Mos Lecture1

16.02.
2009
Mechanics of Soils
Assoc. Prof.
Derin N. URAL
2/16/2009
Mechanics of Soils
Lecture 1
SECTION 1 z Soil Formation z Particle Size Distribution z Soil Classification SECTION 2 z Soil Composition z 3-phase material z Soil Characterization (particle size, soil plasticity)
2/16/2009 Mechanics of Soils 2
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Soil Mechanics
z
Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.
z z z z
Classify soils and rocks Establish engineering properties Ascertain the compressibility Ascertain the shear strength
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Mechanics of Soils
According to Terzaghi (1948):
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituent.
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Mechanics of Soils
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Soil Formation
Parent Rock
Residual soil ~ in situ weathering (by physical & chemical agents) of parent rock
2/16/2009 Mechanics of Soils
Transported soil eathered and ~ weathered transported far away

by wind, water and ice.
5
Soil Formation
~ formed by one of these three different processes
igneous formed by y cooling g of molten magma (lava) e.g., granite sedimentary formed by gradual deposition, and in layers e.g., limestone, shale metamorphic
formed by alteration of igneous & sedimentary rocks by pressure/temperature e.g., marble
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Determination of Particle Size Distribution

z
Mechanical analysis is used in the determination of the size range of particles present in a soil soil, expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight. There are two methods that generally utilized to determine the particle size distribution of soil:
z z
Sieve Analysis (for particle sizes > 0.075mm in diameter) Hydrometer Analysis ( < 0.075mm )
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Mechanics of Soils
Particle Size Distributions and Soil Particle Characteristics

z
Particle size distribution curve is a representation in graphical or tabular form of the various (diameter) grain sizes in a soil, determined through sieving and sedimentation.
The particle diameters are plotted in log scale, and the corresponding percent finer in arithmetic scale.
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Mechanics of Soils
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Particle Size Distribution Curve
SILT & CLAY

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SAND
Mechanics of Soils
GRAVEL
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Sieve Analysis
z
It is performed by shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves having progressively smaller openings.
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Mechanics of Soils
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Hydrometer Analysis
z
It is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water.
By David Airey, The University of Sydney

Hydrometer Analysis
Also called Sedimentation Analysis Stokes Law
D 2 w (Gs GL ) v= 18
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Mechanics of Soils
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Some commonly used measures are:

a)
Effective size : (D10) It is the diameter in the particle size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer. (maximum size of the smallest 10% of the soil) Uniformity Coefficient:
b)
Cu = D60 / D10
It is the ratio of the maximum diameter of the smallest 60% to the effective size. size
A well graded soil will have
Cu > 4 for gravels Cu > 6 for sands

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Mechanics of Soils
Some commonly used measures are:

c)
Coefficient of Curvature:
C c = (D 30) 2 / (D 60 * D10)
D30: Diameter corresponding the 30% finer

d)
Clay Fraction: (CF) It is the percentage by dry mass of particles smaller than 0.002mm (2m), and is an index property frequently quoted relation to fine grained soils (soils with 50% or more finer than 63m). It has a strong influence on the engineering properties of fine grained soils.
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Mechanics of Soils
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Definitions
e)
Well-Graded Material Contains particles of a wide range of sizes The smaller particles fill the spaces left between the larger sizes. particles; therefore the soil has greater strength than a poorly graded soil, and lower permeability.
f)
Poorly Graded Material Contains a large portion of uniformly sized particles. This particular soil has larger voids in its structure and poor strength along with high permeability permeability.
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Mechanics of Soils
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Soil A: Well Graded Soil B: Poorly Graded Soil C: Uniform

By David Airey, The University of Sydney
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Soil Plasticity & Consistency Limits

z
In the early 1900s a Swedish scientist Atterberg developed a method to describe the consistency of fine grained soils with varying degree of moisture content. content If a soil is gradually dried from a slurry, it passes from state of viscous liquid to a plastic state; then to a semi-solid, and finally into a solid state. The moisture contents at which the soil passes from one state to the next are known as consistency limits (also called Atterberg Limits) Consistency limits are utilized to compare soils from different locations and different depths. There are 4 basic states
Atterberg Limits
Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in proportion to the water content
liquid Liquid limit Plasticity Index Plastic limit semi-solid Shrinkage limit solid
Mechanics of Soils
(pea soup)
plastic
(peanut butter)
(cheese) (hard candy)

18
By P. Jayawickrama, Texas Tech University

2/16/2009
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Consistency Limits
Volume
Viscous Liquid Solid SL SemiSemi Solid PL Plastic LL
Moisture Content (%)
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Mechanics of Soils
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Definitions
a)
Liquid Limit (LL) : is the minimum moisture content at which the soil will flow under its own weight. The moisture content (in %) required to close a distance of 12 12.7mm 7mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is thell. Plastic Limit (PL): is the moisture content (in %) at which the soil when rolled into threads of 3.2mm in diameter, crumbles. PL is the lower limit of the plastic stage of the soil. The test is simple and performed by repeated rollings of ellipsoidal size soil mass by hand on a ground glass plate plate. Shrinkage Limit (SL): is the moisture content (in %) at which the volume change of the soil mass ceases.
Mechanics of Soils 20
b)
c)
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Definitions
d)
Plasticity Index (PI): is a measure of the range of the moisture contents over which a soil is plastic.
PI = LL- PL
e)
Liquidity Index (LI): The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in a natural state can be defined by the ratio called LI.
LI = (w - PL) / (LL- PL)

f)
Activity : is the ratio of f PI to the clay fraction f (% by dry weight of f particles < 2m)
A = PI / (Clay fraction%)
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Mechanics of Soils
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CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
z
The sizes of particles that make up soil may vary widely depending on the predominant size of particles particles. Soils are classified as :
1) 2) 3) 4)
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
The most comprehensive is the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

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USCS
z
This system classifies soils under two broad categories:

z
Coarse Grained Soils -are gravelly and sandy in nature with <50% passing through a #200 sieve (diameter=0.075mm)

G :Gravel S : Sand
Fine Grained Soils: have 50% or more passing through the #200 sieve.

M: inorganic Silt C: inorganic Clay
O: Organic Silts and Clays Pt: Peat, muck, highly organic soils
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Mechanics of Soils
USCS
z
The standard system used worldwide for most major construction projects is known as the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). This is based on an original system devised by Cassagrande. Soils are identified by symbols determined from
z z
Sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
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USCS Table
Unified soil classification (including identification and description)
Field identification procedures (Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on estimated weights) Gravels with Clean g gravels fines (little or no (apreciable es) fine amount of fines) Wide range of grain size and substantial amounts of all intermediate particle sizes Predominantly one size or a range of sizes with some intermediate sizes missing Non-plastic fines (for identification procedures see ML below) Plastic fines (for identification procedures see CL below) Wide range in grain sizes and substantial amounts of all intermediate particle sizes Predominantely one size or a range of sizes with some intermediate sizes missing Non-plastic fines (for identification procedures, see ML below) Plastic fines (for identification procedures, see CL below) Group symbols 1 GW GP GM GC SW SP SM SC Typical names Well graded gravels, gravelsand mixtures, little or no fines Poorly graded gravels, gravelsand mixtures, little or no fines Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-clay mixtures Well graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixtures Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixtures Information required for describing soils Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size e curve Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows Less than 5% GW, GP, SW, SP More than 12% GM, GC, SM, SC ymbols 5% to 12% Bordeline case requiring use of dual sy Give typical names: indicate approximate percentages of sand and gravel: maximum size: angularity, surface condition, and hardness of the coarse grains: local or geological name and other pertinent descriptive information and symbol in parentheses. For undisturbed soils add information on stratification, degree of compactness, cementation, moisture conditions and drainage characteristics. Example: Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% hard angular gravel particles 12.5mm maximum size; rounded and subangular sand grains coarse to fine, about 15% nonplastic lines with low dry strength; well compacted and moist in places; alluvial sand; (SM) Laboratory classification criteria D 60 -C U=Greater than 4 D 10 2 (D30 ) --------- Between 1 and 3 C c = -D10 x D60 Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW Above "A" line with PI between 4 and 7 are borderline cases Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual line with PI greater than 7 symbols Atterberg limits below "A" line or PI less than 4 D 60 C U =-Greater than 6 D 10 (D 30 )2 --------- Between 1 and 3 C c = -D 10 x D60 Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW Above "A" line with PI between 4 and 7 are borderline cases Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual line with PI greater than 7 symbols Atterberg limits below "A" line or PI less than 4
Coarse grained soils Fine grained soils aller than More than half of material is larger than More than half of material is sma .075mm sieve size .075mm sieve size The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye
Gravels se More than half of coars fraction is larger than 2.36mm
and clays Silts a liqu uid limit less than 50
Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm sieve size Dry strength Toughness Dilatency crushing (consistency (reaction characterplastic to shaking) near istics limit) None to slight Medium to high Slight to medium Silts and clays liquid limit greater than 50 Slight to medium High to very high Medium to high Quick to slow None to very slow Slow Slow to none None None to very high None Medium Slight Slight to medium High Slight to medium ML CL,CI OL MH CH OH Pt Inorganic silts and very fine sands, sands rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands with slight plasticity Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays Organic silts and organic siltclays of low plasticity inorganic silts, micaceous or dictomaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays Organic clays of medium to high plasticity Peat and other highly organic soils Give typical Gi i l name; indicate i di d degree and character of plasticity, amount and maximum size of coarse grains: colour in wet condition, odour if any, local or geological name, and other pertinent descriptive information, and symbol in parentheses For undisturbed soils add information on structure, stratification, consistency and undisturbed and remoulded states, moisture and drainage conditions Example Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic: small percentage of fine sand: numerous vertical root holes: firm and dry in places; loess; (ML)
Use grain size e curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Sands More than half of coarse fraction is smaller than 2.36mm
Sands with fines (appreciable amount of fines)
Clean sands (little or no fines)
60 50 Plasticity index 40 CH 30 20 10 0 CL CL-ML 0 10 20 or ML 30 40 50 60 Liquid limit 70 80 90 100 OL MH CI OH or Comparing soils at equal liquid limit Toughness and dry strength increase with increasing plasticity index
" li "A ne
Highly organic soils
Readily identified by colour, odour spongy feel and frequently by fibrous texture
Plasticity chart for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
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Mechanics of Soils
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Classification Procedure
z
Coarse Grained Materials

z
If more than half of the material is coarser than the 75 m sieve, the soil is classified as coarse. The following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate 2 letter symbol Determine the1st letter of the symbol

If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix G This depends on the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of curvature Cc obtained from the grading curve, on the percentage of fines, and the type of fines.
Determine the 2nd letter of symbol
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z z
First determine the percentage of fines, that is the % of material passing the 75 m sieve. Then if % fines is
z z z z
< 5% use W or P as suffix > 12% use M or C as suffix between 5% and 12% use dual symbols. Use the prefix from above with first one of W or P and then with one of M or C. If W or P are required for the suffix then Cu and Cc must be evaluated
z z
If prefix is G then suffix is otherwise use If prefix is S then suffix is otherwise use
W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 & 3 P W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 & 3 P

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z
If M or C are required they have to be determined from the p procedure used for fine g grained materials discussed below. Note that M stands for Silt and C for Clay. This is determined from whether the soil lies above or below the A-line in the plasticity chart. For a coarse grained soil which is predominantly sand the following symbols are possible SW, SP, SM, SC SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC
z z
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z
These are classified solely according to the results from the Atterberg Limit Tests Tests. Values of the Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit are used to determine a point in the plasticity chart. The classification symbol is determined from the region of the chart in which the point lies.
High plasticity clay Low plasticity clay Hi h plasticity High l ti it silt ilt Low plasticity silt High plasticity organic soil (Rare) Peat
Examples z CH z CL z MH z ML z OH z Pt
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Casagrande Plasticity Chart

60 Comparing soils at equal liquid limit 50 Plasticity index 40 CH 30 20 CL 10 0 CL or 0 ML 10 20 ML 30 40 50 60 Liquid limit 70 80 90 100 OL O MH OH or T oughness h and d dry d strength t th increase i with increasing plasticity index
e in "l "A
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Mechanics of Soils
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3-Phase Material
W t Water Air
By P. Jayawickrama, Texas Tech University

Solid
31
The Mineral Skeleton
Solid Particles Volume Voids ( (air or water) )
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Mechanics of Soils
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Three Phase Diagram

Air Water
S lid Solid
Idealization: Three Phase Diagram
Mineral Skeleton
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Fully Saturated Soils
Water
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Fully Saturated
34
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Dry Soils
Air
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Dry Soil
35
Partly Saturated Soils

Ai Air Water
S lid Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Partly Saturated Soils

36
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Phase Diagram
Va Vv Vw VT Vs
Ai Air Water
Wa~0 0
Ww
WT
Solid
Ws
Volume
Weight
37
Objectives of a Phase Diagram

To compute the weights (or masses) and volumes of the three different phases. Va Notation M = mass or weight V = volume
s = soil grains w = water a = air v = voids t = total
Air Water
Wa=0 Ww
Vv Vt
Vw
Wt
Vs
Solid
Ws
Phase Diagram
38
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Volume Relationships
Void ratio (e): is a measure of the void volume.
Va
Air Water
Wa=0 Ww
V e= V VS
Vv Vt
Vw
Wt
Vs
S lid Solid
Ws
Phase Diagram
Porosity (n): is also a measure of the void volume, expressed as a percentage. Va Air Water Wa=0 Ww
V n= V VT
Vv X 100% Vt
Vw
Wt
Theoretical range: 0 100%
Vs
Solid
Ws
Phase Diagram
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Degree of saturation (S): is the percentage of the void volume filled by water. Va Air Water Wa=0 Ww
S=
VW VV
X 100% Vt
Vv
Vw
Wt
R Range: 0 100%
Dry Saturated
Mechanics of Soils
Vs
Solid
Ws
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Phase Diagram
41
Weight Relationships
Water content (w): is a measure of the water present in the soil. Va Air Water Wa=0 0 Ww
W w= W WS
Vv X 100% Vt
Vw
Wt
Expressed as percentage. percentage Range = 0 100%.
Vs
Solid
Ws
Phase Diagram
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Unit Weight Relationships

Natural Unit Weight (): is the density of the soil in the current state.
WT VT
Vv Vt
Va Vw
Air Water
Wa=0 Ww Wt
Dry Unit Weight (d): is the unit weight of the soil in dry state.
Vs
Solid
d =
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WS VT
Mechanics of Soils
Ws
Phase Diagram
43
Unit Weight Relationships

Saturated Unit Weight (sat): is the unit weight of the soil when the voids are filled with water water.
Ws + Vv * w sat = VT
Submerged Unit Weight (sub): is the effective unit weight of the soil when it is submerged. submerged
Vv Vt
Va Vw
Air Water
Wa=0 0 Ww Wt
Vs
Solid
Ws
sub = sat w
Phase Diagram
44
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Phase Relations
Consider a fraction of the soil where Vs = 1.
The other volumes can be obtained from the previous definitions. The weights can be obtained from:
Weights = Unit Weights x Volume
Air e Se Water Sew
Solid
Gsw
volumes
weights Phase Diagram
Phase Relations
From the previous definitions,
w=
WW Se = WS GS
Air e Se Water Sew
V e n= V = VT 1 + e
Solid
Gsw
volumes

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Phase Relations
= sat
WT GS + Se = W VT 1+ e
Air e Se Water Sew
G +e W W = T = S VT 1+ e WS G = S W VT 1 + e
Solid
Gsw
d =
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volumes
Mechanics of Soils

47
Definitions
Bulk (natural), saturated, dry and submerged densities () are defined in a similar manner. Here, you can also use mass (kg) instead of weight (kN).
/ g = = M/V
N/m3 m/s2 kg/m3
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Specific Gravity
GS = Weight of a Subs tan ce Weight g of f an Equal q Volume of f Water
GS =
z
Unit Weight of a Subs tan ce Unit Weight of Water
Unit weight of Water Water, w

z z
w = 1.0 g/cm3 (strictly accurate at 4 C) w = 9.81 kN/m3

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In Terms of Density
i.
Density of water : Dry density of soil :
w = 1000kg/m3
ii.
d =
MS G = S W VT 1+ e
=
M T GS + Se = W VT 1+ e
iii.
Bulk density of unsaturated or saturated soil:
iv.
Air content (A) :
A=
Va e GS w = VT 1+ e
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Mechanics of Soils
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Relationship between parameters

z
These definitions can be used to determine any desired relationships between above quantities quantities, and hence to determine void ratio, degree of saturation, etc. That can not be measured directly by laboratory tests. Some relationships are as follows:
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Mechanics of Soils
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Relationship between parameters

z
For unsaturated soils:
w=
z
WW Se = WS GS
e=
GS w S
[1]
For saturated soils: S = 1 then; Bulk density;
e = GS w
=
G ( w + 1) w (GS w + GS ) w = S 1+ e 1+ e
M T GS + Se = W VT 1+ e
Dry density;
d =
MS G = S W VT 1+ e
S= GS w (1 + w)GS w
Mechanics of Soils
d (1 + w) =
Degree of Saturation;
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By N. Sivakugan
z z z
Try not to memorize the equations. Understand the definitions, and develop the relations from the phase diagram with VS = 1; Assume GS ( (2.6-2.8) ) when not g given; ; Do not mix densities and unit weights; Soil grains are incompressible. Their mass and volume remain the same at any void ratio.
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Mechanics of Soils
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16.02.

According to Terzaghi (1948):

Transported soil eathered and ~ weathered transported far away

formed by alteration of igneous & sedimentary rocks by pressure/temperature e.g., marble

Determination of Particle Size Distribution

Particle Size Distributions and Soil Particle Characteristics

Particle Size Distribution Curve

SILT & CLAY

It is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water.

By David Airey, The University of Sydney

Some commonly used measures are:

A well graded soil will have

Cu > 4 for gravels Cu > 6 for sands

Some commonly used measures are:

D30: Diameter corresponding the 30% finer

Soil A: Well Graded Soil B: Poorly Graded Soil C: Uniform

By David Airey, The University of Sydney

Soil Plasticity & Consistency Limits

Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in proportion to the water content

(cheese) (hard candy)

By P. Jayawickrama, Texas Tech University

Viscous Liquid Solid SL SemiSemi Solid PL Plastic LL

Moisture Content (%)

LI = (w - PL) / (LL- PL)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

The most comprehensive is the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

This system classifies soils under two broad categories:

M: inorganic Silt C: inorganic Clay

Sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.

Gravels se More than half of coars fraction is larger than 2.36mm

and clays Silts a liqu uid limit less than 50

Sands More than half of coarse fraction is smaller than 2.36mm

Sands with fines (appreciable amount of fines)

Clean sands (little or no fines)

Highly organic soils

Plasticity chart for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

Coarse Grained Materials

Determine the 2nd letter of symbol

W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 & 3 P W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 & 3 P

Casagrande Plasticity Chart

By P. Jayawickrama, Texas Tech University

The Mineral Skeleton

Solid Particles Volume Voids ( (air or water) )

Three Phase Diagram

Fully Saturated Soils

Partly Saturated Soils

Partly Saturated Soils

Objectives of a Phase Diagram

Theoretical range: 0 100%

Expressed as percentage. percentage Range = 0 100%.

Unit Weight Relationships

Unit Weight Relationships

Air e Se Water Sew

weights Phase Diagram

Air e Se Water Sew

weights Phase Diagram

Air e Se Water Sew

weights Phase Diagram

Unit Weight of a Subs tan ce Unit Weight of Water

Unit weight of Water Water, w

w = 1.0 g/cm3 (strictly accurate at 4 C) w = 9.81 kN/m3

Density of water : Dry density of soil :

Bulk density of unsaturated or saturated soil: