COMPOSITE MATERIALS - BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Composites, as the name implies, are materials in combination. There are a few important applications for pure materials (e.g. in electronics), but almost all of the commercially significant materials in use today involve some form of combination. Metal alloys, for example, have been in use for thousands of years and polymers are commonly blended and filled to improve certain properties or reduce cost. Composite materials, though, are usually regarded as a separate class of material, and well give a formal definition later. Essentially, composites are a physical, rather than chemical combination of two or more separate components, which act together to give unique properties not found in either of the materials in isolation.

Fibres
In general, materials may be selected and specified for many different properties. Here, though, we are mainly interested in composites for structural applications. The two properties of particular relevance are stiffness and strength, preferably combined with low weight. It turns out that many materials in fibre form (i.e. having a very high aspect ratio) can develop exceptional properties:

J. Gordan New Science of Strong Materials

Glass and other brittle materials have a very low resistance to crack propagation, as there is no mechanism to cope with the stress concentrations which arise from cracks
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and flaws. According to fracture mechanics, cracks greater than a critical length will propagate catastrophically under load. In bulk, glass is relatively weak, due to the many cracks which form when it cools. Griffithss classic measurements on glass whiskers in the 1920s (right) showed how tensile strength rose dramatically as the diameter of the fibres was reduced. Effectively, small diameter fibres cannot contain significantly long cracks, so the material is much stronger. The properties of glass fibres depend on maintaining a flaw free surface - freshly-drawn fibres are commonly coated with a protective size to preserve their strength. Carbon fibres rely on a high degree of atomic orientation to achieve high mechanical properties. The manufacturing process involves carbonisation of an organic precursor fibre while under tension. The result is alignment of the covalent bonds along the fibre axis. A number of heat and surface treatments produce a wide range of properties, depending on whether strength or stiffness is to be maximised.

D. Hull, Introduction to Composite Materials

D. Hull, Introduction to Composite Materials

Aramid and other polymer-based fibres also rely on molecular orientation for their strength. Fibres may be manufactured by melt spinning or extrusion. Although not generally used in polymer composites, metal fibres can also be produced with much higher strengths than in bulk form. Here the strengthening mechanism is strain hardening. Detailed tables of fibre properties can be found in several of the standard references. The following is an approximate rule of thumb guide, giving typical characteristics of commercial fibres:

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Fibre

Typical strength (Mpa)

3500

Typical tensile Approximate density modulus (Kg/m3) (Gpa)

72 2540

Advantages

Disadvantages

Glass High strength carbon High modulus carbon Aramid (kevlar) Boron Ceramic (alumina)

High strength Low cost High strength High stiffness Very high stiffness High tensile strength Low density High stiffness High compressive strength High stiffness High use temperature

3700 1700 3800

235 520 131

1800 1860 1450

Low stiffness Limited fatigue life Temperature limit Moderately high cost Low strength High cost Low compressive strength Moisture absorption High cost

3300

365

2100

3000

380

3800

Low strength High cost

The low density of these fibres means that they have exceptional specific properties (i.e. property per unit weight). A map of specific modulus (modulus / density) and specific strength (strength / density) is shown in the figure below. Bulk aluminium and steel are included for comparison.
Daniel & Ishai, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials

Matrix
Fibres may have attractive properties, but they are only useful if loads can be transferred into them. Fibres can work reasonably well by themselves in tension (e.g. rope), but poorly in compression. The second component of the composite is thus the matrix. This has three main functions: To hold the reinforcement in the correct orientation To protect fibres from damage To transfer applied loads into the reinforcement

Although we are primarily interested in polymers as matrix materials, metals, ceramics and carbon have all found some applications. Although their maximum usage temperatures may be limited, the main advantage of polymers is that manufacture is relatively easy, and can often be achieved without specialist equipment.
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Reinforcements
Fibre reinforcement may be used in several different forms or arrangements, depending on the application and manufacturing route. They are categorised firstly in terms of length: Short (less than 10 mm) - used mainly in thermoplastic moulding compounds. Long (10 - 20 mm) - used in chopped strand mat and in thermosetting moulding compounds Continuous

Continuous fibres offer the highest mechanical properties, and give the possibility of using specific orientations to give the composite directional properties. They are available as lengths of fabric in many different woven, knitted or stitched forms, all of which have different properties, processing characteristics and costs. These include:

Daniel & Ishai, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials

Unidirectional - almost all the fibres are straight and aligned in one direction. Fabrics may be lightly woven or stitched, or incorporate a binder to maintain their shape. Biaxial - various weave styles have equal quantities of fibres at right angles. Weaving inevitably involves some crimping of the fibres, resulting in loss of properties. Straightness may be preserved by stitching bundles of fibres. Multiaxial - some specialist weaving techniques can produce triaxial fabrics. Quadriaxial fabrics (with reinforcement at 0o, 90o and 45o) can be produced by stitching.

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Random - continuous fibres can be combined with a binder and deposited in a random swirl arrangement, primarily for use in resin transfer moulding.

Generally. both the fibre type and the form of the reinforcement contribute to the properties of the composite, while the manufacturing cycle is primarily determined by the matrix. However, the reinforcement also plays a role in manufacture, for example through its handling and machining characteristics. Similarly, the matrix influences several physical and mechanical properties, such as impact resistance and shear strength and stiffness.

Owens-Corning Design Guide

The choice of fibre type, form and quantity gives the designer a continuous spectrum of properties. The graph (above) shows how tensile strength of glass fibre / polyester composites depends on glass content and reinforcement form.

Manufacture
Achievable properties in composites depend on the quality of manufacture. Processes combine fibre and matrix to make both the part and the material simultaneously. With a few exceptions, there are no off the shelf properties with composites. The majority of commercial composites use thermosetting polymers, such as polyester and epoxy resin. These materials transform irreversibly from a low viscosity liquid to a rigid solid during their cure cycle, which, depending on the resin system, may require the application of heat. The existence of a low viscosity stage means that composites can be produced with high fibre content. The resin and fibres are not always combined during the moulding operation. An important material form is the preimpregnated fabric (prepreg). This is supplied as rolls of fabric reinforcement already saturated with a partially-cured resin (usually

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epoxy). Prepregs are used extensively in advanced applications where higher and more precise fibre:resin ratios are required. A summary of the principal process routes for thermosetting polymer composites is given at the end of these notes. Thermoplastic matrices (e.g. nylon and polypropylene) are also used, and usually require rather different approaches to manufacture due to the relatively high viscosity of the matrix. Very short fibres can be combined with polymer granules for injection moulding, and flat sheet stock containing continuous fibres is available for compression moulding. Another product form co-mingles the reinforcement with polymer fibres, which may then be used for winding or pultrusion processes.

Composite Properties
The properties of a composite may be a combination of those of the constituents, e.g.:

GLASS FIBRE strength

POLYESTER RESIN good chemical resistance

GRP strength and chemical resistance

More usefully, the combination may result in new properties, which are not present in any of the constituents. An important example is toughness. Both glass and polyester lack toughness, but the composite GRP has high toughness (resistance to crack propagation). In this case, a mechanism for crack stopping exists because of the presence of many fibre / matrix interfaces. Additionally, a unique range of properties are available to the designer due to the fact that the reinforcement may be aligned - this gives the composite anisotropy (directiondependence): Fibres can be aligned in the load directions to make the most efficient use of the material (see the composite propeller blade). Particular combinations of layers with different properties and / or orientations may be fabricated (laminated). This can give unique coupling behaviour (e.g. a beam may both bend and twist when a moment is applied).
[Dowty Aerospace]

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Advantages of Composites
Weight saving Corrosion resistance Long fatigue life Manufacturing: - reduced parts count (complex geometries can be moulded) - novel shapes possible - low cost tooling - low temperature processing Design freedoms: - continuous spectrum of properties - anisotropic properties possible

Disadvantages of Composites
High cost of raw materials Lack of design standards Properties not well characterised Low through-thickness tensile and shear strengths Sensitivity to stress concentrations Dependence of properties on manufacture Few mass production processes

Further Reading
D Hull: Introduction to Composite Materials, CUP (1981). I Daniel & O Ishai: Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, OUP (1994). K Potter: An Introduction to Composite Products, Chapman & Hall (1997). J Murphy: Reinforced Plastics Handbook, Elsevier (1994). T Starr (ed.): Carbon and High Performance Fibres Directory, Chapman & Hall (1995).

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COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING PROCESS SUMMARY

Contact moulding - one moulded surface, very large dimensions possible, low tooling costs, labour intensive. Hand lay up: layers of reinforcement combined with resin by brush or roller. Spray up: chopped reinforcement mixed with resin, sprayed on to mould surface and consolidated by roller. Prepreg moulding - sheets of reinforcement preimpregnated with partially cured resin (usually epoxy) hand laid into a mould. Possibly matched tooling, but more commonly contact tooling with prepreg consolidated by vacuum bag in oven or autoclave for high performance parts. Commonly used in aircraft industry, race car, yachts. Press moulding - uses matched tooling (cold or heated) in a press. Thermosetting moulding compounds (e.g. SMC, DMC) or reinforced thermoplastic sheet materials. Rapid process cycles possible, size limited by press. High capital investment required. Resin transfer moulding - matched tooling loaded with reinforcement, resin injected under low pressure. Better quality and faster than contact moulding, but more expensive. Cheaper than press moulding for intermediate volumes, perhaps less size restriction. Used for both automotive and aerospace parts. Resin infusion (SCRIMP) - uses contact tooling with reinforcement beneath vacuum bag. Resin drawn in under vacuum. Poorer tolerance than RTM but cheaper tooling. Environmental advantages over contact moulding with polyesters. Injection moulding - rapid, high volume process, can be used with short fibre reinforced thermoplastics. High tooling and equipment costs. Filament winding - continuous reinforcement (tapes, rovings) impregnated with resin then laid on to surface of rotating mandrel. Mainly used for near-cylindrical parts. High fibre content possible; parts can be very large. Pultrusion - continuous process for constant cross section stock material (rods, tubes, etc.). Mainly unidirectional reinforcement impregnated then pulled through die. Centrifugal moulding - chopped fibre/resin mixture sprayed on to the inside of hollow rotating mould. Consolidation by centrifugal forces.

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