and electron
e is the product of nuclear fission.
7 Explain what the term half-life means.
8 Copy the following table and summarise details for
each of the main types of nuclear radiation.
>>
Alpha
particles
Beta
particles
Gamma
rays
Sketch
Charge
Mass
Speed
Penetration ability
(high, medium or low)
Stopped by
Ionising ability
Half-life
9 Iodine-131 has a half-life of eight days. Calculate the
amount left from a 2 kilogram sample after:
a eight days
b sixteen days
c twenty-four days.
Sources of nuclear radiation
10 List two natural ways radiation is produced.
11 Radon gas is present in our atmosphere. Outline how it
is produced.
Effects of nuclear radiation
12 Explain why ions produced by radiation are more likely
to affect our cells than other atoms.
13 Nuclear radiation may be detected in several ways.
Describe two.
14 What is the size of the radiation dose you are likely to
receive over the next year?
Uses of nuclear radiation
15 List two examples of useful nuclear radiation in industry.
16 State one advantage and one disadvantage of food
irradiation.
17 Describe what a dirty bomb is.
Thinking questions
18 Radioactive decay of uranium in the ground produces
radon gas, which bubbles up through the ground
to reach the air. Radon in turn decays to produce
polonium, an alpha-particle emitter. Although
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alpha particles cannot penetrate the skin, uranium
miners are at increased risk of radiation diseases.
Account for this increased risk.
19 Explain why radiotherapy harms cancer cells more than
healthy cells.
20 Would an alpha-particle emitter be suitable for
measuring the thickness of cardboard in a packaging
manufacturing plant? Justify your answer.
21 Propose two reasons why alpha particles are never
injected for medical diagnosis.
22 Propose a reason why hair cells are often damaged
during radiation therapy.
23 Explain why young children are more likely to be
affected by radiation than adults.
Analysis questions
24 Evaluate the danger of the following doses of radiation:
a 1 microsievert received in a short burst
b 500 microsieverts received over the course of a year
c 100 000 microsieverts received in a short burst.
25 Complete the following nuclear reactions:
a
218
84
Po

_
_
_
_ Pb +
4
2
c
133
54
Xe

_
_
_
_ +
26 Calculate the fraction of a sample of pure radon-222
that would remain after twelve days.
27 A fossil is found to contain one-sixteenth of the amount
of carbon-14 of a living specimen. Calculate the age of
the fossil.
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at work
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Time (mins)
Activity
(counts
per minute)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
200 161 127 115 86 67 56 33 31 22 17 15 13 11 7 7 5 4 3 2 2
b
24
11
Na

_
_
_
_ Mg +

0
1

d
59
26
Fe

_
_
_
_ Co +
0
1
+
Surfing
Researching radioactivity
the lives of the Curies. Use a timeline to summarise key
events in their lives
methods of nuclear radiation detection such as film
badges or cloud chambers. Use a labelled diagram to
explain the workings of one method
other units for measuring nuclear radiation, such as
gray, rem, rad, curie, becquerel and roentgen. Prepare
a table showing what each means and the abbreviation
for each
a PET scan. With the aid of a diagram explain how it
works
the Shroud of Turin, once claimed to be the burial cloth
of Jesus Christ. Explain how carbon dating has been
used to date the Shroud
dirty bombs, and how they work. Discuss whether
this type of terrorist attack is likely, supporting your
discussion with evidence.
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Graphing
Radiation from different sources
Using the information in Unit 9.3, construct a pie graph, a
stacked bar or a column graph showing the percentages of
radiations you receive from different sources.
Decay of polonium-218
Use the table below to construct a line graph showing the
decay of polonium-218. Place activity on the vertical axis
and time on the horizontal axis. Draw a curve of best fit.
1 Use your graph to determine the time it took:
a for the initial activity to halve
b for the activity to halve again
c for the activity to halve a third time.
2 Calculate the average of the half-lives determined above.
3 Predict the count rate at the end of another 30 seconds.
Present your work as a graph with answers to the
questions written on the back.
Modelling
Decay of a radioisotope
Model the decay of a radioisotope using computer software,
a role play or a model.
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UNIT
UNIT
Einstein predicted that nuclear energy could be
calculated using the equation E = mc
2
.
Fig 9.4.2
Many countries have invested heavily in nuclear
power, and although Australia has no nuclear power
stations it is one of the biggest suppliers of uranium.
Nuclear energy is an alternative energy source to
fossil fuels. Although not a renewable resource, it
provides vast amounts of energy
from a small amount of fuel. For
example, 1 kilogram of uranium
ore can produce as much energy
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Generating nuclear
energy
Fission
When uranium-235 absorbs
a stray neutron, it becomes
extremely unstable, and
something very interesting
happens. Instead of emitting
an alpha or beta particle or a
gamma ray, the uranium-235
isotope splits into two smaller
atoms along with two, three or
four neutrons. Heat energy is
released in the process. The
splitting of an atom is called
fission. Lone or stray neutrons
are produced this way in the
atmosphere by cosmic rays.
as 100 kilograms of coal and releases much less of
the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in the process.
Radioactive wastes, however, are deadly for many
thousands of years, making it difficult to store safely.
Australias only nuclear reactor, OPAL, produces
nuclear medicines and assists in scientific research.
Nuclear fission
neutron
235
U
very unstable
nucleus
neutron
absorbed
fission fragments +
heat energy
Fig 9.4.1
Comparing wastes
Australian consumption
of electrical energy is
about 8000 kilowatt-
hours per person every
year. To generate this
much electricity, 3000
kilograms of black coal are
required. This produces
wastes including up to
500 kilograms of ash as
well as 8000 kilograms
of carbon dioxide and
sulfur dioxideenough
to fill three Olympic-
size swimming pools at
atmospheric temperature
and pressure.
In comparison, only 30 to
70 kilograms of uranium
ore is required to generate
the same amount of
electricity, producing just
0.006 kilograms or
6 grams of highly
radioactive waste.
E = mc
2
Einsteins famous equation is often quoted, but what does it
really mean?
In normal chemical reactions, mass always stays the same. Not
so in nuclear fission, however. During nuclear fission, there
is a slight loss of mass. Einstein found that this lost mass is
converted to energy, and that the amount of energy created
(E ) is equal to the lost mass (m) multiplied by the speed of
light (c) squared. Although only around 0.1 per cent of each
tiny nuclear mass is converted to energy, the energy released
quickly builds up due to the incredibly large number of atoms
in any radioactive sample (1 gram of uranium-235 contains
2.5 billion trillion atoms!), and the fact that the speed of light
equals 300 000 000 metres per second.
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Nuclear reactors
A nuclear reactor is like a
controlled nuclear bomb, but
uses uranium that has been
enriched to about 2.5 per cent
uranium-235. To prevent an
uncontrolled chain reaction,
control rods made of neutron-
absorbing boron or cadmium are
used to soak up neutrons so
that on average only one escapes
from each fission to go on to
cause another fission.
1
2
R
6
.
3
R
7
.
9
R
12.5
R
Fig 9.4.5 A sketch used by
doctors to determine
the radiation doses
received by those
near Slotins accident
The bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima
on 6 August 1945 contained two half-spheres of
90 per cent pure uranium-235. Each piece by itself
was smaller than the critical mass needed for a chain
reaction, but when forced together by an explosive
charge, they formed a supercritical mass that then
exploded.
Chain reaction
Normally the extra neutrons released by the fission of
uranium-235 escape the sample or are absorbed by the
more stable and more numerous uranium-238 atoms
(natural uranium contains only about 0.7 per cent
uranium-235).
A chain reaction will occur, however, if these
neutrons strike other uranium-235 atoms. This causes
more fission and more neutrons that then hit more
uranium-235 atoms, which then release even more
neutrons and so it goes on and on. Huge amounts
of energy are released in a fraction of a second. For
a chain reaction to take off, the uranium sample
needs careful preparation by doing one of the
following:
enriching it so that it contains 2.5 per cent or
more uranium-235
forming it into a shape (such as spherical) that
prevents too many neutrons escaping without
first interacting with other atoms
making it large enough (the required mass is
called the critical mass).
neutron
uranium-235
fission
fragments
heat energy
released
Fig 9.4.3 A fission chain reaction
How a nuclear bomb works
explosive
propellant
subcritical masses
of uranium-235
subcritical masses
forced together
supercritical
mass
nuclear
chain
reaction
Fig 9.4.4
Homework book 9.5 Chernobyl
Using nuclear energy
Nuclear bombs
A nuclear bomb uses uranium enriched so that over
90 per cent of the sample will be uranium-235. A
massive and uncontrolled chain reaction results.
A fatal slip
On Tuesday 21 May 1946,
during a critical mass
experiment in a secret
laboratory in New Mexico,
USA, Louis Slotin was
gradually moving two
halves of a beryllium-
coated plutonium sphere
closer together, using a
screwdriver to stop them
coming suddenly too close.
Tragically the screwdriver
slipped, allowing the two
masses to come together.
The plutonium went
supercritical, causing
a massive increase in
fission. There was a blue
flash as air in the room
was ionised by gamma
and neutron radiation and
Slotins Geiger counter
went off the scale. He
knew he had received a
lethal burst of radiation,
and heroically shielded his
nearby colleagues while he
quickly separated the two
plutonium masses. He died
a few days later.
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Heat generated by nuclear fission in a reactor core
is used to generate steam that spins a turbine and
produces electricity in the same way as conventional
electricity generators (see Unit 8.1).
Nuclear reactors currently provide around 17 per
cent of the worlds electricity. Several countries obtain
about half their electricity from nuclear power plants.
Submarines and space probes often use on-board
nuclear reactors.
Country Electricity generated by
nuclear power plants
Australia 0%
Britain 21%
USA 22%
Japan 24%
South Korea 48%
Sweden 52%
France 73%
Australia does not have any nuclear power
reactors. Our nuclear reactor, OPAL, is a research
reactor used for the production of nuclear medicines
A nuclear reactor showing the main components
Fuel rods contain uranium
oxide fuel pellets.
Water surrounding the fuel rods slows down
neutrons so they are more likely to be absorbed
and cause fission. Neutrons that are not slowed
down tend to ricochet off uranium atoms.
A substance that slows neutrons is called a moderator.
Control rods
absorb neutrons to prevent an
uncontrolled chain reaction.
High pressure water transfers heat
to a separate water system where it
forms steam to spin a turbine.
Another water circuit acts as a coolant to remove
excess heat and turn steam back into water.
pump
reactor core
turbine
generator
Fig 9.4.6
Fig 9.4.7 Australias nuclear research reactor at ANSTO
Nuclear energy Nuclear energy
and scientific research. It is situated at the Australian
Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
(ANSTO) in southern Sydney.
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Nuclear dangers
Nuclear power at one time seemed like the answer to
the worlds energy needs, but the initial enthusiasm
has been tempered by a series of accidents and the
problem of how to safely store deadly waste products.
Nuclear accidents
There have been several well-documented accidents
at nuclear power plants in which radiation has been
released into the environment. The most dramatic
occurred at Chernobyl in the Ukraine on 25 April
1986. Automatic safety systems were turned off during
a test of reactor number 4, to measure the turbines
power output as it slowed after its steam supply had
been shut off. When power levels fell dangerously low,
engineers withdrew most of the control rods. Fuel rods
then heated up and turned the moderator water into
steam. The steam absorbed fewer neutrons, causing a
power surge that heated the fuel rods even more.
The super-heated fuel rods then exploded and
caused a steam explosion that lifted the 1000 tonne
steel-and-concrete lid off the top of the reactor and
started a fire that burned for five days. A plume of
debris 5 kilometres high released more radioactivity
into the atmosphere than a hundred Hiroshima bombs.
There were thirty-one immediate casualties and 135 000
others were evacuated. Nearby Belarus lay downwind
of Chernobyl and much of it remains uninhabitable.
Cancer rates there have risen dramatically and the
toll may reach many thousands. A gigantic concrete
structure called a sarcophagus was built around
the damaged reactor to help contain radiation. This
structure is now decaying and needs to be replaced.
Nuclear waste disposal
Nuclear waste is classified into three levels:
Low-level waste requires little protective covering;
it includes things like air filters and gloves used
by people such as nuclear power plant workers
and hospital staff who handle
radioactive substances. Low-level
waste may be incinerated, stored
in strong containers or buried at
special sites.
Intermediate-level waste is more
radioactive and includes things
like reactor parts. It is typically
packed inside cement within
steel drums and buried in deep
trenches.
High-level waste is lethal
and consists of either used
fuel rods or wastes from
reprocessing the rods to obtain
uranium and plutonium. Used
fuel rods are stored under
water for several years while
they cool and their radiation
levels drop before being
reprocessed or disposed of.
High-level waste is melted to
form glass blocks and may
be stored underground in
stainless steel drums.
Two sides of the story
Nuclear waste products can remain radioactive for
thousands of years (the half-life of plutonium is 24 000
years), so there is a lot of time for something to go
wrong. Deterioration of storage containers or natural
disasters could cause leakage into the environment.
Many people argue that the consequences of an
accident involving nuclear waste or a nuclear power
plant are just not worth the risk. Others argue that
damage being done to the environment (pollution and
global warming) from the use of fossil
fuels is greater than that resulting
from the use of nuclear energy. Coal
miners suffer more ill-health as a
result of their work than nuclear
workers. Oil spills from supertankers
regularly kill huge numbers of
marine and bird life. There are risks
associated with both fossil fuels and
nuclear power. What do you think?
Fig 9.4.8 The Chernobyl nuclear power station shortly
after disaster struck in 1986. Many cleanup
workers, photographers and their pilots died
in the years after the accident from cancers
caused by the massive doses of radiation they
received as they worked around the devastation.
Nuclear sheep
Radioactive material from
the explosion at Chernobyl
covered much of western
Europe, contaminating
crops and animals for
many years. In Britain
alone, 9000 farms were
significantly contaminated
and were immediately
placed under restrictions.
Twenty years later, some
355 farms in Wales, 11 in
Scotland and 9 in England
are still considered dirty
with radioactive matter.
Farmers need a licence
to move their sheep and
the radioactivity of each
sheep must be measured
before it can be sold. The
farmers are, however,
compensated with $3.15
per sheep, the same as
they were paid in 1986!
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Deadly speck
If inhaled, a pinhead-sized
speck of plutonium-239
is enough to cause lung
cancer!
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Fig 9.4.10 Four giant electrodes can be seen at the top of the in-situ vitrification equipment. The large pipe
connected to the truck channels exhaust gases from the melt for analysis.
A nuclear explosion at Maralinga in
South Australia in 1956. Dangerous
levels of radioactivity remain today. Fig 9.4.9
In 2006, the federal government
set up a committee to investigate
whether nuclear power should
be used in Australia to produce
electricity. It also started to discuss
with other major uranium exporters
the possibility of leasing the uranium to power plants
overseas. Any waste would therefore come back to
Australia to be stored. As future voters, you will need
an opinion on this issue. What do you think?
Alternative energy sources
There are many alternatives to fossil fuels and nuclear
energy that will meet our energy needs in the future.
Fusion
One of the alternatives to fossil fuels and nuclear energy
is in fact another form of nuclear energy. Nuclear
fusion occurs when two small nuclei combine or fuse,
releasing an enormous amount of energy as they do so.
An example of nuclear fusion is the combination of a
deuterium and a tritium nucleus to form helium.
An example of a nuclear fusion reaction
tritium (
3
H)

1
helium (
4
He)

2
neutron (
1
n)

0
deuterium (
2
H)

1
heat
released
Fig 9.4.11
Nuclear fusion has a couple of big attractionsno
radioactive waste products are created, and there is a
vast supply of deuterium in the ocean. But theres a
catch. Temperatures of millions of degrees are needed
to force two positively charge nuclei together and
temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees are
needed to keep it going. Nuclear fusion reactions
power the Sun. Even if we could generate a sustained
fusion reaction, how could it be contained?
Radioactive coal
A coal-fired generator
releases more radioactivity
into the environment than
a nuclear power station
unless theres an accident!
Maralinga meltdown
Between 1952 and 1957,
the British government
conducted a series of tests,
setting off twelve major
nuclear explosions and
hundreds of smaller ones at
Maralinga in South Australia,
forcing the relocation of
the local Aboriginal people.
Though Britain assured
Australia that they had
cleaned up the Maralinga site
by 1967, in 1984 Australian
scientists measured radiation
more widely spread and
at levels ten times higher
than predicted. The clean-
up of the site was finally
completed in 2000 with
financial contributions from
Britain. One process used
in the clean-up, in-situ
vitrification (ISV), involved
generators providing up
to 5 megawatts of power
to electrodes implanted in
nuclear waste pits to melt
waste into huge glassy
masses. This prevents
nuclear waste from leaching
into surrounding soil and
eliminates the need for
hazardous material to be
excavated or removed.
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Current research involves the use of a powerful
toroidal (doughnut-shaped) magnetic field within
a device called a tokamak to hold the superheated
deuterium. The word tokamak is from the Russian
word for toroidal. If the costs and difficulties involved
in sustained fusion generators are overcome, fusion
will perhaps provide the bulk of the worlds energy in
the future.
Other alternatives
Other alternative sources of energy that offer potential
for the future include:
solar
wind
hydro-gravitational, wave or tidal
geothermal
fuel cells
bio-batteries.
Fig 9.4.13 Spherical ball of plasma (pink) inside a tokamak
superheated deuterium
contained within a
magnetic field
Fig 9.4.12 An experimental tokamak fusion reactor
Some alternative energy
sources for the future Fig 9.4.14
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[
Questions
]
Revision questions
Generating nuclear energy
1 Use a diagram to explain the term nuclear fission.
2 In a chain reaction huge quantities of energy are
released. Outline how this happens.
Using nuclear energy
3 Describe how a nuclear bomb works.
4 Describe how an uncontrolled chain reaction is
prevented in a nuclear reactor.
5 Nuclear fission reactors produce a great deal of energy.
Identify three situations where a nuclear reactor may
be used.
6 Identify which part of a nuclear reactor:
a slows down neutrons to speeds at which they are
more likely to cause fission
b absorbs neutrons to prevent them causing other
atoms to split
c transfers energy to a turbine.
Nuclear dangers
7 Describe two dangers of using nuclear energy.
8 Outline how high-level nuclear waste is stored.
9 Describe some of the risks involved in storing nuclear
waste.
10 a Outline how the Chernobyl disaster happened.
b Swedish scientists quickly became aware of a
nuclear accident in Russia. Suggest how.
c Explain why the death toll from the Chernobyl
disaster has risen to be far greater than the initial
thirty-one killed.
Alternative energy sources
11 Use a diagram to demonstrate how nuclear fusion
occurs.
12 What is the main advantage of nuclear fusion?
13 Nuclear fusion is technically very difficult. Explain why
14 List three other forms of alternative energy.
Thinking questions
15 Copy the following statements, changing any that are
incorrect to make them true:
a Uranium provides much more energy per kilogram
than coal.
b Unstable atoms absorb radiation.
c Natural uranium contains 93 per cent uranium-235.
d A critical mass of uranium-235 is one that will not
start a chain reaction.
e Fission is the splitting of an atom.
f One type of fusion reactor is a tomahawk.
16 With the aid of diagrams, demonstrate why a sphere is
a more effective shape than a flat sheet for a critical
mass of enriched uranium.
17 What term means less than critical mass?
18 Identify two countries that would be most affected if
uranium ceased to be mined and processed.
19 Explain what Australias nuclear reactor is used for.
20 Explain how fallout from the Chernobyl accident could
result in children drinking radioactive milk.
21 Explain why the air pressure inside nuclear reactors is
kept lower than the outside atmospheric pressure.
22 Suggest a meaning for the term magnetic bottle.
Analysis questions
23 Predict whether waste plutonium would be safe in:
a 100 years
b 1000 years
c 10 000 years.
24 Classify each of the following as low-level, intermediate-
level or high-level nuclear waste:
a spent fuel rods
b gloves used by nuclear reactor technicians
c a non-fuel-rod reactor part
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at work
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SCIENCE
Imagining
Four futures
You may have read a novel in which the reader has a choice
of which path the story follows. Write an essay describing
life in the future when reserves of fossil fuels finally run out.
Write four different endings that are based on the following
scenarios:
the world becomes totally reliant on nuclear energy
both fossil fuels and uranium reserves run out, and the
world concentrates on the development of renewable
energy sources such as wind, wave and solar energy
nuclear fusion technology improves so that fusion
reactors become the most economical source of energy
a totally new and plentiful energy source is discovered.
Wasteland
Some people have suggested that outback Australia
(even the interior of Uluru) be used as a long-time store
of the worlds nuclear waste. This is because of the
areas geological stability. Write two letters or emails to a
newspaperone supporting and one opposing the proposal.
Surfing
Researching alternative energy
Internet, etc.) to find details about one of the many
alternative energy sources to nuclear power.
Work in small groups with each group selecting a
different type of alternative energy source.
1 Describe how energy is produced in this way.
2 Assess the efficiency of this energy source.
3 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of your
alternative energy source.
4 Evaluate whether this energy source would be suitable
for use in the future.
Present your information as an oral presentation.
Researching nuclear proliferation
Internet, etc.) to find what the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Agreement is, what it means, and which countries have
signed it and which have not.
Present your work as a short written piece.
Researching uranium mining
Internet, etc.) to find how and where uranium is mined in
Australia and the steps in the process needed to produce
yellowcake.
Present your work as a poster that includes a map and a
flow chart.
Researching SYNROC
Internet, etc.) to research an Australian invention called
SYNROC, designed to store radioactive waste.
Present your findings as a diagram explaining how the
waste is stored.
Researching nuclear accidents
Internet, etc.) to research a significant nuclear accident
such as Chernobyl, the Three Mile Island disaster in the
United States or the leak at Britains Windscale (now called
Sellafield) plant.
a poster
a front page for a newspaper the day after the
accident.
Debating
Selling uranium
Run a class debate on one of the following topics:
whether Australia should sell uranium to China (a
signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement)
and India (not a signatory)
that if Australia sells uranium, then it is also obliged to
take back its waste
whether nuclear energy should be used at all.
Writing
Equations
So-called fast breeder nuclear reactors use plutonium
and produce more fuel than they consume. Write chemical
equations to demonstrate how this is achieved.
9
.
4
9
.
4
366
Chapter review
16 Explain why uranium ore in the ground does not
explode.
17 A fast-breeder reactor uses plutonium fuel and does
not require a moderator to slow the neutrons hitting it.
Contrast the ability of plutonium to absorb neutrons with
that of uranium.
18 One older method of disposing of nuclear waste was to
simply dump it in the ocean in sealed drums. Discuss
why this is not desirable.
19 Propose reasons for fusion reactors not being
economical.
[
Analysis questions
]
20 Australia releases about 320 million tonnes of carbon
into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuels.
Given our population is approximately 18.5 million
people, estimate Australias carbon emission per person.
21 Sulfur has an atomic number of 16. Calculate the
following numbers for the atom formed after sulfur-35
undergoes beta decay:
a atomic number
b mass number
22 Radium (atomic number 88, mass number 226)
undergoes radioactive decay and changes into radon
(atomic number 86, mass number 222). Suggest what
type of radiation radium emits.
23 Write a balanced equation for the chemical reaction
for question 22 (note the symbol for radium is Ra, and
radon is Rn).
24 Xenon-133 has a half-life of 2.3 days. Calculate how
much would be left of an 8 gram sample of xenon-133
after almost a week.
25 It has been estimated that the worlds oil reserves may
run out in 45 years, gas in 60 years and coal in 300
years. Construct a graph to show this information.
[
Summary questions
]
1 List three main greenhouse gases.
2 List three ways greenhouse gas emissions could be
reduced.
3 What are the consequences of continued global
warming?
4 Use a diagram to show where the ozone layer is located.
5 Identify an ozone-unfriendly element.
6 What three types of radiation may be emitted from a
nucleus?
7 Identify the subatomic particles emitted during fission
that cause a chain reaction.
8 What is the lethal dose of radiation in sieverts?
9 Outline how each of the following work:
a Geiger counter
b smoke detector
c radioactive tracers
d radiotherapy
e carbon dating
10 Construct a simplified sketch showing the main parts of
a nuclear reactor.
[
Thinking questions
]
11 There are many older refrigerators still in use that
contain CFCs. Explain how these CFCs could still end
up being released into the atmosphere.
12 Propose reasons for it being more difficult for less
developed countries to comply with the Montreal
Protocol.
13 Suggest the type of radiation best suited for measuring
the thickness of a sheet of:
a metal
b thin rubber
14 It has been calculated that a lump of nuclear reactor fuel
the size of a bowling ball would provide enough energy
for one person for their lifetime. Estimate how many
bowling balls of coal would be needed.
15 Contrast nuclear fission with nuclear fusion.
Homework book 9.6 Global issues crossword
>>>
367
Aborigines [Australian] 27,
29, 94, 120, 126, 1789
absorber 67
accelerate 229
acceleration 22933, 240
acquired characteristics 89
acquired immunity 194
action 2457
active immunity 185
activity [radioactive sample]
353
activity series 12
adaptions [evolutionary]
868
adaptive radiation 99
agent 181
agitation 42
air resistance 234, 24950
air resistant 249
albinism 141
alcohol(s) 76, 20910
alcoholism 210
Alfred Russel Wallace 90, 91
alkanes 73
alkenes 74
alleles 135
alloy(s) 4, 36
alpha particle 351
alternating current (AC) 295
altitude control system
(ACS) 273
aluminium 21
aluminium oxide 21
amino acids 151
amniocentesis sampling 160
amplifier 326
amplitude 305
amplitude modulation (AM)
308
analogous structures 100
analogue signal 317
anatomical studies 1089
angina 207
anodised aluminium 21
anodising 21
anorexia nervosa 205
antibiotics 196
antibodies 194
antigen 194
ape(s) 11617
aqueous solution 49
Archaeopteryx 108
arteriosclerosis 206
asynchronous orbits 274
at rest 219
Australian archaeology
1237
Australopithecus 116
average speed 218
bacteria 158, 1835
bakelite 27
balance 241
ball mill 12
bandwidth 317
base [transistor] 326
base metal 4
battery 323
behavioural 86
behavioural adaptions 87
benches 11
benign [growth] 208
beta particle 351
biochemistry 112
biodegradable 26, 81
biopsy 208
biotechnology 1657
bird flu 185
blast furnace 13
blood groups 142
blow moulding 289
bonding 3, 4953, 72
booster shot 195
brittle 28
bulimia nervosa 205
buoyancy 234
bus [satellite] 273
cancer 2078
capacitants 325
capacitors 3245
carat 4
carbon 25
carbon dating 355
carbon dioxide 33641
carbon fibre 31
carcinogen 208
carriers [disease] 145
cast iron 4
catalyst(s) 65
cell [electrical] 323
cell reproduction 1335
cells 1335, 316
celluloid 25
Cenozoic era 104
centre of gravity 253
centre of mass 253
chain reaction 359
char 28
chemical
change 53
equations 55
properties 48
reaction(s) 53
chemistry
green 7982
organic 726
chlorine 80, 347
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
338, 3467
chorionic villus sampling
160
chromosomes 1323, 1534,
2045
chronic alcohol abuse 210
circuit [electrical] 323
classifications (illustrated)
chemical properties 48
elements (Periodic Table)
50
of matter 48
physical properties 48
cloning 160
codominance 136
codons 151
coherent 318
collector [transistor] 326
communications 31520
complementary base pairs
150
complete combustion 76
components [electrical] 323
compounds 48
ionic 5153
carbon-based 256
compressed 257
concentrated solution 49
cones 305
contact [process] 66
contagious diseases 193
continuous lattices 25
continuous variation 143
control rods 359
convergent evolution 100
converter 67
coronary heart disease 207
corrosion see rusting
cosmic radiation 353
covalent bonding 523
covalent network
[substances] 5253
cracked 74
creation stories 94
critical mass 359
critical pressure 82
critical temperature 82
cross flotation 12
crossing [reproduction] 136
crushed 12
cultural evolution 119
cumulative poison 212
Curie, Marie 351
current [electric] 2939, 323
cycles see processes/cycles
(illustrated)
Darwin, Charles 8991
daughter nuclei 351
decelerating 229
Defense Support Program
(DSP) 276
deforestation 337
delocalised electrons 49
demodulation 318
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
132
depressant [drug] 209
dessicant 66
detergents 42
diabetes mellitus 205
diatomic 52
dielectric 324
diet 1789, 2056
see also nutrition
diffraction 308
digital signals 316
dilute solution 49
diode 3256
diploid cells 132
direct [transmission] 193
dirty bomb 355
discontinuous variation 143
discrete molecular substance
52
disease 18088, 193203
disorders 18088, 2048
displacement 217
distance 217, 22021
368
>>>
distancetime graphs 21920
distribution [plant, animal]
11011
divergent evolution 99
DNA 111
DNA fingerprinting 160,
1658
DNA structure 15054
dominant 135
dominant gene 135
dominant trait 131
dosimeters 353
double covalent bonds 72
double helix 150
Down syndrome 204
drag 234
drip-dry 31
drug abuse 208
drug use 208
drug(s) 20810
Dryopithecus 116
ductile 3
dynamos 296
efficiency [energy] 258, 261
Einstein, Albert 358
electric motor 299
electrical conductors 3
electrolysis 1213
electrolytes 205
electromagnet 2935
electromagnetic spectrum
3069
electromagnetic wave 305
electromagnetism 2939
electronegativity 3
electronics 3237
electrum 6
elements 48, 50
elephantiasis 188
embolism 206
embryonic development 109
emitter 326
emulsion 41
endemic 181
energy 2568, 35863
enhanced greenhouse effect
337
environment 131, 21112
enzymes 65, 1589, 165
epidemic 181
epochs 104
eras 104
Erasmus Darwin 88
evolution 8691, 88, 96
101, 10412, 11523
exercise 175
extended 257
extraction 12
extrusion moulding 289
eye colour 142
fairing 273
fermentation 76
fibre(s) 2531, 29
natural 31
synthetic 30
fibreglass 31
First Law [of Newton] 234
fission 358
flukes 187
food irradiation 356
force(s) 23442
forensic analysis 160
formula mass 60
fossil fuel 337
fossil record 1048
fossils 104
fractional distillation 74
frequency 305
frequency division
multiplexing (FDM) 317
frequency modulation (FM)
308
friction 234
functional 86
functional adaptions 87
functional group 76
fungi 183
Galapagos Islands 90
galvanised iron 21
gametes 132
gangue 12
Geiger counter 353
gene cell therapy 162
gene duplication 112
gene expression 1523
gene probe 160, 1667
gene technology 157,
16062
gene(s) 1323
generators [electric] 296
genetic code 111
genetic engineering 157
Genetic Manipulation and
Advisory Committee 162
genetic map 162
genetically modified (GM)
158
genetics 1317, 2045
genotype 135
geographic isolation 98
geological time scale 104
Georges Buffon 88
geostationary orbit 266, 274
germanium 325
g-force 249
glass fibre 31
global positioning system
(GPS) 275
global warming 33642, 337
gradient 219
granules 27
gravitational potential
energy 257
gravity 249, 289
green chemistry 79
greenhouse effect 3367
greenhouse gases 3369
half-life 352
hangover 210
haploid cells 133
hard [water] 42
hard 28
health 1739
heart attack 207
heart disease 2056
heat conductors 3
heavy metals 212
hereditary factors 132
heredity 131
heterogeneous catalyst 65
heterozygous 135
high-level waste 361
HIVAIDS 201203
hominoids 115
Homo habilis 117
Homo sapiens 118
homogeneous catalyst 65
homologous pair 133
homologous series 73
homologous structures 108
homozygous 135
host 181
host cell 185
human evolution 11520
human genome project 162
hydrocarbons 736
hydroxy group 76
hypertension 206
illegal drugs 2089
immune 194
immune system 194
immunise 195
immunity 1946
in parallel [electrical] 323
in series [electrical] 323
incomplete combustion 76
incomplete dominance 137
indirect [transmission] 193
inertia 23439
infection 181, 1838, 193
203
inheritance [characteristics]
1317, 1415, 15762
injection moulding 289
inoculated 195
in-situ vitrification (ISV) 362
instantaneous speed 217
insulin 205
integrated circuit (IC) 3278
intelligent design (ID) 945
intermediate-level waste 361
International Space Station
(ISS) 28082
ion 287
ionic bonding 51
ionising radiation 353
ions 51
IR (radiation) 307
iron(III) oxide 2021
isotopes 350
Jean Baptiste Lamarck 88
kinetic energy 256, 299
Lamarck, Jean 889
lather 42
law of conservation of mass
55
law of conservation of matter
55
lead-chamber [process] 66
Legionnaires disease 181
leucocytes 193
light 288, 3057
light-dependent resistor
(LDR) 324
line [telephonic] 316
liquid propellant 265
Lister, Joseph 197
longitudinal 304
low-level waste 361
lymphoedema 188
macroscopic 187
369
maglev 295
magnetic field 2939
malignant [growth] 208
malleable 3
malnutrition 205
mass 240
mass number 350
matter 4852
meiosis 134
Mendel, Gregor 131
mental illness 212
Mesozoic era 105
metabolism 1745
metallic bonding 3, 49
metals 320
bonding 4951
heavy 212
properties of 3, 51
pure 36
metastases 209
metastasis 208
meteorology 275
methane 338
microchip 327
microfilariae 188
microgravity 281
micro-organism 181
microsieverts (Sv) 353
microwave(s) 31314, 319
mild steel 4
minerals 910
mining 9, 914
mitosis 133
mixtures 48
modulation 308, 317
mole 59
molecular structures
(illustrated)
alcohols 76
alkynes 75
cracking reaction 75
ethane 73
ethene 75
methane 73
monomers vs polymers
26
organic molecules 25
polar molecules 41
propene 75
tetrachloroethylene 82
molecules 25
in fibres 3031
polar 41
monofilaments 30
monomers 2628
monotomic 52
movement 21721
mutagens 153, 204
mutation 1534, 204
nanotechnology 379
native elements 9
natural fibres 29
natural selection 90, 968
Neanderthal man 118
neo-Darwinism 91
Newtons laws 240, 245, 265
nitrogen bases 150
nitrous oxide 338
non renewable 14
non-infectious conditions
20412
nuclear
bomb 359
dangers 3612
energy 306, 35863
fission 351, 358
force 350
medicine 3545
radiation 35056
reactor 359
nugget 9
nutrients 173
nutrition 1734
see also diet
obesity 205
oils 41
open-cut mining 11
opportunistic pathogens 186
orbits [satellite] 274
ore 9
ore deposits [locations] 10
organic chemistry 726
organic compounds 25
organic molecules 25
organism 181
outbreak 181
ova 134
overburden 11
ovum 134
ozone 3468
palaeontology 104
pandemic 185
parallel evolution 101
parasite(s) 181, 1878
parent nucleus 351
passive immunity 195
pathogen(s) 181, 183
pathologists 181
pathology 181
payload(s) 266, 273
pedigrees 1445
pellets 27
pentadactyl limb 108
periods 104
phenotype 135
phosphate 150
photochemical smog 338
physical change 53
physical properties 48
plasmids 158
plastics 2531, 812
polar 41
polar orbits 274
polyatomic ion 51
polymerisation 26
polymers 2628
potential energy 257
powder 27
power transmission 2978
prenatal testing 160
Primates [order of] 115
processes/cycles (illustrated)
acquired immunity 194
allyl alcohol synthesis 81
alpha/beta decay 351
animal cloning 161
blood fluke life cycle 187
carbon-14 decay graph
355
chemical reaction 63
chordate embryos 110
DNA and proteins 151
DNA fingerprinting 167
DNA replication 151
DNA structure 150
dry-cleaning 82
egg fertilisation 135
electric motor 299
electromagnetic spectrum
306
evolution, convergent 99,
100
evolution, Darwinian 90
evolution, human form
119
evolution, Lamarckian 89
evolution of life 106
evolution of the horse
107
extraction by electrolysis
13
extrusion moulding 28
fibre strength 30
fission chain reaction 359
fractional distillation 74
gamma decay 352
gene technology 158
genetic code 152
processes/cycles continued
genetic disorders 1445
geological time scale 104
global communications
319
global warming 337
greenhouse effect 337
half-lives 352
heart attack 207
human family tree 117
iron smelting 13
landscape change 125
magnetic field 293
Mendels cross-breeding
132
metallic bonding 49
meiosis 134
mitosis 133
Morse code 315
multiple covalent bonds
73
multiplexing 317
nanometre (common item
widths) 37
nuclear bomb [mechanics]
359
nuclear fission 358
nuclear fusion 362
nuclear reactor 360
ozone formation 346
polyethylene formation 75
prenatal testing 160
primate evolutionary tree
116
Punnett squares 1367,
141
radiation penetration 352
rusting 20
sacrificial protection 21
satellite launching 274
sex determination 144
sound modulation 309
STEM microscope 38
surfactant soaps 42
thermosetting 27
tokamak fusion reactor
363
underground mining 11
wave properties 305
products [of reactant] 55
propellant 265
properties
alloys 5
blow moulding 29
chemical equations 55
chemical reactions 63
covalent network
370
>>>
properties continued
substances 53
discrete molecular
substances 52
drugs (illegal) 209
Earths crust 9
fibres 31
injection moulding 29
ionic compounds 51
metals 12, 51
nuclear radiation 354
of close stars 286
of diseases 183
of Homo sapiens 115
ores 10
physical vs chemical 48
plastics 26
pure metals 4
radioisotopes 352
reaction types 54
resistor colour codes 324
STEM microscope 38
protists 183, 186
protozoa 186
psychoactive 208
psychosomatic 175
Punnett square 136
pure substances 48
bonding of 4953
structure of 4953
pus 193
radiation 211, 3069,
35056
radio transmitter 273
radioactive 350
radioactive decay 351
radioactive tracers 354
radioactivity 35056
radioisotope 350
radiotherapy 306, 354
radon gas 353
Ramapithecus 116
ratites 110
reactant 55, 625
reaction engines 265
reaction time 220
reaction types 534, 625,
2457
receiver 273
recessive gene 135
recessive trait 131
recoils 245
recombinant DNA 158
recycling 14
refined 74
replication 151
reproduction isolation 98
resistance [electrical] 323
Rhesus factor 142
rigid 28
roasting 13
rockets 2657, 27071
rust 20
rust protection 20
rusting 2021
sacrificial protection 21
saponification 42
satellites 2737
scale 42
scanning tunnelling electron
microscope (STEM) 3840
scarce 14
scum 42
selected [characteristics] 88
selective breeding 157
semiconductor 325
sex determination 1434
sex-linked 145
sickle-cell anaemia 153
sieverts (Sv) 353
silicon 325
silicon chip 327
single covalent bonds 72
skin 193
slag 14
slope 219
smelting 1314
smoking 21011
soap 42
soft [water] 42
solar radiation 353
solenoid 293
solid rocket boosters (SRBs)
266
solutes 49
solvent 49
space [outer]
future travel 28590
life in 27990
space shuttle 2667
Space Transportation
System (STS) 266
speciation 98
species 98
speed 219, 22930
speed-time graphs 220
spinneret 30
spring constant 258
stable 9
stainless steel 4
standard laboratory
conditions (SLC) 489
stationery 219
steel 4, 2021
stem cells 161
step-down transformer 297
step-up transformer 297
sterilise 356
stiff 258
stroke 206
structural 86
structural adaptions 86
subspecies 98
substances
classification of 48
discrete molecular 52
pure 48, 4953
sugar 150
supercritical 359
supercritical fluid 82
surface area 64
surface ozone 338
surface tension 234
surfactants 41
survival of the fittest 90
switch [electric] 326
switchboard 316
synthetic fibres 30
tapeworm 187
telecommunications 31520
telegraph 315
temperature 64, 34041
terminal velocity 250
terrestrial radiation 353
therapeutic cloning 1612
thermistor 324
thermoplastic 27
thermosetting 28
thrombosis 206
thrombus 206
thrust 246, 265
ticker-timer 219
time 217
time division multiplexing
(TDM) 317
tokamak 363
tool steel 4
trace gases 336
traits 131
transformers 297
transgenic 159
transistors 3267
transitional forms 108
transponders 275
transverse 304
triple covalent bonds 72
true-breeding 131
tumour 208
turbine 296
Turners syndrome 204
underground mine 11
unreactive 9
uranium-235, 359
UV radiation 307
vaccinated 195
vaccines 195
variation 88
varicose veins 206
vectors 193
vein 9
velocity 219, 250
vestigial organs 109
virulence 181
viruses 183, 185, 196
visible spectrum 305
voltage 323
Wallace, Alfred Russel 90, 91
warp engines 288
wash-and-wear 31
water 412
wavelength 305
waves 30411
weight 249, 281
weightlessness 251
whole chromosome
mutations 1534
work [energy] 256
wormholes 289
wrought iron 4
X-linked 145
yield 65
zygote 133
371
372
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Unit review sections

Units that open with an introduction to encourage

Practical activities that are placed at the end of

Science Dimensions 4 Homework Book

Science Dimensions 4 Companion Website

Science Dimensions 4 Teachers Edition, including

The use of data loggers

The Homework book icon indicates an activity

The CW icon indicates when an

different metal + different solution

CB(aq) + A(s) (where C is a more reactive metal than A)

salt + water + carbon dioxide

2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

salt + water + carbon dioxide

Cu2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

signs mean in chemical

2[(2 69.7 g) + (3 16.0 g)]

C + D, you would need to either measure

ions. The nitrate ions do not react

ethanol + carbon dioxide

carbon dioxide + water

carbon monoxide + water

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