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How to improve system stability without risking subsynchronous resonance

Various static devices for raising the stability limit of a power system are examined with respect to their employment at or near the electrical center of a two-machine system. Among these devices are series capacitors, shunt capacitors, combined series and shunt capacitors, and shunt static reactive compensators consisting of a fixed capacitor and a variable reactor. New concepts of current gain, voltage gain, and power gain are defined and illustrated. The natural frequencies of each circuit are examined, and it is shown that with series capacitors these frequencies are subsynchronous and hence produce a risk of subsynchronous resonance, whereas all shuntconnected devices give supersynchronous natural frequencies and therefore do not involve such a risk.Kimbark, E.W.Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE Transactions on1608-1619Sept. 1977

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I E E T r a n s a c t i o n s on Power & P a r a t u s and Systems, Vol. PAS-96, no. 5 , Septe&er/October

1977

HOW TO IMPROVE SYSTEM STABILITY WITHOUT RISKING SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE


Edward W.Kimbark, Fellow IEEE Bonneville Power Administration Portland, Oregon ABSTRACT Various static devices for raising the stability limit of a power system are examined with respect to their employment at or near the electrical center of a twc-machine system. Among these devices are series capacitors, shunt capacitors, combined series and shunt capacitors, andshuntstatic reactive compensators consisting of a futed capacitor and a variable reactor. New concepts of current gain, voltage gain, and power gain are defined and illustrated. The natural frequencies of each circuit are examined, and it is shown that with series capacitorsthesefrequenciesaresubsynchronousandhence produce a risk of subsynchronous resonance, whereas all shuntconnected devices give supersynchronous natural frequencies and therefore do not involve such a risk. INTRODUCTION
A recommendation was made at the Symposium on Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) held at the IEEE PES Summer Meeting, 1975, that system planners give more consideration to shunt compensation for improvement of stability [ 1 1. This paper is a result of that recommendation.

forcedfrequency. Expressions are derived for some or all of the following quantities as functions of the fmed magnitude of the emfs applied to the two terminals, the fmed reactances of the circuit, and the variable phase difference 8 between the emf's: voltages and currents, active and reactive power. From the standpoint ofsystemstability, the most important function is the power-angle curve (Pvs. 6). For a passive circuit between the two terminal emfs, this is always a sinusoid of period 2~ radiansThe improvement (or degradation)ofstability attrii utable to any added reactive device can then be expressed simply by the ratio of the crest values of the two sinusoids, called the power gain (or loss). If acompensatorrepresentable by an emf and reactance, in series withoneanotherand in shuntwiththe line, is used, the power-angle curve is no longer a simple sinusoid but rather the s u m of two or more sinusoids having different periods. Comparison of power-angle curves of different shapes requires more than one number. A suggestion is to compare the crest values, the angles a t which the crests occur, and the area under the positive portion of the curve. Values of voltage, current, and reactive power are valuable for determining the rating of the compensating devices and of the transmission lines.

It deals with the simplest power system which could exhibit a problem of stability, namely, one having two synchronous machines (ageneratoranda motor) interconnectedthrougha transmission system represented by series inductance only, with distributed shunt capacitance neglected. For augmenting the stability limit, some appropriate device is assumed to be connected to the transmission system. The devices considered in this paper are series and shunt capacitors, singly or together, and parallel combinations of a futed capacitor and an inherently controlled or automatically controlled variable reactor, this combination being called a static reactive compensator. Initially, the device is considered to be 'connected at themidpointof the transmission system, where a shunt device is most effective. Limited consideration is given to shunt devices off center and to two or more shunt devices equally spaced. For simplicity of analysis withonly small departure from reality, all parts of the system, including the transmission lines and the compensating devices, are assumed to be lossless, and the terminal emf's are assumed to have constant, equal magnitudes but variable phase difference. The resulting circuit represents the posifive-sequence network of the simple power system after occurrence and clearing of a fault or other disturbance. It is only the positive-sequence phenomena that are important in SSR because theother sequences are positively damped. Each system is f m t analyzed in the steady state with applied emf's of the power-system or supply frequency f , . This is called the

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Circuits having equally augmented stability are then compared with respect to their natural frequencies. Natural frequencies higher thanthe power-system forced frequency (which usually is 50 o r 60 Hz) are positively damped and thus cannot lead to subsynchronous resonance. But natural frequencies lower than the forced frequency may have negative damping and thus may lead to subsynchronous resonance if they coincide with the complements of the natural mechanical frequencies of steam turbo-generators [ 21.

It is readily shown that a circuit with a series capacitor has a naturalfrequency lower thanthe forcedfrequencyand thus may cause SSR, while a circuit with a shunt capacitor has anatural frequency higher than the f o r d frequency and thus cannot lead to SSR. Because the shunt capacitor alone gives an objectionable overvoltage at light loads, it is generally used together with a shunt reactor. The reactor may be switched in steps or as a whole -ormay beone of several typesthat,either inherently or bycontinuous automaticcontrol,tend to keeptheir terminal voltages constant [ 3 , 4 , 51. Natural frequencies are the frequencies that can exist in a network without applied emfs. In large systems, they can be found as the square roots of the reciprocals of the eigenvalues of LC, where L and C are the matrices of inductance and capacitance, respectively, i n e a r written in terms of a set of independent meshes or nodes of a l network. In the simple circuits considered here, the modal circuits are single uncoupled meshes, foundby inspection,with advantage taken of symmetry. Then the natural frequencies are found from the inductance and capacitance of each such mesh. 1608

A pqer recamended n d zppm-ied by the IEE Pmer Systeri E n g h e e r h g Camittee of the IEEE Power Engineerir4 Society for presentatioa a t the PES Winter M e e t i n g , New Y o & . , N.Y. J a n w 30February 1977. l'muscript submitted !-Ley 12, 1976 ; uncle available for printing Nov-r 5, 1976.

P 77 125-8.

I,,

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LINES WITH SERIESOR SHUNT CAPACITORS OR BOTH


Case 1 : Uncompensated Line

The per-unit values of midpoint voltage, line current, power, and sending-end reactive power are plotted in Fig. 2 .

Forced-Frequency Analysis: This case serves as one with which the others, including some form of compensation, can be compared. The circuit, with the notation used, is shown in Fig. 1

Natural Frequency: There is none except zero (dc).

2.0

I .5

Fig. 1. Circuit for Case 1, uncompensated line

I.o

The terminal voltages in this and subsequent cases are

6 s ~. + . ~6 2 Es = E / 6 / 2 = E [ c o
ER = E / - 6 / 2 = E(cos- 6 2 - 1 _sm-) .6 2 The midpoint voltage is

m-)

0.5

3 0 '

60'

90 150' 120'

180.

vml = vmk= ( E s -+ E R ) / ~ = E Cos(6/2)


Numerical subscripts (such as 1 here) denote the case number. The current at both terminals and at the midpoint is

Angle 8
Fig. 2. Graphs for Case I , per-unit quantities as functions of angle 6.

Case 2: Series Capacitor Forced-Frequency Analysis: The circuit is shown in Fig. 3 and the phasor diagram, in Fig. 4. The midpoint voltage Vm is defined as that from the midpoint m in Fig 3 to ground, the series capacitor being split into two parts of equal reactance X c / 2 . Vm has the same value as in Case 1, eq. 3. We still have a one-mesh circuit, as before, but the reactance has been reduced from X L to the smaller value,

Because of the assumed lack of loss, the power is the same everywhere. It is convenient to compute it at the midpoint, where the voltage Vm is in phase with the currentIm.

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Maximum power occurs at 6 = 90" and is Pml =XL The reactive power entering each terminal is

E2

where

s = XCfXL

That entering both terminals is


Qt = 2 Q s
all of which is absorbed by the line:

is the degree of series compensation. It lies between 0 and 1. The current in this mesh is

xc/2 x, 12xc/2

x , /2

Per-unit System: The basic quantities for this and most subsequent circuits may be chosen as (1) voltage, E ; ( 2 ) impedance, X L ; (3) current, Ib = E / X L ; and (4) power and reactive power, Pml = E2/XL.
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Fig. 3. Circuit for Case 2. series capacitor.

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Reactive power supplied by the series capacitor is

JU/2
As a check, we note that Q L = ~Qt2 + Q a . The graphs of Fig. 2 are applicable if the ordinates are multiplied by the proper factors. Note that each of the equations for reactive power has a different factor that is a function of Gp2 and the common factor (1 - cos 6) which is a function of 6. The voltage across the capacitor is

0
V c / E ' j ( C p 2 - 1) sin(6/2) (24) Fig. 4. Phasor diagram for Case 2. Natural Frequency: Theone-mesh circuit has parameters XL L =U S

and

C=-

WSXC

(25)

which, by comparison with eq. 4 for Case 1, is X L / X or 1/( 1 - s) as great. Thus the midpoint current is increased by that factor for a &en value of 6, whereas the midpoint voltage is unchanged. The power, P = VmIm, becomes P=
( E C O S ~p

so that the only natural radian frequency is

In terms of the system frequency = 6X . 6 ~ ~ E2 ~ .~ ~ m(13) ~ = X s ~ n 6

s i n i 2E2 )

which is greater than that of Case 1 by the same factor as the current.

G d .We now define, for equal values of 6 in both cases and in


t e r m of midpoint quantities, Current gain = GIk = Voltage gain = G v k = current of Case k - ' k current of Case I -

midpoint voltage of Case k -'rnk midpoint voltage of Case 1 Vm 1

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For Case 2,

where again, s is the degree of series compensation. Now, as stated before, s is a positive number between 0 and 1. If s = 0, there is no series compensation, so we have Case 1.If s = 1, we have 100% compensation or series resonance; the line has no reactance and its resistance (which was neglected) predominates. Then, power is transmitted, as with direct current, only by difference of voltage magnitudes, not by phase difference, and the system is unstable. If s > 1, the net circuit reactance is capacitive, and the power-angle curve is inverted. The only stable operating regions, where the slope of the power-angle curve is positive, are in the vicinity of 6 = ?nnn radians(where n is an odd integer). At suchoperatingpoints, the current is excessive, being on the order of the short-circuit current. If 0 < s < 1, then also 0 There exists arisk of SSR.

<fi<

1, and, byeq. 27, f,, < fs.

For example, for 40% series compensation (s = 0 . 4 ) ,

Case 3: Shunt Capacitor The power gain is the factor by which the power for a given angle 6 is augmented by virtue of the compensation. We shall express the per-unit circuit quantities as functions of G p and 6. Forced-Frequency Analysis. The circuit is shown in Fig. 5 and the phasor diagram, in Fig. 6 . The midpoint current I , is defined as that between the two equal capacitors in parallel.

Fig, 5. Circuit for Care 3, shunt capacitor.

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5 =j4(Gp3 'b

6 1) cos2

(39)

The asterisk denotes the conjugate.

Natural Frequency: The circuit of Fig. 5 has two meshes, but, as the two branches X L / ~ are in parallel when the emf's are set equal to zero, it reduces to one mesh with inductive reactance X L / ~ and capacitive susceptance Bc. Its transient parameters are

0
Fig. 6. Phnsor diagram for Case 3.
so that the only natural radian frequency is
Analysis of the circuit shows that

Im 3 6 - =2sin2 'b

and

Hence the gaga are


1 Midpoint voltage: G ~3 = 1 - BcXL/~

Comparison of Shunt Capacitor with Series Capacitor Condition for Equal Power Gain: Power gain is given by eq. 33 for the shunt capacitorand by eq. 17 for the series capacitor. By assuming equalpower gains and equating the two expressions, we obtain

Midpoint current: Gr3 = 1


1

Power:

GP3 = GV3 = 1

- BCXL/4

Whereas power gain is achieved with a series capacitor by increasing the current for a given voltage-phase difference 6, a shunt capacitor increases themidpoint voltage. This is objectionable on the usual constant-voltage power system, and hence only moderate power gains can be achieved unless the insulation level for power frequency is increased in tapered fashion.

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(34)

The right-hand member was defined by eq. 11 as the degree of series compensation s. We may, by analogy, consider the left-hand member as an equivalent degree of series compensation sf, equivalent to the shunt compensation with respect to power gain.

Equations for reactive power are the following. That supplied from the terminals is

- = 2 [2-Gp3(1 +cosS)] prn 1 and that from the shunt capacitor is

Qt3

The result (eq. 4 2 ) can be obtained in another way: by converting the T circuit of Case 3 to an equivalent n circuit, to be compared t o the circuit of Case 2. The formula for the architrave impedance of the n is the sum of the impedances of the two side arms plus their product divided by the impedance of the shunt arm (or multiplied by the corresponding admittance). Thus we get

The currents are:

=jXL 1

( --

=jXL(l

- S I )

(43)

This shows the architrave of the n t o consist of the inductive reactance XL in series with a negative (capacitive) reactance, -s'XL. The conversion leads also to two equal pillars, which the circuit of Case 2 does not have. Because the pillars are lossless, they absorb no active power but dosupply some reactive power to the line. 1611

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NaturalFrequencies and SSR: Thenatural frequencyof circuit with series capacitor (Case 2) was given by eq. 27 as fn2lfs = fi

the

2.0
I

+ cos 8

(shunt)

and the discussion following that equation shows that 0 < s < 1 and hence that f n <f s , a condition which involves some risk of SSR. For the shunt capacitor (Case 3), the substitution of eq. 42 into eq. 41 leads to the new relation fn3lfs = 1I &

1.5

1.0

(44)

where sf is the equivalent degree of series compensation, as defined in connection with eqs. 42 and 43. For equal degrees of compensation in the two cases (equal power gain), s' also lies between 0 and 1, as does s. It follows that f n >f s , which means that SSR cannot occur. This is one of the most important advantages of shunt capacitors over series capacitors. Fig. 7 shows the natural frequencies of the two circuits as functions of s or s'.

0.5

(shunt)

0 -

3 0 .

60.

90

120. 1 8105' 0 '

Angle 3
Fig. 8. Functions of 6 appearing in formulas for reactive power supplied b y series or shunt capacitors (Cases2, 3, and 4).

Rotor
fJ'n-1

Stator
fnPs

0.50

2.0

I
0 -1 . 0

.
Series Capacitor

' * * '

greater rating than does an equivalent series capacitor bank. On the other hand, the unit price, installed, of a series capacitor is about twice that of a shunt capacitor of equal Mvar rating. The reason is the necessity of mounting it on a platform insulated from ground and of more elaborate protective equipment (protective gaps, bypass switches, and their accessories). The actual cost of series and shunt capacitors, installed, may not be much different.

-a

"

0.5 1 . 0 Degree of Series Compenration,~, actual or of equivalent shunt compensation


0

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I

Midpoint Voltage: This voltage is higher for the shunt capacitor than for the series capacitor by a factor equal to the power gain. This is particularly objectionable at light loadings (when the capacitors are not needed for stability) and is the principal disadvantage of using fixed shunt capacitors for augmenting stability.

Fig. 7. Natural frequencies of systems with series or shunt capacitors (Cases 2 and 3). Capacitances of Capacitors: Eq. 42 shows that, for a given line reactance XL,the capacitive susceptance of the shunt capacitorB a changes in proportion to the capacitive reactance of the equivalent series capacitor. Since B a = wscsh and = 1 Iwc,,, the two capacitances change inversely: as csh increases, Cse decreases.

xa

Criticality of Location of Capacitors: The effectiveness of a series capacitor is almost independent of its location along a transmission line. In the simple system chosen for this study, with distributed shunt capacitance neglected, it is equally effective at any point of the line. On actual lines, such as those on the Pacific NW-SW Interties,practicehas varied, some lines having capacitors at both ends, one having a capacitor station near the middle, and one having three capacitor stations none of which is at an end. In the simple two-machine system of this study, the shuntcapacitor station is most effective in augmenting stability if located at the midpoint, and its effectiveness decreases with dislocation from the middle, becoming zero at eitherend. This will be shown later in Case 5 .

Reactive Power Furnished by Capacitors: The reactive power furnished by the series capacitor is given by eq. 23, and that by the s shunt capacitor, by eq. 35. The ratio i (45) Plots of the numerator and denominator are shown in Fig. 8. Reactive power furnished by the series capacitors increases with 6, while that furnished by the shunt capacitor decreases. For 6 between 0 and 90", Qm > Q m ; for 6 between 90" and 180, Q c 3 < Qm. The rating of the capacitor bank is the maximum steady-state a (perhaps 0.7) of the maximum reactive power or fraction momentary power. Consequently, a fixed shunt capacitor bank has a
1612

Case 4: Combination of Series and Shunt Capacitors We might hope that by the use of both series and shunt capacitors we might obtainthe advantages of bothwithoutthe shortcomings of either. But this is not true. Forced-Frequency Analysis: Analysis of this case, with the capacitors T-connected gives the following gains: Midpoint current: Midpoint voltage: G14 Gv4 = 1 , where = X C 1-s XL
-

(46) (47)

c l

, where X = XL - XC

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Power:

GP4= G14G V4

(48)

Natural Frequencies: There are two modes, one with 1 s = IR, the other with 1 s = - 1 ~ .The corresponding natural frequencies are

relatively large number of parallel transmission lines are planned for a transmission system using shunt devices for augmentation of stability [61. The removal of one section of one line then produces a smaller change of the ratio of series reactances on the two sides. Natural Frequency: It can be shown that, for equal power gains in Cases 3 and5,theshunt capacitancemust be greater and the parallel equivalent inductance, smaller in Case 5,butthe natural frequencies are the same in both cases.

as for series compensation alone, and

Case 6: Two Shunt Capacitors Located so as to Divide the Line into Thirds. where Xc is the reactance of the two series capacitors combined and B c is the susceptance of the shunt capacitor. The f i s t one of these frequencies is subsynchronous and the second one is supersynchronous, being slightly higher than that of eq. (41 ) for shunt compensation alone. Conclusion to Case 4: In this case a given power gain can be factored in a great many ways into current gain and voltage gain, each of these being less than the power gain. Thus the overvoltage at light load can be reduced from that with the shunt capacitor alone. At the same time, the frequency of natural mode 1, which is below the power frequency can be made lower than it would be with series compensationalone.Thus, if the frequenciesof mechanical resonance of the synchronous machines were known, the natural electrical frequency could be chosen so as to avoid these. If the frequencies of mechanical resonance are not known, there would still be a risk of SSR. Forced Frequency Analysis: The circuit is shown inFig. 11. Computation showed that, for 6 = 90" and equal power gains between 1.2 and 2.0, the reactive power supplied by the two shunt capacitors of this case is slightly less than that of the single capacitor of Case 3, and the capacitor voltage Vc is somewhat less. Natural Frequencies: With BC and X L equal to those of Case 3, there are two natural frequencies, one 1.22, and theother 2.12, times as great as the single natural frequency of Case 3. Hence all of these frequencies are supersynchronous.

a U .I
0
c

c E .I .o 0

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> .c c .0
Q

0.5

Fig. 9. Circuit for Case 5, shunt capacitor off center. Case 5: One Shunt Capacitor Off Center Forced-Frequency Analysis: The circuit is shown in Fig. 9. A parameter k is used to show the fraction of the whole reactance of the line between the capacitor and one end of the line. For example, if k = 0.5,the capacitor is at the center (midpoint). A T-to-n conversion gives an architrave impedance of

0 Q

a
0
0

L .

0 0

0.5
Location of shunt capacitor,
Fig. 10. Relative power gain for Case 5.

I.o

The power gain relative to that with the capacitor at the center is
GP5 _ _- 1 - 0.25 BCXL Gp3 1 - k( 1 - k)BcXL

x,/

x,/ 3
-

11-1

1-

which is plotted in Fig 10.

x,/3

&

I 1

This decrease in effectiveness as the capacitor is moved away from the midpoint (defined byequality of the series inductive reactances on each side of the capacitors)perhapsexplainswhya 1613

Fig, 11. Circuit for Case 6, two equal shunt capacitors at the points one-third of the line length from each end.

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LINES WITH SHUNT REACTIVE COMPENSATORS (CONSTANT EMF IN SERIES WITH CONSTANT REACTANCE) The synchronous condenser (or compensator) and various static compensators belong in this category and areequivalent oneto another in the steady state.

The reactive power supplied by the compensator is

Case 7: Constant EMF at Center Let the reactance of the compensator be zero, and let its emf be Ek, which may differ fromthose E at the terminals. The circuit diagram is that of Fig. 12. The two concentric circles represent an emf subject to a restraint that no active power can be supplied or absorbed, but only reactive power can be.

Reactive power supplied to the line from the terminals is

and that consumed in the line is

Fig. 12. Circuit for Cases 7 and 8. with constant emf Ek on or off center, respectively. k = 0.5 for Case 7. The active power is

The trend of reactive power as a function of 6 is entirely different from that for a shunt capacitor, being low at light load (small 6) and increasing with 6. The voltage everywhere along the line cannot exceed E or Ek, whichever is higher.

The power-angle curve is plotted in Fig 13, where it is compared with that of the base case (Case 1). The crest value is about twice as high as that of Case 1(exactly twice if Ek = E ) but occurs at a greater angle ( A radians instead of n / 2 ) , and the area under the curve out to A radians i s about twice as great. Reasons for not continuing the curve out to 6 = 2 7 7 will be advanced in Case 8. We could define the power gain as

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4

2.0

P , I
QC,

0
0.5 I

0.5

I.o P 7 1P m 1

I .5

2.0

-0

Fig. 14. Reactivepowersupplied function of transmitted power.

by compensator in Case 7 as a

3 0 '

60'

90'
Angle

120'

150'

0 180'
Case 8 : Constant Shunt EMF Off Center The circuit is that of Fig. 12 with k < 0.5. The compensator emf Ek is chosen as reference axis, and the phase difference between E s

Fig. 13. Curves of transmitted power for Cases I and 7and reactive powersupplied by shuntreactivecompensator for Case 7, all as functions of angle.

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where

(61) (62)

2 .o

p e
Po

I .5

.o

0.5

In order to obtain information for plotting the power-angle curve,we assume values of Pg/Po, multiply them by k and again by 1 - k , find the inverse sines, and add them. However, the inverse sines are multiple-valued, each having two values in the range of 6 from 0 to x ( s e e Fig. 15).Theonly way in which 6 can increase and be a continuousfunction of Pg is to go up onebranch and downthe other of the lower sinusoid and at the same time go up and down the same (left-hand)branch of thetallersinusoid,asindicated in the figure. The instantaneous "jump" in 6, also shown, is not possible because both the terminal machines have inertia even thoughthe intermediate shunt emf may have none.

0 Angle, 8,.

90.

180'

aR,or 8 =

% , + SR

A family of power-angle curves for various values of the n Fig. 16. It becomes obvious that the shape parameter k is shown i of the limiting power-angle curve, approached as k approaches 0.5, is the first quarterof a sinusoid and has a vertical drop at 6 = 180'.

Fig. IS. Graphical construction of poweranglecurve for Case 8 with shunt compensator or constant emf Ek = I located o f f center by 5% o f line length ( k = 0.45).

In the mechanical analog devised by Criscom [ 7 J ,with the two small inertia, has a outer arms fixed, the central arm, which has a stable position if 6 < 180' but becomes unstable if 6 > 180'.

2.0

Case 9: EMF and Reactance at Center

I .5

p*

Pml 1.0

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Thecircuit diagramforsteady-state forced-frequency conditions is that of Fig. 17. The power-angle curves are given by

0.5
v 2
X,f2

60 Angle,

EO

le0

3 (degrees)
Ek and ER is called 6 ~ The .

Fig. 16. Familyofpower-cmgle curves for Case 8. Constantemf Ek = I is o f f center by various distances k t where l? is length o f line. and Ek iscalled 6s;thatbetween power-angle equation is Pg
=-SUI

EEk . kXL

6s=

EkE (1 - k)XL

, 6
Fig. 17, Circuit for Case 9, shunt reactive compensator with emf Ek and slopereactance X S atcenter o f line.

( 6 0 )

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2.0

A family of curves for various values of R are plotted in Fig. 2 1. As in Case 7, which is the same as Case 9 with R = 0, the reactive power is small at light load (small 6) and increases with 6.

I .5
i i n
\

am 1.0

P
0.5
Fig. 19. Equivalent circuit for Case 9 in which the equivalent T of reactances in Fig. 18 is converted to an equivalent delta. This circuit is used to show the instability of point K a t angles equal to or greater than IS@.
R=O

0 -

3 0 '

60'

90'
Angle

120'

150'

180'

Fig. 18. Family of powerdngle curves for Case 9. All curves drop vertically to zero at 6 = 18@ R = X ~ J X L . where R =Xs/XL
A family.of curves with R as parameter is displayed in Fig. 18. It is believed that all these curves drop to zero at 6 = 180' = radians. follows. Let the Y The reasoning supporting such belief is as connection of the three reactances be converted to a A, which is shown. in-Fig. 19. If the three emfs are all known, expressions for the power in each branch are easily written. The expression for the direct,path SR is the f m t term of eq. 6 3 , containingsin 6. The expressionfortheindirect path SKR is thesecond term of that equation, containing sin ( 6 / 2 ) . Upon reviewing the analysis of the power-angle curve for Case 8 in the limit of equal line segments, we concludethatthe loci of both 6s and 6~ (whose sum i s 6) rise together to the crest of the sinusoid, butone descends on the right-hand branch and the other,onthe left-hand branch. Both points lie on the same horizontal line, expressing the fact that the power must be the same in both halves of the path. The result for this path is the first quarterof a sinusoid of period 4n radians, falling vertically from the crest to zero. The ordinates of the sinusoid of period 2r radians for the direct path must be added to the corresponding ordinate of the sinusoid for the indirect path, which also is zero at 6 = 180'.

0
1 1 1 . 1

3 0 '

60'

90'
Angle 8

120'

150'

180'

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Fig. 20. Family of curves of midpoint voltage in Case 9 as function of reactance ratio R and angle 6.

Midpoint Voltage (at tefininals of compensator): This is given by the formula Vm I -=(I + 4 R E 4R+1

cosL) 2

Plots are shown in Fig. 20.

The lower the value of.R, the less the voltage varies and the higher is the crest of the power-ande curve, Friedlander states that even when the slope'reactanceof a saturated reactor is compensated atpower frequency bya series capacitor, there is still a transient equal to the leakage of the step-up transformer [ 81. reactance roughly
The reactive power furnishedby the ampensatoris

3 0 '

60'

90'

120'

150'

180'
in

'ml

B=-e[p)
(4R +

+(~R-~ Ek) ~ c6 o s - - ~ R ( ~ + c o (65) s~) 2

Angle 8
Fig. 21. Reactive power supplied by shunt reactive compensator &e 9 as function of angle 6 and reactance ratio R .

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Case 10: Multiplicity Spaced

of Shunt Reactive Compensators, Equally

This general case is treated in a recent paper by Friedlander[ 8 ] . A general formula is derivedfor anynumber of equallyspaced compensators.

off center. If several such devices are used, they should be equally spaced. As a rule, t h i s limitation requires more circuits in parallel than are required when series capacitors are used. Series capacitors are almost equally effective at any location alongline. a Fixed shuntcapacitorsalone cannot augmentstabilitymuch without giving an objectionable overvoltage light atloads. However, they can be switchedonautomaticallyduringa Swing andswitchedoff onthe back swing withoutproducingan overvoltage. In such service a capacitor rated for half normal voltage can be connected momentarily.

Natural Frequencies

The subject of the natural frequencies of a system includingone or more shunt reactive compensators is complicated by the variety of types of these devices having similar externalcharacteristicsat power-system frequency but different internal constructions.

A bettermethod is to use a futed shuntcapacitorand an automatically controlled variable inductor or a saturable inductor in parallel with it. Continuously controlled shunt capacitors have become available [ 9 ] .
Series capacitors appear preferable where generation is hydro or where enough load is present to insure adequate damping of subsynchronous frequencies. REFERENCES
[ 11 C. Concordia, System planning considerations

However, except for the synchronous cornpensator, which has inductive reactandes such as anyothersalientipolesynchronous machine, any reactive compensatorintendedtoaugmentsystem stability must have a shunt capacitor. The variable reactor in parallel with this capacitor may annul all or part of the capacitive susceptanceundersteadyforced-frequencyoperation.Thewhole capacitive susceptance of this capacitor must be less than that corresponding to 100% equivalent series compensation. It has been shown that shunt capacitors s o limited produce only superis synchronous frequencies. The inductor of the compensator effectively in parallel with the much lower inductances of the line; thus its effect is to decrease the modal inductances and thus raise the natural frequencies. It seems reasonable to suppose that all natural frequencies of shunt reactive compensators will superbe synchronous.

of subsynchronous resonance, presented at SSR Symposium, IEEE PES Summer Meeting, SanFrancisco,July 24, 1975. Therecommendation was given in the oral presentation;not in the printed paper.

[2] L. A. Kilgore and D. G. Ramey, Transmission and generation system analysis procedures for subsynchronous resonance probbms, presented at the same SSR Symposium.

Compensators having a capacitor in series with a saturable reactor for compensation of saturated reactance can exhibit ferroresonance;however,suchcompensatorsincludecircuitryfor suppressing ferroresonance.

[3] J. D. Ainsworth, C. B. Cooper, E. Friedlander, and H. L. Thanawala, Long distance ac transmission using static voltage stabilisers and switched linear reactors, C:I.G.R.E., repoi? 31-01, 1974. B. [4] L. 0. Barthold, H. Becker, J. Dalzell, C. B. Cooper, H. Norman, C. A. Peixoto, K. Reichert, J. C. Roy, and B. Thoreri, Static shunt devices for reactive power control, C.I.G.R.E;, report 3 1-08, 1974.

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CONCLUSIONS Stability l i m i t s of a power system involving long-distance transmission may be raised by the addition either of series capacitors o r of shunt capacitors or of more elaborate devices which include shunt capacitors and shunt inductors. Thenaturalfrequencies of circuitswithseriescapacitorsare subsynchronous, and therefore the use of series capacitors invokes a certain risk of subsynchronous resonance, which has been known to produceseriousmechanicaldamage to large steamturbogenerator s e t s . However, thenaturalfrequencies of circuitsutilizing shunt capacitorsandothershunt devices are supersynchronous andthus involve no such risk. Shunt devices are most effective when connected at the electrical center of a transmission system and their effectiveness falls off rapidly when a change in the transmission system throws them

[5] K. Reichert, J. Kauferle, and H. Glavitsch, Controllable reactor compensator for more extensive u t h t i o n of voltage transmission systems, C.I.C.R.E., report 3 1-04, 1974.

C. Roy, Transmission of [ 6 ] R. Elshger, C. Lamontagne,andJ. 16,ooOMW over a distance of 1200 km from James Bay tothe Hydro-Quebec load centers, C.I.G.R.E., report 32-07, 1974.
[7] E. W. Kimbark, Power System Stability, vol. 1, New York: John Wiley & Sons, page 8,Fig. 6.

Transient reactance effects in static shunt [8] E. Friedlander, reactive compensators for long ac lines, IEEE PES paper no. F 76 164-4, January 1976.
[91

A. Olwegird, L. Ahlgren,and H. Frank,Thyristorcontrolled shuntcapacitorsforimprovingsystemstability,C.I.G.R.E. report 32-20, 1976.

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capacitance of the line to be negligible; this is valid if either the line is very short andhighly loaded with respect to its surge impedance power, c. Concordia (Venice, Florida): We regard this paper as being very use- orit is long butfittedwith fixedlinear shunt compensation. Ihis ful andilluminating, as showing, in a very fundamental way some of the approach may not give quite the right perspective, particularly for very long lines, because it fails to take into account that shunt stabilisation important aspects of a comparison between shunt and series corn can be achieved below surge impedance power merely by subjecting the tion from the viewpoint of possible subsynchronous resonsance. thetically, we must deplore the fact that anotherpaper (F77 239-7) also inductive shunt compensation (which is required anyway to keep the a comparative analysis of series and shunt compensation . . is being voltage in check under light load conditions) to some automatic control presented on this same afternoon at a different session, and sponsored so as to maintain almost constant voltage. Shunt capacitors are required only for the range of power in excess of the surge impedance power of by a different committee.) the line. Following are comments on specific aspects of the paper: As large voltage variations along any line are not acceptable any1. While it is true that subsynchronous resonance cannot occur with theshunt compensationschemes described in the paper, super way, it seems permissible to assume that under normal conditions all synchronous resonance can occur if the generation unit has any super- reactive powers must be nearly in balance. This will lead to a basic synchronous torsionalnatural frequencies. Thefactthatthe super- natural frequencyof the system not far off the systemfrequency. The question then arises as to whether the system turns capacitive synchronous frequencies are positively dampedmay not prevent the occurrence of high shaft torques during some transients if there is res- or inductive for frequencieslower than the systemfrequency in the onance or near-resonance. Thismay still have to be, atleast, investigated, range wheresubsynchronous resonance can occur. Although this apthe explanations derived by the author even though there is no steadystate instability (selfexcitation) problem. proach differs quantitatively from 2. It is very properly pointed out that thecost of series and shunt in Fig. 7, the sense of variation is the same. The derivation in Fig. 15 of the angle-limitation to 1 8 P for a single capacitors, installed to accomplish a given transqission of power, may not be very different. Thus the actual economic decision may depend on mid-line stabiliser as shown in Figs. 16 and 18, is interesting. It avoids other factors, as discussed in more detail in reference 1 of the paper. the pitfall which can occur when considering a completely symmetrical system in which the impossible jump would be inherently absent. One Our own conclusion, based on general studies a d observations of several specific projects, is that an importqnt aspect is the magnitude of can, however, arrive at the same m u l t also for the symmetrical case by consideration of the effect of any transient power flow into a stabiliser the receivipg area generation relative to that of the remote generation on the necessary change of its stored energy. This shows that even a under consideration. The two extremes of this aspect are: a. Series compensation will usually be found more suitable for single synchronous condenser in the middle of aline could be driven out longdistance transmission from a remote generating station to -aq in- of step during a transient overswing of the total phase angle beyond o impracticably large that a critical phase angle finite buq (or a relatively very large system), unless subsynchronous res- 1 8 P unless its mass is s is not reached during the overswing. onance poses a very severe problem, and Figs. 15 shows at the same time that it is the phase at which maxib. Shunt compensation will usually be found more suitable for longdistance transmission to a load area having no local generation, mum power occurs in any line section which limits not only the steady even though subsybchronous resonance is not so much of a probleq in state but also the transient power that can be transmitted. This obviousthis case. The breakeven p o h t may be when the receiving system ly occurs at 90 for any section and the same procedure can be used to explain why I 8 P can be exceeded if multi-point stabilisation is present, is from 2 to 4 times as large as the remote generation. We believe this is the prime explaqation for the choice of shunt as proven eqpehmentally and discussed on p.1680 of the I.E.E.E. Transcompensation made in reference (6) of the paper, and that the relative- actions PAS95 No. 5 , 1976. It seems interesting to note that the breakly large number of-parallel transmission lines is based on other con- off point derived by the author has a great similarity to that foundwith reference to subharmonics on the model of a very long line as described siderations, namely reliability, since the remote generation is a major portion of the t o t 4 system generation. Note also that reference 6 was in Fig. C on the same quoted page. concerned with hydro generation, in which Gase the present paper concludes that series capacitors appear preferable. Another important aspect of the system that can influence the choice between series and shunt compensation is the kind of compensation already in place. That is, in a meshed network it may often not be feasible to mix the two kinds of compensation. A tliird case in which shunt compensation is favored is that of several relatively weak, longitudinally connected systems, where series cornpensation might have to be putin several places while one optimally F. Iliato and E. C i n i e r i (University of Rome, Italy): The author should be commended for his fundamental analysis on the improvement of placed shunt yoltage support might be effective. 3.-We were very pleased to see the conclusion regarding the com- system sgbility by means of shunt capacitors. This stimulating paper contains many inventorial features which are presented with anexbinatioq of series and shunt compensatioq (Case 4), as we agree with Dr. Kimbark that this combination i s usually not very appropriate or emplary clearness. We have been involved in research and applicationof series caeconomical. pacitors in EHV systems, and we believe that many engineers would 4. It is mentioned that according to reference 8 of the papera saturated shunt reactor with slope-reactance compensation by a series welcome the use of shunt mstead of series connectedcapacitors in capacitor h q still a transient reactance roughly equal to the leakage of order to avoid the technical inconveniences inherent onseries capacitors. the step-up tranqformer (8). We believe reference 8 concludes that the Besides the fact demonstrated by the author, that natural system fretransientreactance is much greater than this transformer leakage re- quencies become supersynchronous, the following shortcomings would actance. In fact, it is somewhat greater than the total of this leakage be avoided: - in modern systems the necessity of fast reinsertion i f series caplus the uncompensated slope reactance. pacitors is usually recognized. Fast reinsertion is obtained with sophisti5 , Ip view of the papers title, we believe that mention shouId be cated equipments and the probabilityof success .is stillasubject of made of the third alternative, d-c trqsmission, which incidentally improvement ; usually requiTs some shupt compensatipn. - the complication of protection of series compensated lines and 6. Finally, we are surprised to note that in the case of pfereqce 1, of nearby lines. it is stated that The recommendation (that system plapners give more The author points out that the effectiveness of shunt capacitors consideration to shunt compensatipn for improvement in stability) was decreaseswith dislocation from line midpoint, while the effectiveness of given in +e oral prewntation, not in the printed paper., since we did series capacitors is almost independent of its location. This point is in in fact make such arecommendation alsq in the printedpaper. For favor of series capacitors, wluch do not necessarily require the conexample, following are twopertinentquotationsfmm reference 1: struction of an ad hoc station at line midpoint. On the other hand, we we have felt that in the regent past the shunt devices may have have reported in a paper presented to the same IEEE Meeting (paper n. been somewhat neglecteci;; and But naw, ,shunt compensaF77 239-7) that the effectiveness of compensation may vary to a large tion deserves a new look. series capacitors and shunt reactors, when the These quotations are just a smdl part of an entire page devoted to extent withthe location of chosen degrees of series y d shunt compensation and the length of the Series vs. Shunt Compensation. line sections between capacitorstations are close to the maximum values technically acceptable for these parameters. Manuscript received February 15,1977, The main problem with shunt capacitors permanently connected is that a drastic increase of stability brings along an unacceptable voltage E. Friedbder (Consultant, GEC Switchgear Ltd., Stafford, England): gain at line midpoint, if voltage is kept constant at the two terminals. Thispaper is instructive in s e v e d respects. m e author assum= the The author fully recognizes this fact in the paper. Discussion

(Et:

.,

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. ..

Manuscript received February23,1977.

Manwcript received March 1,1977.

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If the required power gain is large, the great amount of capacitive reactive power injected at line midpoint flows towards the receiving and sendingends, where it has to be absorbed. The reactive power flow, that is associated withthe voltage increase at line midpoint, is also accompanied by important power losses. It is interesting to point out that, for an assigned value of power gain, the susceptance and the power rating of required shunt capacitors is inversely proportional to line length. Therefore the shorter is the line, the greater is the reactive power flow towards the line ends. On series compensatedsystems, for an assigned value of power gain, the power rating of series capacitors is also inversely proportional to line length, but the problems associated with the reactive power flow towards the lines ends, and compensationthereof, have minor importance, because in the practical cases the kVARs of series capacitors are much less than the kVARs of equivalent shunt capacitors. The voltage increase at line midpoint and the reactive power injection and flow, which can be objectionable in the steady-state, may be very beneficial duringpower swings following asystem perturbance. During half the swings the line current increases because of the increased value of rotors angle 6. Furthermore thedisconnectionofa faulty parallel line, or the increase of transmitted power from remote sources due to loss of generators close to the load area, brings along an increase of current in the lines remaining in service. The associated increase of consumption of reactive power in the series inductances may cause the voltage to collapse in intermediate points along the transmission system and instability may ensue. In such cases the drastic voltage support obtained by the temporary insertion of shunt capacitors will strongly improve stability, as would do the temporary disconnection of shunt reactors. The insertion of shunt capacitors during about half power swing intended to improve first swing stability can be performed with circuit breakers; in this manner large capacitor banks can be connected directly to EHV system. If an improvement of dynamic stability (damping of power swings) is also required, a faster, repetitive and tapered control of shunt capacitors is appropriate. This requires rather sophisticated and expensive equipments like medium voltage multistagecapacitor banks, with thyristorcontrol, connected to EHV system via transformers. It would be very interesting to have information by the author, if available, on studies performed for the application of shunt capacitors in any specific EHV project.

Edward W. Kimbark: Theauthor welcomes the discussions, which generally extend and clarify the subject of the admittedly incomplete paper. In general, he agrees with their comments, and only a few items require any answer. Mr. Concordia states that, although subsynchronous resonance cannot occur in a shuntcompensated system, supersynchronous resonance can occur and could do some damage. Thedifference is that subsynchronous oscillations may, in some circumstances,be negatively damped, whereas supersynchronous oscillations are always positively damped. I think that he will agree that the potential for serious damage is immensely greater from subsynchronous oscillations than from supersynchronous ones. Actually,the word resonance is misused in both cases - and even in the title of the paper. Although it has been traditionally used in most previous papers in this field, it should logically be replaced by the word oscillations. Dr. Friedlander, the originator and developer of the shunt reactive compensator employing a saturable reactor, notes the shortcomings of the paper due to the neglect of the distributed shunt capacitance of the transmission line. The author pleads guiltyandoffersthe following excuse. Initially, in thestudy which led to this paper, theauthor studied somecases both with and without distributed shunt capacitance. The inclusion of such capacitance, though giving a closer approach to realism, adds one more independent variable. A major consideration in preparing an IEEE paper is brevity. The author compromised realism in favor of simplicity and brevity. The values of reactive power and of midpoint voltage are thereby rendered inaccurate. Professor Iliceto and Mr. Cinieri inquire for information on studies of specific applicationsof shunt capacitors to EHV projects. Several years ago we made a brief study of the effect of a shunt capacitor at Malin substation(located near the electrical center of the500-kVac Pacific Interties) and switched onto the bus during an outward angular swing initiated by some disturbance. These interties already have a high degree of series compensation. My principle remembrance is that a very large shunt capacitor was required, and we did not pursue the subject further. Themostthorough study of shunt compensation is probably that made by Quebec Hydro in connection with the projected 765-kV transmission from James Bay to Quebec and Montreal [ 6 ] .
Manuscript received April 6 , 1977.

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