SPACE EXPLORERS

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California Institute of Technology Pasadena 3, California
Jupiter C witb FxpIcrer ot Cope ConoveroI, FIorido
EXPLORER
Dr. Wil l i am H. Pi c k eri ng ,
Director, Jet Propulsion L abora
tory, California Institut e of
Technology
Maj. Gen. John 8. Medaris,
Commanding General , U.S.
Army Or d nanc e Mi s s i l e
Command
PROGRAM
On January 31, 1958, at 10:55 p.m. Eastern Standard
Time, Explorer the Free World's frst satellite was placed
in orbit around the earth. This historic event occurred
about seven minutes after the United States Army's multi
stage Jupiter L launching vehicle began its swift ascent
from the Missile Test Center (MTC) at Cape Canaveral,
Florida. For perhaps the next fve years, this 30-pound
80-inch-long moon is expected to log about 375,000 miles
per day, ccumulating new information on conditions
encountered outside earth's atmosphere. In rapid succes
sion, other American satellites are now being launched,
each containing several diferent types of instrumentation.
The Explorer program was originated and directed
jointly by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA)
and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California
Institute of Technology. But much credit is given to other
research groups and industrial subcontractors who con
tributed to this success. Every earth satellite demonstrates
the current advanced state of almost all the scientifc
and engineering disciplines. Part of the philosophy back
of the space Explorer program emphasizes the value of
selecting, where possible, only performance-proven and
relatively simple components for incorporation in complex
new equipment. Ordinarily, such a procedure minimizes
both the cost and the time of development and assures
system reliability and ultimate success.
Their twelve trips daily around the earth bring the
space Explorers close to the many satellite tracking sta
tions that routinely record the radio telemetry signals.
Sensing instruments fown in the Explorers now give all
scientists of the world access to vital space information,
increasing their understanding of the universe. Astro
nautical engineers are now sure that internal temperatures
of space vehicles can be maintained within satisfactory
operational limits. For the frst time, reliable data are
available pertaining to micrometeorites and interstellar
dust encountered above the earth's atmosphere. Cosmic
ray particle counts are being tallied around the earth
at all times and in all directions. Explorer programs now
being planned for the future will continue to contribute
hitherto unknown and unexpected information to man's
storehouse of knowledge.
Dr. We r nhe r vo n B r a u n,
Tec hni cal Dir ec t or, Army
Ballis tic Missile Ag ency
Dr. Jack E. Froehlich, Satellite
Project Di rector, Jet Propulsion
Laboratory
CONCENTRIC
STAGE 3
HIGH-SPEED
SPINNING STAGES
MODIFIED
REDSTONE
PROPULSION
STAGE 1


'
PAYLOAD
STAGE 4
ANNULAR
STAGE 2
GUIDANCE SECTION
WITH AIR JETS
Assembly of Jupiter C stages
for launching FxpIcrer satellites
FOUNDATIONS FOR SUCCESS
Launching Vehicle
As early as April, 1956, ofcials at both ABMA and
JPL had stated that a proven Army missile system, the
Jupiter L, could readily be modifed to provide the rocket
vehicle necessary to launch a satellite. Jupiter L con
sisted of a Redstone missile as Stage 1, plus two high
speed stages made up of clusters of solid-propellant
motors. Stage 2 had an annular cluster of eleven motors,
and the concentric Stage 3 had a cluster of three motors.
All solid-propellant motors used were scaled-down from
the JPL-developed Sergeant, one of the Army's surface
to-surface ballistic missiles. Calculations showed that the
addition of another motor, to propel an additional stage,
would be more than adequate to place a signifcant
instrumented payload in orbit.
For obtaining additional energy, the liquid-propellant
Redstone propulsion system had been adapted to use a
new hydrazine-base fuel. The spin-stabilized concentric
clusters of scale Sergeant rockets could readily be imple
mented with a modifed timer to launch a fnal satellite
stage. Elaborate screening, storage, and fight tests had
proved that composite rubberlike JPL propellant formula
tions would perform well, even while subjected to many
times the centrifugal strains imposed by rapid spinning.
Nose-Cone Re-entry Tests
The frst jupiter L test vehicle was completed and suc
cessfully fight-tested in September, 1956. It reached an
altitude of nearly 700 miles and a speed of about 13,000
mph, and it impacted at a predetermined point of the
coast of Africa, more than 3000 miles from the Florida
launching site. During this fight test, the remarkable
sensitivity of a new JPL phase-lock radio receiver system,
called Microlock, was demonstrated. This microwave sys
tem tracked a tiny 10-milliwatt transmitter to the local
horizon, almost to missile impact.
In subsequent tests, the 70-foot-long Jupiter L missiles
successfully completed their re-entry ( RTV) mission. For
the frst time, it was fight-proved that a correctly shaped
and constructed nose cone could protect a warhead from
damage by the intense aerodynamic heat generated above
Mach 8, when a missile re-enters denser air. One of these
re-entry cones was retrieved by the US Navy from the
Atlantic. Later, on November 7, 1957, this RTV cone was
shown to a nationwide television audience by President
Eisenhower. On the next day, Secretary of Defense
McElroy authorized Major General Medaris and Doctor
Pickering to go ahead with the proposed modifcation of
Jupiter L and to attempt an IGY satellite launching.
HIGH-POWER TRANSMITTER
EROSION GAUGES |!2!
MICROMETEORITE
ULTRASONIC

COSMIC RAY AND
MICROMETEORITE
PACKAGE
\
TEMPERATURE GAUGE
Satellite Construction
Within two months after the ofcial decision to proceed
had been made, the Explorer satellite, including the
fourth-stage solid-propellant motor, had been fabricated
and was being tested under vacuum, refrigeration, heat,
and vibration environments by JPL. All components were
proved to be ready for fnal assembly well ahead of
a self-imposed three-month construction schedule. The
National Academy of Sciences ICY instrumentation
assigned to the frst experiment had been modifed by
JPL engineers to ft inside the cylindrical Explorer
confguration.
Dynamic balance was achieved by precise machining
and by counterweights. Spare high-speed rocket clusters
( Stages 2 and 3) were still available from the earlier
RTV tests. Malalignments of heavy rotating assemblies
had been kept within less than 0.001 inch. Since the
PROBE
RING
MICROMETEORITE
EROSION GAUGES |J2!
Explorers I and Ill, showing payload instruments
multistage satellite vehicle takeof weight had to be about
1000 times the payload weight, every added ounce had
to perform a needed function. But where possible, dual
or triple systems were used to insure overall reliability,
despite the weight penalties.
Appearance
Externally, the Explorer satellites consist of two main
parts'; frst, the 33-inch-long instrument compartment, or
payload, and second, the 47-inch-long fourth-stage motor
case; these are thermally and electrically insulated from
each other. Explorer has four turnstile antennas, whereas
Explorer has no external antennas. Two tiny tans
mitters and seven transducing instruments are housed in
aScale drawings, for use by model builders, have been printed
on page 10of this brochure.
COSMIC RAY
EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE
GAUGE
HIGH-POWER TRANSMITTER
WITH RECORDER AND
INTERROGATION RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER
the payload compartment. Its outer shell consists of a
12-inch-long stainless-steel nose cone and a 21-inch-long
stainless-steel cylinder, 6.25 inches in diameter.
In orbit, the temperature excursions of the outer shell
are severe when the satellite goes from full sunlight to
full earth shade. A satisfactory range of instrument operat
ing temperatures ( 43 to 104 F) is, however, achieved
by mounting all electrical devices on rigid plastics for
insulation from the exterior metal and also by selective
absorption of sunlight. For this purpose, eight equally
spaced aluminum oxide stripes, of precalculated 0.625-
inch width, are fame-sprayed lengthwise along the outside
of the instrument housing and nose cone. These white
ceramic stripes refect a higher percentage of the sun's
infrared radiation than does bare steel. A balanced refec
tivity helps prevent alternate overheating and freezing
of electrical elements when the Explorers are, respectively,
in exposed and in shaded sectors of their orbit.
Instrument package assem
bly for Explorer I
SATELLITE
INSTRUMENTATION
Explorer
Transmitters. Inside Explorer , the 18.5-pound pay
load assembly consists of seven miniaturized sensing
transducers, two silicon-transistor transmitters, and their
mercury battery power supplies. The higher-power trans
mitter radiated 60 milliwatts continuously at 108.03 mega
cycles for approximately two weeks. It weighed about two
pounds with its four telemetering oscillators and was
powered by one and one-half pounds of batteries. Four
27-inch-long braided antenna wires are attached to the
fbrous-glass reinforced plastic ring to which the fourth
stage rocket motor case is permanently fastened.
Signals from this high-power unit were recorded by
both professional and amateur radio operators around
the world when the satellite was above their local horizon.
Four diferent audio tones were telemetered simulta
neously by the high-power unit through amplitude modu
lation of the carrier frequency. Either a stepwise or
gradual pitch change provides information about the
satellite's environment (see Table on page 6).
Microlock. The lower-power transmitter in Explorer
radiated only 10 milliwatts at 108.00 megacycles. This
unit telemetered continuously much the same informa
tion as did the high-power unit. However, because of the
lower power consumption and larger battery supply, it
t
560 cps
RCC
t
SKIN
TEMPERATURE
J
l08.00m<
10to20mw
FREQUENCY 12 to 3months life)
DOUBLER
t
PHASE
MODULATOR
54 me
t
SUMMING CIRCUIT
t t t
730 cps 960 cps 1300 cps
SUBCARRIER
RCC ICC ICC
OSCILLATORS
t t t
NOSE EROSION COSMIC RAY
TEMPERATURE GAUGE COUNTER
Block diagram of low-power transmitter
transmitted for more than two months. Its frequency
determining quartz crystal was mounted on the spin axis,
the transistors were attached next, and power supply
batteries were symmetrically arranged outside. The entire
package was potted in plastic and tested to withstand
100-g steady acceleration and 15-g rms vibration accelera
tion. ( Incidentally, a 15-g acceleration could rip UC
wings of an airplane. ) Although amateur radio operators
were able to pick up the telemeter signals from the
60-milliwatt unit, only ultrasensitive equipment (see
Figure) could record the four audio tones from the
10-milliwatt phase-modulated Microlock transmitter.
Block diagram of high-power transmitter
DOUBLEBUFFER _
OSCILLATOR
54.015 me - AMPLITUDE
108.03 me
SO to TOOmw
MODULATOR
t
POWER
AMPLIFIER
t
SUMMING CIRCUIT
t t t t
560 cps 730 cps 960 cps 1300 cps
RCC RCC ICC ICC
SUBCARRIER
2 3
OSCILLATORS
t t t t
SKIN INTERNAL IMPACT COSMIC RAY
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE MICROPHONE COUNTER
Low-power 0-milli
watt transmitter
Cosmic ray package
for Explorer I
Hi g h-p o we r 60-
milliwatt transmitter
I
ransducers and ttansmtters used in Explorers
Characteristic
Low-power High-power
transmitter transmitter
Transmitter power !Omw 60mw
Transmitter frequency 108.00 me 108.03me
Antenna type dipole turnstile in ExI,
dipole in ExIII
Maximum efective -2dh +Idb i n Ex!,
antenna gain -2 db in Ex III
Maximum efective +8dhm +18dbm in Ex I,
radiated power +15 dbm in
Ex III
Radiation polarization linear circular in Ex I,
linear in ExIII
Type of modulation phase arnplitude
Amount of modulation,
total four subcarriers
0. 7radian rms 50%
Subcarrier frequencies , channels 2, 3, 4, 5 in ExI,
standard FM/FM 2, 3, 4,and 5 none in Ex III
Channel assignments
Channel 2 ( 560cps) skin tempera-
ture, forward
skin temperature,
rear in Ex Ionly
Channel 3 ( 730cps) nose cone temp in
Ex I, interal
internal ten1 perature
in ExIonly
in Ex III
Channel 4 ( 960 cps) \:ire grids for
micrometeorite
mic1 ophone for
micrometeorites
detection i ExIonly
Channel 5 ( 1300 cps) cosmic ray count cosmic ray count,
recorder in ExIll
Expected life of mercury 2months 2weeks in Ex I,
battery power supply 2 mo in Ex III
Transducers. Any change in satellite temperature,
cosmic ray particle (mostly high-energy protons) count,
or micrometeorite impact abrasion will cause a corre
sponding change in the electrical properties of one of the
SUNLIGHT
EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE
INTERNAL TEMPERATURE
MICROMETEORITE IMPACT EROSION
COSMIC RAY PENETRATION COUNTS
sensing elements. These resista,ce or capacitance changes
in a standard telemeter circuit then afect the pitch of the
tones produced by the four subcarrier audio oscilla
tors. A list of the sensing transducers used is included
in the accompanying table. Thermistors were used to
sense temperature changes of the satellite housing and
the operating instruments. An ultrasonic microphone in
spring contact with thP outer shell gave vibrational infor
mation of collisions with small meteorites. Twelve parallel
connected fne-wire grids gave an indication by their
sequentil fracture of energetic impacts by interstellar
dust particles. These grids were developed by Dr. E.
Manring of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center.
In addition, the penetrating bombardment of the satellite
by high-energy cosmic ray particles (positively charged
nuclides) in outer space was measured by gas ionizations
that are indicated by a Geiger-Mueller tube. This cosmic
ray experiment was originated by Dr. J. A. Van Allen of
the State University of Iowa.
Interpretation of tone signals. All Explorer tele
meter tape recordings are frst sent to JPL, where the
four tones are separated by electronic flters and are
recorded on paper charts. Magnetic tape copies of the
cosmic ray and meteorite impact data are also made at
JPL and are forwarded to the interested ICY agencies
for reduction and interpretation of the specifc informa
tion therein contained,
SHADOW
WIRE BREAKS
Typical traces of data transmitted by Explorer satellites
Preliminary data needed. Merely by being in orbit,
a satellite can provide data about the ionosphere, the
earth's magnetic feld variations; and the atmospheric
density gradient. In order to obtain as wide a variety
of preliminary design information for future satellite
launchings as possible and also to shorten development
time, the instrumentation for Explorer had been kept
simple. Hundreds of observers around the world helpfully
sent in their routine recordings and intercept times to
JPL. Data from these scattered areas made it possible
to deduce the maximum rate at which penetrating cosmic
ray particles were likely to be encountered in outer space.
Explorer II
Recorder added. Since an indication of cosmic ray
impact rates had been obtained, a tape recorder as
designed by Dr. Van Allen, State University of Iowa,
could be installed for the next Explorer satellite fring
attempt. This half-pound 2.25-inch-diameter memory
device is

capable of monitoring the cosmic particle

impacts from all directions in space throughout the entire
two-hour orbit period. Each second of recording time,
a ratchet gear advances the 0.16-inch-wide magnetic tape
about 0.005 inch. As this 36-inch-long bronze tape is
advanced, the return spring is wound. Only when the
CHANNEL 2
SUNLIGHT
=
CHANNEL 3
WIRE BREAKS
CHANNEL 4
CHANNEL 5
Z
I
I
I
Z
X
.
.
-
/
w
CONTROLS PLAYBACK HEAD
. .. .

.
.
.
.
.
Z
.
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Z

Block diagram of cosmic ray recorder

Magnetic tape recorder used in Explorer Ill Cosmic ray package for Explorer Ill
satellite is interrogated by an ofcial ICY receiving sta
tion, does the higher-power transmitter need to operate.
That is, when a tiny receiver in the satellite
.
gets a special
signal, it turns on the transmitter and permits the recorder
to play back all the stored data. Playback is completed in
5 seconds, the speed being damped by an eddy-current
brake. At the same time, all the data are erased from the
tape. The recorder then resets itself for the next trip
around the world, and the transmitter is turned of. Bat
teries can thus last for months even for the high-power
transmitter.
No orbit achieved. Unfortunately, the second attempt
to launch an Explorer was unsuccessful, because the
fourth stage did not fre. Since the speed attained was
less than 18,000 mph, Explorer impacted in the Atlantic
somewhere near the equator. To be prepared for such an
occurrence, JPL had already begun assembling a dupli
cate instrument payload for another launching attempt.
Explorer Ill
Transducers installed in Explorer repeated the expe
riments intended for Explorer . However, in the
transmitting system, the turnstile antenna wires were
eliminated. Instead, the stainless-steel instrument case
and the motor case, which are electrically insulated from
each other, were wired and tuned to the higher-power
transmitter. Thus they could serve as a dipole radiating
antenna whenever this transmitter was commanded to
send the recorded cosmic ray data.
Similarly, the nose cone and instrument case served as
dipole radiators for the lower-power transmitter. This
tiny Microlock unit transmitted continuously for about
two months, as did Explorer , at 108.00 me. Telemetered
data included satellite external and internal temperatures,
micrometeorite impacts, and cosmic ray counts, much the
same as those of its predecessor.
EXPLORER LAUNCHING SEQUENCE
The Countdown
A long .countdown period necessarily precedes the fring
of experimental ballistic missiles and satellite launching
vehicles. During this time, all the thousands of electronic
and mechanical operating components receive their fnal
checkout. Toward the end of the Jupiter L countdown,
the igniters that are to fre the high-speed rockets are
brought from the storage area, inserted in the solid
propellant internal-burning grain perforations, and con
nected to the guidance section wiring. During the transfer
of the 'igniters from their shielded containers, all radio
transmitters in the area are silenced; stray electromagnetic
radiation might prematurely set of an igniter squib. Once
the proper functioning of most of the Jupiter L compo
nents has been determined and weather conditions are
considered favorable for fring, the liquid oxygen loading
takes place. In order that the satellite will cross the
equator at a desired angle , the guidance parameters
are oriented so that the orbit-injection angle L at latitude
L will conform to the spherical trig equation (neglecting
earth's rotation) : cos E = cos L cos L.
The Liftoff
A few minutes before Jupiter C liftof time, the high
speed stages are set spinning to provide for directional
stability. Electric motors for this function are located
next to the rotation shaft on the nose of the frst stage.
Final checks are made of the telemeter transmissions from
the spinning Explorer payload. When the fring signal is
given at 2 MINUS ZERO, pressurization of the fuel tanks
begins. At 2 PLUS 14 SECONDS, the propellant valves
slowly begin to open, and preliminary warmup ignition
takes place. For the next two seconds, the rocket thrust
gradually builds up until, fnally, the earth's gravitational
force is exceeded. Jupiter L then rises noisily from its
platform, balanced on a 100-foot fame that burns. about
50 gallons of propellants per second. Several seconds
after liftof, aerodynamic stability is attained, and the
rocket vehicle is slowly tilted into its curved ballistic
path. Acceleration increases rapidly during the next few
minutes as the frst-stage weight decreases to about 20%
of its liftof value. It obeys Newton's fundamental equa
tion of motion; the acceleration a is proportional to the
thrust ( or force) divided by the mass m being accel
erated (a= F!m).
Injection into Orbit
After 156 seconds, all propellants in the Redstone tanks
are burned out. An altitude of 60 miles is reached, and
here the frst-stage powerplant separates from the guid
ance compartment, which controls all the stages. Moving
Explorer launcing vehicle trajectories and satellite orbit
separately, the rear motor section trails along behind;
but the nonrotating guidance section remairs connected
with the upper stages, spinning now at 750 rpm. All units
coast along to the 225-mile apex of the ballistic trajectory.
Meanwhile, the upper connected stages are being grad
ually tilted toward the local horizontal by means of eight
tangentially directed compressed-air jets in the guidance
( spatial attitude control) compartment. When the maxi
mum height of the combined stages is almost reached
as shown by doppler computations and telemetered data,
the second-stage solid-propellant rocket cluster is ignited
by a command signal from the blockhouse. Events from
then on occur in rapid sequence. The third stage is ignited
after the second stage motors have burned out, and
then the fourth stage fres. Even before the fourth stage
has burned out, the Explorer is injected into orbit; in a
few seconds it reaches a more-than-adequate initial speed
of over fve miles per second, or 18,740 miles per hour.
Satellites slow down somewhat as they approach the
apogee of their elliptic orbit, and they speed up again
to their initial speed as they complete their orbit near
perigee. The average orbital speed is that for a circular
orbit at about the average distance. Obeying Kepler's
laws, like the moon and all planets, the orbit time period
squared varies as the average distance cubed.
Required Accuracy
Every 100-mph increase in fnal velocity can result
in a 130-mile higher apogee. On the other hand, an error
of just one degree from the exact horizontal could result
in a loss of perigee altitude of as much as 75 miles in
the satellite's elliptic orbit. This diference could mean
months or even years shorter satellite lifetime because
of the increased air resistance encountered.
APOGEE PIkST PASS
I
CANAVEkAL
END
EQUATOk
PASS
EAkTH'S kOTATION
fxplorer orbit paths projected on earth's surface

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Explorer 1
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Ballistic trajectories as portions of ellipses, including a satellite orbit
EXPLORER ORBIT CH- ARACTERISTICS
Gravity and Inertia
Since the earth's centripetal ( gravitational ) force con
stantly exerts a pull on the Explorer satellites, the planes
of their orbits must pass through the center of gravity
of the earth (see Illustrations). From the Jupiter L
lau1ching trajectory chart, it is evident that all stages,
inCluding the satellite itself, fall toward the earth at the
same rate. The approximate 4000-mph diference in rela
tive speeds between the stages is shown by the steadily
increasing distances between them. All ballistic trajec
tories are parts of ellipses. Since satellite trajectories have
an elliptic curvature (see Figure) whose center is near or
beyond the center of the earth, they orbit like a moon.
Also, like any gyro, the spinning satellites try to keep
pointing in the same direction in space; the orbit planes
themselves try to maintain a fxed angle in space. Extra
neous forces such .as air resistance, the moon's gravity,
and the earth's equatorial bulge, however, cause preces
sions like those of a gyro. For instance, periodic fuctua
tions ( 9 per minute) in Explorer signals were noted after
a few days. Momentum conservation had caused the
cylindrical rotating satellites to start wobbling, at frst
like a top that is slowing down. Eventually they stopped
spinning, and the motions of both Explorers and
shifted to an end-over-end tumble.
Orbit Paths
Since the earth turns on its axis 15 degrees per hour,
the point on the earth's surface vertically under a satellite
does not follow along a great-circle route but is displaced
a total of nearly 30 degrees between successive equatorial
crossings, which occur at slightly less than two-hour
intervals. To help explain the motion of Explorer relative
to the earth, a foldout Mercator projection map has been
included in this brochure. Also shown to scale are side
and vertical views of the satellite orbit, giving orien
tations with both the earth and the sun.
Launching Tim
Positions relative to the direction of the sunlight are
shown on the scale views at the hour of injection of
Explorer into orbit, i.e., about 11 p.m. EST on January
31. This time of launching was chosen in order to mini
mize the temperature excursions in the instruments and
batteries. Positions of sunrise and sunset on earth's sur
face are indicated on all the maps. For the same reason,
Explorer was launched around noontime.
Speed Changes
To illustrate the reduction in satellite speed with
increasing distance from the earth, the angular distances
traversed by Explorer along Earth's surface during suc
cessive four-minute time intervals throughout the frst
complete orbit are marked on the foldout Mercator map.
It is known that the slight bulge of the earth along the
equatorial region causes diferences in the direction of
gravitational pull, which would otherwise be directly
toward the center of the earth. As a result, the satellite
orbit precesses ( or more correctly regresses) like a gyro.
Furthermore, the earth moves along its own orbit around
the sun about one degree per day, and the satellite apogee
is shifted in the same direction as the orbit motion. Com
bined with atmospheric dmg, these changes make it
difcult to predict far in advance the exact satellite transit
times (within a few minutes) over a particular point
on the earth.
Characteristics of
Explorer I Orbit
Time of injection into orbit was 10:55 p.m. EST on
January 31, 1958.
Orbit apogee, or maximum distance, is currently 1563
miles, and slowest speed 16,100 mph; at this altitude,
earth's gravity is 52% of that at sea level.
Perigee, or minimum distance, is currently 220 miles,
and fastest speed 18,740 mph; at this altitude, earth's
gravity is 89% of that at sea level.
Orbit period of revolution is 114.8 minutes, giving
12.54 revolutions (perigee-to-perigee) per day.
Eccentricity is 0.14, and length of semimajor axis 4756
miles (see Illustrations).
Inclination of orbit to earth's equatorial plane is 33. 14
degrees, about the same as the highest and lowest
latitudes reached (see Mercator map).
Motion of orbit apogee, or line of apsides, in direction
of satellite (also lunar) motion is 6.45 degrees per
day, or 176 degrees per sidereal month of 27.32
days (see accompanying Figure).
Westward motion of successive equatorial crossings is
29.2 degrees per orbit period. This shift with respect
to the rotating earth includes regression of the line
of nodes (see Figure), which is 4.24 deg/day west
ward, or 166 deg/month. Orbit regression is due to
earth's oblateness, and the consequent distortion of
its gravitational feld. This equatorial bulge is com
paratively small, as evidenced by the diference
between earth's polar and equatorial radii of 13.3
miles in an average radius of about 3960 miles. The
plane of the Explorer orbit therefore slides
( regresses) around the earth 4. 3 times a year.
Earth's radius is 3963.3 miles at the equator, and 3950
miles at the poles; earth's eastward rotation is 28.68
deg/period; earth's velocity in its orbit around the
sun averages 68,000 mph, or 18.5 miles per second.
Characteristics of
Explorer Ill Orbit
Injected into orbit at 12:38 p.m. EST on March 26,
1958. Orbit perigee and apogee altitudes were origi
nally about 120 and 17 40 miles, respectively, but
apogee decreased about 15 miles per day.
Orbit period was originally 115.8 minutes, but
decreased 0.28 minute/day.
Eccentricity was 0.166 the frst day, and 0.136 one
month later.
Inclination to equatorial plane is 33.47 degrees.
Line of apsides moves 6.29 deg/day in direction of
satellite motion (see Illustrations).
Line of nodes regresses westward 4.25 deg/day.
--
5A1LLLl1L AFLLLL
FLklLD L
Vl5llLl1T
-
LLM1Lk L LAk1H
Line-of-sight distances to Expl orers, showing visibilit periods
SATELLITE TRACKING
Visibility ol Satellites
Satellites that are only a few inches in diameter and
hundreds of miles away are invisible most of the time.
Even with the aid of binoculars, they can be seen only
after sunset or before sunrise against a dark sky when
they are illuminated by the sun (see Illustration). Transit
over the observer must occur while the sun is at a 7- to
15-degree depression angle, the times being between
30 and 60 minutes before sunrise or a similar period
after sunset.
At a perigee altitude of 220 miles, the time of satellite
traverse from horizon to horizon can be as long as 10 min
utes, and at apogee up to 30 minutes. From the Figure,
however, it is clear that satellites are optically visible for
only a few minutes. At the 1500-mile apogee, Explorers
cannot be seen with the naked eye at any time. In order
to be in a position to see a satellite or to be in line-of
sight range for microwave reception, the observer must be
within a great-circle angular distance of less than 20
degrees at perigee and 45 degrees at apogee from the
satellite overhead vertical path. By referring to the Fig-
ure, it can be seen that the band of visibility or microwave
reception along Earth's surface would extend about 1500
to 3000 miles to each side of the Explorer zenith position
at perigee and apogee, respectively.
Satellite Distance
Measurements
Electromagnetic yardsticks. Radio waves, like light
rays and x-rays, are all part of a family of alternating
electromagnetic felds, or radiations. Radio signals have
comparatively longer wave lengths, but all members of
this family are propagated from their sources at the same
speed as that of light. In free space, this transmission
speed is a constant 186,291 miles per second, or about
980 feet per microsecond. In gases, liquids, and trans
parent solids, the speed is somewhat less. But, regardless
of the speed of the transmitting object relative to an
observer, the speed of transmission of all electromagnetic
signals is always the same.
Since this is true, an object transmitting radio waves
of a particular frequency will, when approaching a receiv-
ing station, appear to be transmitting on a higher fre
quency. At the same time, the apparent wavelength of
the signal is less than that which would be measured by
an observer traveling along with the object. The only
thing which remains constant from either point of view
( receiving station or moving transmitter) is the speed of
propagation.
As the transmitting source moves away from the
receiver, the frequency received is lower than that trans
mitted. This frequency change, known as the doppler
efect, is proportional to the speed of relative motion. Its
efect has been used to measure the speed of automobiles,
airplanes, and stars, as well as guided missiles. It could
be used to measure the relative speed of a satellite passing
Microlock helical tracking antennas
across the sky. However, the most practical application of
the doppler efect in satellite observation is determination
of the distance and exact time of transit of the satellite
at its point of closest approach to the observer.
To make this determination, a careful observation is
made of the rate at which the receiving frequency
changes. The maximum rate of change occurs when the
satellite has reached ( approximately) its closest point.
The distance from the receiver to this point is larger for
smaller rates of change of frequency.
Triangulation. Several sensitive receiving stations have
been established and surveyed in one hemisphere of the
earth's surface; they are located as far as possible from
each other but so spaced that all can still "see" the satel
lite at about the same time. If each station determines
the distance between it and the satellite at some partic
ular instant, then a simple triangulation will show the
satellite's exact position in space (see Figure). Thus, even
TWO-ANTENNA /f
INTERFEETER
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INTERFEROMETER PHASE-LOCKED TELEMETERING
RECEIVER RECEIVER DISCRIMINATORS
REFERENCE
SIGNALS
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RECEIVER
ANGLE OF
ARRIVAL
FREQUENCY AND TELEMETERED FREQUENCY AND
SIGNAL STRENGTH DATA TIME STANDARDS
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RECORDED DATA OUTPUTS
0
Block diagram of Microlock system
when the satellite is invisible to the naked eye, or even
to a telescope, this radio method can determine its angu
lar position, and consequently its altitude and velocity.
Four such radio receiving stations are located in the
Southern California area to observe the Explorer satellites
during the frst few days after launching and obtain a
preliminary estimate of their orbital characteristics.
Satellite Lifetimes
Even at altitudes of several hundred miles, a satellite
collides with enough air molecules to cause it gradually
to lose some of its energy. Consequently, the apogee will
drop closer toward Earth's surface by a fraction of a mile
every day. During this phase, the perigee height remains
almost constant until such time as the apogee has dropped
to about the same altitude as that of the perigee, and the
orbit becomes very nearly a circle. From then on, the
Helicop-Hut for Microlock receiver
satellite begins to spiral in gradually toward Earth's sur
face. Surprisingly, Earth's ever increasing gravitational
force now causes the satellite to accelerate, in spite of
the steadily increasing air resistance. The orbit then
decays rapidly. Only a few months remain before the
satellite surface temperature, gradually raised by air fric
tion, reaches the melting point of the structural material,
probably below a 50-mile altitude.
By noting the rate at which the apogee distance of the
orbit approaches the perigee distance, it is possible to
predict the expected number of months or years remaining
in the lifetime of a given satellite. Heavy objects, that
have a small ratio of surface area to total mass, will of
course stay aloft much longer than would a light-weight
large object, such as a balloon. By using diferent types of
satellites, the rate at which the density of the atmosphere
diminishes with increasing altitude can be accurately
determined from drag deceleration measurements.
VENUS
MEkCUkY

EARTH
FUTURE FRONTIERS
Mankind is no longer earthbound. We are probing
space, at present, with instrumented test vehicles. Con
tinuous surveillance of every square mile of the earth by
Tv satellites will be a reality soon. But before men can
attempt to travel in space, instrumented vehicles must be
sent to explore the vicinity of the moon and neigh
boring planets, returning with recorded data on con
ditions encountered there. Relative distances involved
are unimaginably great, as shown by the accompanying
illustrations.
Scientists and engineers, who have for many years
been working on the problems of manned space fight,
have received new impetus for their eforts. Astronomers,
physicists, mathematicians, and physiologists are even now
fnding answers to many problems of propulsion, naviga
tion, and survival in the new and mysterious environment
which we are now just beginning to explore.
SCALE I.
10,000 miles

MAk5

THE SUN IS 400 TIMES FARTHER THAN THE MOON



MOON







PLUTO


NEFIUNE

Scale sizes and distances in solar system

JET PROPULSION LABORATORY

CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PASADENA, CALIFORNIA

JULY, 1958