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F0
/ Z
c0
thg
0
l
M
+l
K
_ _ _ _
(6)
where U
F0
is the zero-sequence voltage at the fault point;
I
FM0
is the zero-sequence current owing into M bus from
the fault point; l
M
is the apparent equivalent lines length
calculated with the upstream systems zero-sequence
impedance Z
M0
at the bus M
Z
M0
= Z
c0
thg
0
l
M
(7)
Similarly
I
FN0
= U
F0
/ Z
c0
thg
0
l
M
+l l
K
_ _ _ _
(8)
where I
FN0
is the zero-sequence current owing into the bus
bar N from the fault point; l
N
is the apparent equivalent
lines length calculated with the downstream systems
zero-sequence impedance Z
N0
at the bus N; l is the real
length of the whole line.
It is achieved with (6) and (8)
I
F0
I
FM0
=
I
FM0
+I
FN0
I
FM0
= 1
thg
0
l
M
+l
K
_ _
thg
0
l
N
+l l
K
)
_ (9)
Fig. 2 Phase characteristics of hyperbolic cosine function
Fig. 1 SLGF at F point in a transmission line
Fig. 3 Zero-sequence equivalent system conguration
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IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2013, Vol. 7, Iss. 6, pp. 560566 561
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2012.0379 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2013
Based on the system in Fig. 3, one has
U
M0
= U
F0
chg
0
l
K
I
FM0
Z
c0
shg
0
l
K
I
M0
= I
FM0
chg
0
l
K
+U
F0
/Z
c0
shg
0
l
K
_
(10)
Let us simplify (10) to
I
FM0
I
M0
= chg
0
l
K
thg
0
l
M
shg
0
l
K
(11)
and substitute (11) into (9) to receive
I
F0
I
M0
=chg
0
l
K
1 +
thg
0
l
M
+l
K
_ _
thg
0
l
N
+l l
K
_ _
_ _
1 +thg
0
l
M
thg
0
l
K
_ _
(12)
The analysis of the estimation error of phase expression th
(
0
l
K
) in (12) can be done with the magnitude and phase
characteristics. The one presented in Fig. 4 was achieved
for the actual parameters of the rst 1000 kV
JinDongNan-Nan Yang-JinMen Ultra High Voltage(UHV)
AC transmission line in China [18, 19].
Three parts can be differentiated in (12)
1 +thg
0
l
M
+l
K
_ _
/thg
0
l
N
+l l
K
_ _
(12a)
1 +thg
0
l
M
thg
0
l
K
(12b)
chg
0
l
K
(12c)
The phase angle of (12c) can be clearly assessed with the
second-order polynomial of the fault distance as shown in
Fig. 2, although the uctuations of phase angles of (12a)
and (12b) are more obvious. As the phase characteristic of
th
0
l
K
is nearly constant for lines lengths < 400 km as
shown in Fig. 4b. Then, the phases of the partial
expressions th
0
l
M
th
0
l
K
and th
0
(l
M
+ l
K
)/th
0
(l
N
+ l l
K
)
are trending in opposite directions. However, the
corresponding magnitudes of th
0
l
K
are no more than 1,
hence the values of phase angle of (12a) and (12b) are
mainly controlled by the number 1 in the expression.
Therefore the estimation error of a phase of I
F0
with I
M0
is
basically acceptable for short-length high voltage/extra high
voltage (HV/EHV) lines-no more than 400 km. However,
the effect of shunt capacitance in case of higher voltage
level, longer length transmission lines will be much larger
and the phase estimation error of the above mentioned
method will be unacceptable.
The estimation error for the 800 km in length 750 kV AC
transmission line in Southwest of China is shown in Fig. 5. As
can be seen, the phase difference between I
M0
and I
F0
can be
approximated with linear function of the fault distance and its
maximum value reaches up to 25.84 when a fault occurs at
the end of the line. There still is about 20 estimation error
even if the fault is at 300 km. It is obvious that FL accuracy
cannot be guaranteed on the basis of this premise.
3 Novel FL algorithm
3.1 Accurate estimate of fault voltages phase
The leakage current owing through shunt capacitance from
line to ground can make a signicant contribution to
zero-sequence current itself. However, in case of lineline
faults it is always negligibly small as compared with fault
currents and the positive and/or negative sequence
components of a current seem a much better choice to base
system identication procedures. The negative sequence
current component is suggested to be selected as it
additionally is hardly affected by load currents.
The negative sequence equivalent system is shown in Fig. 6
and it can be used to derive the following relation combining
the two negative sequence currents I
M2
metered at the relays
location and I
F2
at the fault place
I
K2
I
M2
= 1 +
thg
2
l
M
+l
K
_ _
thg
2
l
N
+l l
K
_ _
_ _
chg
2
l
K
+thg
2
l
M
shg
2
l
K
_ _
(13)
where l
M
, l
N
are virtual lines lengths corresponding to the
values of negative sequence impedances of equivalent
systems connected to buses M and N, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 4, the location of the saddle point of
module against fault distance characteristic of th(
2
l
K
) is
occurring at 1500 km, and the lengths of l
M
, l
N
are
signicantly less than those of l
M
, l
N
, since the equivalent
systems negative sequence impedances are less than those
of zero sequence ones. Hence, the variations of a magnitude
Fig. 5 Error of I
F0
angle estimation
Fig. 4 Magnitude and phase characteristics of a hyperbolic
tangent function
a Magnitude characteristics
b Phase characteristics Fig. 6 Negative sequence equivalent system conguration
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562 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2013, Vol. 7, Iss. 6, pp. 560566
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2013 doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2012.0379
and phase of th
2
l
K
are limited, and the phases of the
component parts th
2
l
M
th
2
l
K
and th
2
(l
M
+ l
K
)/th
2
(l
N
+ l
l
K
) are always trending in opposite directions. It can be
proved that in this case again the most dominate
contribution to the phase of the whole expression (12)
comes from the number 1, just as in the above analysed
zero-sequence case, as the phase angle difference of two
parts th
2
(l
M
+ l
K
)/th
2
(l
N
+ l l
K
) and th
2
l
M
th
2
l
K
will be
only slightly affecting on it. Considering that the ch
2
l
K
phase angle nears to zero as shown in Fig. 2, it is
reasonable to accept the value of the phase of I
M2
as
accurate estimate of the phase of the voltage at the fault point.
The developed methods estimation error of a phase of the
fault voltage in 750 kV line is shown in Fig. 5 and its
maximal value is no more than 2 for a fault at the lines
end (800 km), which directly approves very good quality of
the proposed estimate.
3.2 Accurate FL algorithm
A novel FL algorithm is then proposed on the basis of the
above analysis results. In order to overcome the inuence
of fault resistance, the calculation of FL is performed when
the fault voltage signal is crossing zero and the following
steps are included:
Step 1: The measurements of phase voltages and currents at
the relays location provide input quantities for computing
the values of a negative sequence current;
The matrix used in transformation from phase vectors to
the sequence vectors is [1]
f
1
f
2
f
0
=
1
3
1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
1 1 1
f
A
f
B
f
C
(14)
where represent current I or voltage U, and subscripts 1, 2
and 0 mean positive, negative and zero sequence; subscripts
A, B and C mean A-phase, B-phase and C-phase.
a = 0.5 +i
..
3
/2.
Step 2: The assessment of time t when the fault voltage is to
go across zero
t =
90
l
v
(15)
where is the initial angle of a negative sequence current at
the relays location and is the rated angular frequency of
a power system.
Step 3: Estimation of the value of the real part of the voltage,
which is named as U
mea_metre
, at the relays location at the
calculated time t in Step 2
U
mea metre
= U
w
cos 90
l +u
_ _
(16)
where U
j
and denote the magnitude and initial phase angle
of the fault-phase voltage.
Step 4: The calculation of a current I
J
corresponding to the
fault distance l
fault,
starting with l
fault
= 0 km as the initial
value
I
J
= I
w
+PI
0
= I
J
(cos(vt +h) +jsin(vt +h)) (17)
where I
j
, I
0
are the fault-phase and zero-sequence currents,
then I
J
and , which denote the magnitude and initial angle
of I
J
, can be available.
Step 5: Calculation of the lines impedance Z
fault
based on its
distributed parameters as
Z
fault
= Z
c1
thg
1
l
fault
= Z
relay
(cos(vt +t) +jsin(vt +t)) (18)
where Z
relay
is the module of calculated lines impedance
Z
fault
, and t is the angle of a lines impedance.
Step 6: The calculation of the value of the real part of fault
voltage, which is named as U
mea_cal
, with respect to the
results of steps 4 and 5 as
U
mea cal
= I
J
Z
relay
cos 90
o
l +t +h
_ _
(19)
Step 7: The calculation of the error between the results of
steps 3 and 6 as
Error = U
mea cal
U
mea metre
(20)
Step 8: Increment the actual value of fault distance l
fault
with
step S and go back to step 4. The procedure is to be nished
when l
fault
becomes larger than the length of the protected
zone if the relays tripping signal is available, otherwise the
whole lines length shall be processed. The FL is assumed
to be determined with the minimal value of the successively
calculated errors.
The choice of S is determined by the acceptable FL
accuracy. More accurate the FL smaller S step must be but
larger the number of corresponding calculations. Therefore
it is suggested to choose 1 km as S, which makes a good
compromise of the amount of calculations and satisfactory
accuracy of FL.
4 Case studies
4.1 Simulations
Some simulation cases are presented to verify the
performance of the proposed algorithm. The system model
was presented in Fig. 1 in Section 2. Its detailed parameters
are gathered in Table 1. The lines length is 800 km.
Electric potentials at buses M and N are 1.1062 and 1.1069
times the rated value (1000 kV), although N sides voltage
phase lags by 44 [18].
Fault points are set along the line every 10 km starting from
10 up to 600 km. The values of a fault resistance range from 5
Table 1 Simulation parameters for 1000 kV UHV transmission
system
Parameters Resistance,
Reactance,
Capacity
reactance,
M
line (per km) + seq. 0.00805 0.25913 0.22688
0 seq. 0.20489 0.74606 0.35251
M-side system
impedance
+ seq. 4.26430 85.1453
0 seq. 98.5330 260.790
N-side system
impedance
+ seq. 7.99560 159.647
0 seq. 184.749 488.981
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IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2013, Vol. 7, Iss. 6, pp. 560566 563
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2012.0379 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2013
to 155 with step 50 . The initial values of l
fault
and S
both equal to 1 km. Then the simulation result is grouped in
Fig. 7.
The index FL
error
covering Y-axis is dened as
FL
error
= (L
fault-cal
L
fault-real
)/800 100% (21)
where L
fault-cal
, L
fault-real
are the calculated and real fault
distances, respectively.
The traditional power frequency FL algorithm (Algorithm I
in [20]) is used as a reference, in which the angle difference of
currents in relay location and in fault path is neglected.
The simulation results are plotted in Fig. 7a. It can be seen
that FL accuracy is badly deteriorating as the values of fault
resistance and distance are increasing. The relative error
reaches 30% even for relatively small values of a fault
resistance (55 ) and exceeds 50% for larger ones.
The FL error curve shown in Fig. 7b was achieved with
application of the novel accurate FL method proposed in
this paper. The relative error is no more than 0.5% even for
any value of a fault resistance including the largest one
155 tests.
4.2 Tests on HPR7000 platform
To check the validity of the proposed algorithm, the test bed
including the HPR-7000 high precision fault recorder
platform, developed by the protective relaying group in
Tsinghua University China was achieved. The hardware
functional framework scheme and photo of the practical
installation of a developed device in Long-He 220 kV
substation, LangFang City, Hebei Province, China are
shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.
The HPR-7000 system is composed of three parts as shown
in Fig. 8: (i) data acquisition system, (ii) GPS synchronous
clock and (iii) human machine interface (HMI) and analysis
software in industrial workstation.
The core of the analysis system is HPR-7000 fault recorder,
which provides a humanmachine interface as well as data
storage, processing and exchanging them with the data
acquisition system or communication with master server,
what was additionally shown in Fig. 9. It is constructed on
the basis of industrial workstation in order to record, save,
analyse and display fault waveforms as well as locate the
fault point using the proposed algorithm in this paper.
Fig. 7 FL error curve with impedance algorithm for UHV lines
a Traditional power frequency impedance algorithm
b Algorithm proposed in this paper
Fig. 8 Framework of the high precision fault recorder HPR-7000
Fig. 9 Photo of HPR-7000 application in Long-He 220 kV
substation
Fig. 10 Simulation model from the standard of DL/T663-1999,
China
Table 2 Simulation parameters for the 500 kV test system
Parameters Resistance,
Reactance,
Capacity
reactance,
M
line (per km) + seq. 0.018 0.28 0.23676
0 seq. 0.16 0.75 0.3505
system
impedance in
the maximal
operation
mode
+ seq. 0.2181 6.2462
0 seq. 0.6 18.7
system
impedance in
the minimal
operation
mode
+ seq. 0.87248 24.985
0 seq. 2.4 72
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564 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2013, Vol. 7, Iss. 6, pp. 560566
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2013 doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2012.0379
According to the standard of DL/T663-1999 (220500 kV
Power System Fault Dynamic Recording Device Certication
Standard) licensed by the Chinese government [21], the test
model and the parameters are presented in Fig. 10 and
Table 2. The fault locator is applied at the line terminal
near L bus. The line length is 400 km, and it is with 70%
compensation to the shunt charging current at the two
terminals.
The test results based on real time digital simulator (RTDS)
test system and HPR7000 fault recorders are shown in Table 3
with different fault distances and fault resistances. It is shown
that the precision of FL is less inuenced by the fault
distances, fault types and the system operation modes,
where the maximal relative error remains below 1.66%.
Since one of the best advantages of the proposed algorithm
in paper is immune to fault distance because of the FL
calculation at the moment of the zero-crossing point of fault
voltage, the real anti-resistance performance of the
algorithm is checked at the N terminal of line. It is seen
from the results shown in Table 4 that the relative error is
still below 3.75% even with 400 grounding. Figs. 11 and
12 show the original waveform from RTDS simulation and
the waveform recorded by the HPR-7000 system with
C-phase-to-ground fault with 100 resistance at the end of
the line.
Table 3 Fault location results based on RTDS testing system
Fault type Fault distance,
km
Fault resistance,