Fundamentals Of Differential Protection

Differential Protection

Used where: X Protection co-ordination is difficult / not possible using time delayed elements X Fast fault clearance is critical Can be used on all items of plant in one form or another (i.e. Generators, transformers, lines, cables, busbars, motors) to form a defined zone of protection dictated by current transformer location.

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Differential Protection Principle (1)

Protected Circuit

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Differential Protection Principle (2)

Protected Circuit

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High Impedance Principle

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High Impedance Principle (1)

Based on Merz-Price circulating current principle X X X X X Requires matched current transformers of low reactance design, typically class X or equivalent Equal CT ratios Typically current operated relay with an external stabilising resistor Non-linear resistor may be required to limit voltage across relay circuit during internal faults Suitable for zones up to 200 - 300 metres (typically)
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High Impedance Principle (2)

Protected Circuit

ZM

RCT RL IS VS RL R RL IF RL

RCT

ZM

Maximum voltage across relay circuit, Vs = If (RCT + 2RL) To limit current through relay to < Is the relay impedance Rrelay > Vs/Is
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Stabilising Resistor

Use of stabilising resistor: X Where relay impedance alone is too low to ensure stability then the relay circuit impedance can be increased through the addition of an external resistor connected in series with the relay Required circuit impedance > Vs/Is RSTAB > (Vs/Is) - Rrelay

X X

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Current Transformer Output

Current transformer knee point requirements: X Current transformers must have sufficient output to ensure fast operation of relay during internal fault conditions X Required Vk > 2 Vs (typically - depends on actual relay type)

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Non-Linear Resistors (Metrosils)

During internal faults the high impedance relay circuit constitutes an excessive burden to the CTs. A very high voltage develops across the relay circuit and the CTs which can damage the insulation of CTs, secondary wiring and relay. Magnitude of peak voltage VP is given by an approximate formula (based on experimental results) VP = 2 2VK (VF - VK) Where VF = If (RCT + 2RL + RSTAB + Rrelay) Metrosil required if VP > 3kV
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High Impedance Circuit Arrangement

I

RST VM VS RR

Metrosil Characteristic V = CI Suitable values of C & chosen based on : (1) Max secondary current under fault conditions (2) Relay setting voltage
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Low Impedance (Biased) Protection

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Low Impedance Principle

X High Impedance protection limits the spill current to a value less then relay setting X Low Impedance principle provides no such limit on spill but instead artificially raises the setting of the relay X The higher the through current, the higher the potential spill and hence the greater the increase in setting Required X The increase in setting is therefore normally based on a percentage of the through current X Protection is commonly referred to as percentage biased differential protection

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Biased Differential Scheme (1)

Spill Current

Low Imp.

Trip

No Trip

Is Through Current

High Imp.

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Biased Differential Scheme (2)

Differential Current

I1

BIAS

BIAS I I1 - I 2

I1 - I 2
2

OPERATE RESTRAIN

OPERATE

I1 + I2 2

Mean Thro Current

Bias = Differential (or Spill) Current Mean Through Current

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Low Impedance Principle

X Does not rely on equal ratio CTs (ratio correction can be done via external interposing CTs or internally to the relay) X Limit on allowable spill dictated by percentage of bias used - practical limit to give sufficient sensitivity to internal faults X Amount of spill related to CT size - stability limits and CT requirements are therefore dependant on each other

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Unit Protection Involving Distance Between Circuit Breakers (1)

A B

Relaying Point

R Trip B

Trip A

Simple Local Differential Protection

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Unit Protection Involving Distance Between Circuit Breakers (2)

A
Communication Channel

R Trip A

Relaying Point

Relaying Point

Trip B

Unit Protection Involving Distance Between Circuits

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Summation Transformers

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Summation Transformer Sensitivity for Different Faults (1)

IA 1 IB 1 IC 3 Output for operation = K

IN Let output for operation = K (1) Consider A-E fault for relay operation :

IA (1 + 1 + 3) > K IA > 1/5K or 20%K

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Summation Transformer Sensitivity for Different Faults (2)

(2) B-E fault for relay operation : C-E fault for relay operation : IB (1 + 3) > K IB > 25%K IC x (3) > K
IC > 331/3%K

(3)

(4)

AB fault for relay operation : BC fault for relay operation : AC fault for relay operation :

IAB x (1) > K IAB > 100%K IBC x (1) > K IBC > 100%K IAC (1 + 1) > K IAC > 50%K
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(5)

(6)

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Line Charging Currents

Line charging currents flow in at one end of the feeder only and is therefore potentially capable of unbalancing a protective system.

Charging currents (or capacitance currents) of overhead lines generally low.

Charging current levels of underground cables however can be high enough to dictate minimum permissible operating level of the protection.

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Pilot Characteristics

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Pilot Wire
Resistance and shunt capacitance of pilots introduce magnitude and phase differences in pilot terminal currents. Pilot Resistance Attenuates the signal and affects effective minimum operating levels. To maintain constant operating levels for wide range of pilot resistance, padding resistor used.

Rp/2

Rp/2

Padding resistance R set to (1000 - Rp) ohms

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Pilot Capacitance

Circulating current systems : X Pilot capacitance effectively in parallel with relay operating coil. X Capacitance at centre of pilots has zero volts across them.

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Pilot Isolation
Electromagnetic Induction Field of any adjacent conductor may induce a voltage in the pilot circuit. Induced voltage can be severe when : (1) Pilot wire laid in parallel to a power circuit. (2) Pilot wire is long and in close proximity to power circuit. (3) Fault Current is severe. Induced voltage may amount to several thousand volts. Danger to personnel Danger to equipment Difference in Station Earth Potentials Can be a problem for applications above 33kV - even if feeder is short.
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Formula for Induced Voltage

e = 0.232 I L Log10 De/S where I L De e f s = = = = = = primary line E/F current length of pilots in miles Equiv. Depth of earth return in metres = 655 . e/f soil resistivity in .m frequency separation between power line and pilot circuit in metres

Effect of screening is not considered in the formula. If the pilot is enclosed in lead sheath earthed at each end, screening is provided by the current flowing in the sheath. Sheath should be of low resistance. 0.3 V / A / Mile 0.1 V / A / Mile Unscreened Pilots Screened Pilots

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Isolation Transformers
Pilot circuits and all directly connected equipment should be insulated to earth and other circuits to an adequate voltage level. Two levels are recognised as standard : 5kV & 15kV

Relay Case 5kV Relay Input 15kV

Pilot Terminal Relay Circuit

2kV

Pilot Wire 5kV

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Supervision of Pilot Circuits

Pilot circuits are subject to a number of hazards, such as :

Manual Interference Acts of Nature (storms, subsidence, etc.) Mechanical Damage (excavators, impacts)
Therefore supervision of the pilots is felt to be necessary. Two types exist :

Signal injection type Wheatstone Bridge type

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Pilot Wire Supervision

Circulating Current Schemes Pilot Wire Open Circuited Pilot Wire Short Circuited Pilot Wire Crossed Maloperate

Stable

Maloperate

Maloperation occurs even under normal loading conditions if 3- phase setting < ILOAD. Overcurrent check may be used to prevent maloperation. Overcurrent element set above maximum load current.
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Numerical Feeder Differential Protection

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All Digital Design

0IIIIII0I0...0I0IIIIII0 Digital messages End A P Digital communication interface

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End B

A/D

Direct Optical Fibre Link

OPGW

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Multiplexed Optical Link

Earth wire optical fibre

Multiplexer
34 Mbit/s 64k bits/s Telephone Telecontrol

Multiplexer

End A
Teleprotection

End B

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Multiplexed Microwave Link

PCM Multiplexer

PCM Multiplexer

Telephone 64k bits/s Telecontrol Teleprotection

End A

End B

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Propagation Delay Problem

Relay A Current at B Current received from A

Relay B

Propagation delay

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Protection of Transformer Feeders

Power transformer

Ratio correction

Vectorial correction Virtual interposing CT Virtual interposing CT

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Direct Intertrip

Relay A
DTT=1

Relay B

Transformer Protection

Data Message +

X The channel could alternatively be used along with the distance elements and PSL to configure permissive or blocking distance aided schemes
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