Sonatrach's - Well Performance

Development Phase
September October 2005

abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
Abalt Solutions
Introduction to Hydrocarbon Exploitation
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Well Performance
Pratap Thimaiah
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Content
Introduction to Reservoir Performance
Reservoir Characteristics
Fluid Flow Equations
Steady State Flow
Unsteady State Flow
Pseudo-steady State Flow
Skin Factor
Turbulence Flow Factor
Principle of Superposition
Essentials of Well testing
Development Phase
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Introduction
Flow in porous media is a very complex
phenomenon and as such can not be described
as flow through pipes or conduits.
Mathematical relationships that are designed to
describe the flow behaviour of the reservoir
fluids depend upon the characteristics of the
reservoir such as:
Types of fluids in the reservoir
Flow regimes
Reservoir geometry
Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
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Reservoir Characteristics Types of
Fluids
Reservoir fluids can be classified into three
groups:
Incompressible fluids
Slightly compressible fluids
Compressible fluids
To identify the type of reservoir fluid, the
isothermal compressibility coefficient is used.
Development Phase
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Fluids
Isothermal compressibility coefficient (c)
In terms of fluid volume
In terms of fluid density
V and are the volume and density of the fluid
respectively.
1 V
c
V p
c
=
c
1
c
p
c
=
c
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Fluids
Incompressible fluids
Fluid whose volume (or density) does not change
with pressure.
Incompressible fluids do not exist, however it is
assumed to simplify the derivation and final form
of many flow equations.
0
V
p
c
=
c
0
p
c
=
c
Development Phase
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Fluids
Slightly compressible fluids
Fluid who exhibit small changes in volume (or
density) with changes in pressure.
Crude oil and water systems fit into the slightly
compressible category. V
ref
and
ref
are reference
values of volume and density at reference (initial)
pressure.
( )
1
ref ref
V V c p p
(
= +

( )
1
ref ref
c p p
(
=

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Fluids
Compressible fluids
Fluid who experience large changes in volume
(or density) with changes in pressure.
All gases are considered compressible flows.
1 1
g
T
z
c
p z p
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
Development Phase
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Fluids
Volume and density changes as a function of
pressure for three types of fluids.
Compressible
Incompressible
Slightly Compressible
Incompressible
Slightly Compressible
Compressible
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Reservoir Characteristics Flow Regimes
There are three flow regimes that describe the
fluid behaviour and reservoir pressure
distribution as a function of time:
Steady-state flow
Unsteady-state flow
Pseudo steady-state flow
Steady state flow
Unsteady-state flow
Pseudo steady-state flow
Development Phase
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Steady-state flow
Pressure at every location in the reservoir
remains constant. It does not change with time.
Steady-state flow condition can only occur when
the reservoir is completely recharged and
supported by strong aquifer or pressure
maintenance operations.
0
i
p
t
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
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Unsteady-state flow (transient flow)
Fluid flow condition at which the rate of change
of pressure with respect to time at any position
in the reservoir is not zero or constant.
Pressure derivative with respect to time is
essentially a function of both position i and time
t.
( )
,
p
f i t
t
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
Development Phase
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Pseudo steady-state flow (semi steady-state
flow)
Pressure at different locations in the reservoir is
declining linearly as a function of time, like at a
constant declining rate.
constant
i
p
t
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
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Reservoir Characteristics Reservoir
Geometry
Shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on its flow
behaviour
Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries. Numerical
simulator are used for describing such complex
boundaries.
The actual flow geometry may be represented by one of
the following flow geometries:
Radial flow
Linear flow
Spherical and hemispherical flow
Development Phase
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Geometry
Radial Flow
Absence of severe reservoir heterogeneities
facilities radial flow. Flow into or away from a
wellbore will follow radial flow lines from a
substantial distance from the wellbore.
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Geometry
Linear Flow
Flow paths are parallel and the fluid flow in a single
direction, while the cross-sectional area to flow must be
constant.
A common application of linear flow equations is the
fluid flow into vertical hydraulic fractures.
q
q
q
q
fracture
wellbore
q
q
wellbore
fracture
Development Phase
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Geometry
Spherical and Hemispherical Flow
It depends upon the type of completion.
A well with a limited perforated interval could result in
spherical flow in the vicinity of the perforations.
A well that only partially penetrates the pay zone
could result in hemispherical flow.
Hemispherical flow in a partially penetrating well
Spherical flow due to limited entry
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Geometry
Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)
Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)
Description of fluid flow and subsequent
analysis becomes more complicated as the
number of mobile fluids increases.
Development Phase
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Fluid flow equations
Flow equations necessary to describe the flow
behaviour are developed from:
Conversation of mass equation
Transport equation (Darcys equation)
Equation of State
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Darcys Law
Fundamental law of fluid motion in porous media.
For a horizontal linear system
For a radial system
q k dp
v
A dx
= =
r
r r
q k p
v
A r
c
| |
= =
|
c
\ .
2
r
A rh t =
Apparent velocity
Volumetric flow rate at radius r
Cross-sectional area to flow at radius r
Pressure gradient at radius r
Apparent velocity at radius r
Development Phase
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Darcys Law
Only applies when the following conditions
exist:
Laminar (viscous) flow
Steady-state flow
Incompressible flow
Homogeneous formation
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
distance
Direction of flow
P
1
P
2
x
Pressure vs. distance in a linear flow
Direction of flow
r
w
r r
e
p
wf
p
e
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Pressure gradient in radial flow
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Steady State Flow
Linear flow of Incompressible Fluids
It is assumed the flow occurs through a constant
cross-sectional area A, where both ends are
entirely open to flow.
It is assumed that no flow crosses the sides, top,
or bottom.
( )
1 2
kA p p
q
L

=
( )
1 2
0.001127kA p p
q
L

=
Field Units
[bbl/day]
[ md]
[psia]
[cp]
[ft]
[ft
2
]
Development Phase
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Steady State Flow
Linear flow of compressible fluids (gases)
For a viscous (laminar) gas flow in a homogeneous-linear
system, the real-gas equation of state can be applied to
calculate the number of gas moles n at pressure p,
temperature T, and volume V:
pV
n
zRT
=
sc sc
sc
T
pV p V
zT
=
( )
2 2
1 2
sc
0.111924
g
Ak p p
q
TLz

=
2 2
1 2
2
p p
p
+
=
q
sc
: gas flow rate at standard conditions, [scf /day]
k: permeability, [md]
T: temperature, [R]
g
: gas viscosity, [cp]
A: cross-sectional area, [ft
2]
L: total length of the linear system, [ft]
Z and
g
are a very strong function of pressure. The above equation is valid for applications when the pressure <2000 psi.
Gas properties must be evaluated at the average pressure defines as:
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Steady State Flow
Radial flow of incompressible fluids
All fluids move towards the producing well from all directions
A pressure differential exist before flow can take place
Pressure in the formation at the wellbore of a producing well is
know as the bottom-hole flowing pressure (flowing BHP, p
wf
)
dr
r
e
r
w
r
h
p
e
p
wf
Centre of the
well
( )
0.00708
ln
e w
e
o o
w
kh p p
o
r
B
r
q

| |
|
\ .
=
q
o
: oil, flow rate, [STB/day]
p
e
: external pressure, [psi]
p
wf
: bottom-hole flowing pressure, [psi]
o
:oil viscosity, [cp]
B
o
: oil formation volume factor, [bbl/STB]
h: thickness, [ft]
r
e
: external or drainage radius, [ft]
r
w
:wellbore radius, [ft]
A: well spacing, [area]
43, 560
e
A
r
t
=
Development Phase
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Steady State Flow
Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
( )
ref ref
1
0.001127
2
r
q c p p
q k dp
A rh dr t
+ (

= =
( )
( )
ref
ref
wf ref
1 0.00708
ln
1
ln
e
e
w
c p p kh
q
r
c p p
c
r
(
( (
+
=
( (
+ | |
(
|
\ .

( )
0.00708
ln 1
ln
o o e wf
e
o o o
w
kh
q c p p
r
B c
r
(
(
(
= +
(

| |
(
|
\ .
Separating the variables in the above equation and
integrating over the length of the porous medium
Choosing the bottom-hole flow pressure (p
wf
)
as the reference pressure and expressing the
flow rate in STB/day
c
o
: isothermal compressibility coefficient, [psi
-1
]
q
o
: oil flow rate, [STB/day]
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Unsteady-State Flow
Infinite acting reservoir
Radius of Investigation (r
inv
)
A pressure disturbance move from the wellbore at a rate that is
determined by:
Permeability
Porosity
Fluid viscosity
Rock and fluid compressibilities
p
i
p
i
Q = 0
r
e
r
e
r
e
r
e
r
e
r
e
p
i
p
i
p
i
p
i
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
r
1
r
2
r
3
r
4
t
1 t
2
t
3
t
4
t
1 t
2
t
3
t
4
p
wf
Constant q
Shut in
Constant Flow Rate
Constant p
wf
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
The transient (unsteady-state) flow is defined as that
time period during which the boundary has no effect on
the pressure behaviour in the reservoir and the reservoir
will behave as its infinite in size.
Steady-state flowing condition Unsteady-state flowing condition
same quantity of fluid enters the flow system as leaves it
the flow rate into an element of volume of a porous media
may not be the same as the flow rate out of that element
fluid content of the
porous medium
changes with time
Steady-state flow variables
Time, T
Porosity, |
Total compressibility, c
t
Unsteady-state flow variables
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Unsteady-State Flow
Basic Transient Flow Equation
Continuity equation
Transport equation
Compressibility equation
Initial and boundary conditions
The formation produces at a constant rate into the
wellbore
There is no flow across the outer boundary and the
reservoir behaves as if it were infinite in size (r
e
=)
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
center of
the well
p
wf
r
w
r
r
r+dr
dr
h
p
e
(q)
r
(q)
r+dr
mass entering
volume element
during interval At
mass leaving
volume element
during interval At
rate of mass
accumulation
during interval At
- =
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Unsteady-State Flow
Mass entering the volume element during time
interval At:
Mass leaving the volume element:
Total accumulation of mass:
| |
( )
out
Mass 2
r
t rh v t = A
| | ( ) ( )
in
Mass 2 t h
r dr
r dr v t
+
= A +
( ) ( ) ( )
Total mass accumulation = 2
t dt t
rh dr t | |
+
(

Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
Continuity Equation
Provides the principle of conservation of mass in
radial coordinates
( ) ( )
1
r v
r r t
|
c c
= (

c c
|: porosity
: density, [lb/ft
3
]
v: fluid velocity, [ft/day]
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Unsteady-State Flow
Transport Equation
Darcys law is essentially the basic motion
equation, which states that the velocity is
proportional to the pressure gradient
p
r
c
| |
|
c
\ .
( ) 0.006328
k p
v
r
c
=
c
v: velocity, [ft/day]
: viscosity, [cp]
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
To describe the behaviour of radial flow of slightly compressible
fluids
t o o w w g g f
c c S c S c S c = + + +
Assuming permeability and viscosity are constant over pressure, time and distance ranges
The compressibility of any fluid is related to its density by:
Total compressibility (c
t
)
t f
c c c = +
Formation compressibility (c
f
)
1
c
p
c
=
c
1
t
f f
p
c c
p t
| |
|
|
c c c
= =
c c c
2
2
1 1 p p p
r r r t q
c c c
+ =
c c c
0.000264
t
k
c
q
|
=
r: radial position, [ft]
p: pressure, [psia]
c
t
: total compressibility, [psi
- 1
]
t: time, [hrs]
|: porosity, [fraction]
: viscosity, [cp]
Diffusivity Equation
Diffusivity constant
Assumptions and limitations:
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous medium
2. Uniform thickness
3. Single phase flow
4. Laminar flow
5. Rock and fluid properties independent of pressure
If the reservoir contains more than one fluid then
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Unsteady-State Flow
Generalised solutions to the diffusivity
equation:
Constant-terminal-pressure solution
Constant-terminal-rate solution
The E
i
-function solution
The dimensionless pressure p
D
solution
Infinite-acting reservoir
Finite-radial reservoir
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
Generalised solutions to the diffusivity equation:
Constant-Terminal-Pressure Solution
Designed to provide the cumulative flow at any
particular time for a reservoir in which the pressure at
one boundary of the reservoir is held constant.
Frequently used in water influx calculations in gas and
oil reservoirs.
Flow rate is considered to be constant at certain radius
(usually wellbore radius) and the pressure profile around
that radius is determined as a function of time and
position.
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Unsteady-State Flow
Constant-Terminal-Rate Solution
Solves for the pressure change throughout the radial
system providing that the flow rate is held constant at
one terminal end of the radial system, like at the
producing well.
Integral part of most transient test analysis techniques,
such as with drawdown and pressure build up analyses.
Most of these tests involve producing the well at a
constant flow rate and recording the flowing pressure as
a function of time like p(r
w
,t).
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
The E
i
-function Solution (Matthews and Russell, 1967)
Based on the following assumptions:
1. Infinite acting reservoir (the reservoir is infinite in size)
2. The well is producing at a constant flow rate
3. The reservoir is at a uniform pressure, p
i
, when production begins
4. The well, with a wellbore radius of r
w
is centered in a cylindrical reservoir of radius r
e
5. No flow across the outer boundary
( )
2
70.6 948
,
o o o o t
i i
q b c r
p r t p E
kh kt
| (
(
= +
(
(

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 3
ln etc
1! 2 2! 3 3!
u
i
x
e x x x
E x du x
u

(
= = + + +
(

}
2
948
t
c r
x
kt
|
=
( )
( ) ( )
10.9 0
0.01 3.0 ln 1.781
i
i
x E x
x E x x
> =
< < =
p(r,t): pressure at radius r from the well after t hours
t: time, [hrs]
q
o
: flow rate, [STB/day]
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Unsteady-State Flow
The Dimensionless pressure drop (Van Everdingen and
Hurst, 1949)
Based on the following assumptions:
1. Perfectly radial reservoir system
2. The producing well is in the center and producing at a constant production rate of q
3. Uniform pressure p
i
throughout the reservoir before production
4. No flow across the external radius r
e
p
D
: dimensionless pressure drop
r
eD
: dimensionless external radius
t
D
: dimensionless time
r
D
: dimensionless radius
t: time, [hr]
p(r,t): pressure at radius r and time t
: viscosity, [cp]
2
2
1
D D D
D D D D
p p p
r r r t
c c c
+ =
c c c
( ) ,
0.00708
i
D
o o o
p p r t
p
q B
kh
=
| |
|
\ .
2
0.000264
D
t w
kt
t
c r |
=
D
w
r
r
r
=
e
eD
w
r
r
r
=
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
Hurst, 1949)
( ) ,
0.00708
i
D
o o o
p p r t
p
q B
kh
=
| |
|
\ .
2
0.000264
D
t w
kt
t
c r |
=
e
eD
w
r
r
r
=
For Infinite acting reservoir:
eD
r =
For 0.02 < t
D
<1000 Lee, J., Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series.
( )
0.01 2
100 0.5 ln 0.80907
D
D D
D D D
t
t p
t p t
t
< =
> = + (

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Unsteady-State Flow
Hurst, 1949)
( ) ,
0.00708
i
D
o o o
p p r t
p
q B
kh
=
| |
|
\ .
2
0.000264
D
t w
kt
t
c r |
=
e
eD
w
r
r
r
=
For finite-radial reservoir:
Chatas (1953) proposed the following mathematical expression for calculating p
D
:
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
For 25 and 0.25
3 4ln 2 1
0.5 2
1
4 1
2
If 1 then, ln 0.75
D eD D
eD eD eD
D
D
eD
eD
D
eD D eD
ed
t r t
r r r
t
p
r
r
t
r p r
r
< <
(
+

=

= + ?
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
To describe the behaviour of radial flow of compressible fluids
There are three forms of the mathematical solution to this
diffusivity equation
The m(p)-Solution Method (Exact Solution)
The Pressure-Squared Method (p
2
-Approximation Method)
The Pressure Method (p-Approximation Method)
t o o w w g g f
c c S c S c S c = + + +
The compressibility of any fluid is related to its density by:
Total compressibility (c
t
)
t f
c c c = +
Formation compressibility (c
f
)
1
c
p
c
=
c
1
t
f f
p
c c
p t
| |
|
|
c c c
= =
c c c
Radial Diffusivity Equation for Compressible Fluids
If the reservoir contains more than one fluid then
1 1
g
dz
c
p z dp
=
For gas
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1
0.000264
t
m p m p m p
c
r r r k t
|
c c c
+ =
c c c
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Unsteady-State Flow
Describing the behaviour of radial flow of compressible
fluid with the diffusivity equation
The m (p) Solution Method (Exact Solution)
Written equivalent in terms of the dimensionless time t
D
( ) ( )
2
1637
log 3.23
g
wf i
i ti w
q T
kt
m p m p
kh c r |
(
| | | |
=
(
| |
\ . \ .

( )
( )
1637
4
log
1.781
g
D
wf i
q T
t
m p m p
kh
| | (
| |
=
| |
(
\ .
\ .
2
0.000264
D
i ti w
kt
t
c r |
=
q
g
: gas flow rate, Mscf/day
Development Phase
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Unsteady-State Flow
Describing the behaviour of radial flow of compressible fluid
with the diffusivity equation
The Pressure-Squared Approximation Method (p
2
-
method)
D
q
g
: gas flow rate, Mscf/day
2 2
1637 4
log
1.781
g D
wf i
q T z t
p p
kh

| |
(
| |
=
|
| (
|
\ .
\ .
2 2
2
1637
log 3.23
g
wf i
i ti w
q T z kt
p p
kh c r
|
| | (
| |
= |
(
|
|
\ .
\ .
2 2
2
i wf
p p
p
+
= The values of gas viscosity and deviation factor are evaluated at the average pressure
This effectively limit the applicability of the p
2
-method to reservoir pressures < 2000 psi
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Unsteady-State Flow
Describing the behaviour of radial flow of compressible
fluid with the diffusivity equation
The Pressure Approximation Method (treating the gas
as a pseudo-liquid)
D
Gas properties are evaluated at the average pressure defined as:
The applicability of the pressure-approximation method is limited to reservoir pressures > 3000 psi
3
2
162.5 10
log 3.23
g g
wf i
t w
q B
kt
p p
kh c r
|
| | (
| |
=
| (
|
|
\ .
\ .
3
162.5 10
4
log
1.781
g g
D
wf i
q B
t
p p
kh

| |
( | |
= |
| (
|
\ .
\ .
2
i wf
p p
p
+
=
Development Phase
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Pseudo steady-state flow Regime
The change in pressure with time becomes the same
throughout the drainage area.
constant
r
p
t
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
P
No-Flow Boundary
No-Flow Boundary
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
r
e
r
w
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
P
r
Pressure
p vs. r
p vs. time
time
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Behaviour of the pressure decline rate dp/dt during the
semisteady-state flow:
The reservoir pressure declines at a higher rate with
an increase in the fluids production rate
The reservoir pressure declines at a slower rate for
reservoirs with higher total compressibility coefficients
The reservoir pressure declines at a lower rate for
reservoirs with larger pore volumes.
2
0.23396
t e
dp q
dt c r h t |
=
Development Phase
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constant
r
p
t
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
Semisteady-state
condition
No flow across the wells drainage
areas boundaries
Pressure at every point in
the reservoir is changing at
the same rate
Reservoir
average
pressure
changing at the
same rate also
( ) i r
p p
dp
dt t
=
:
r
pVolumetric average reservoir pressure
1 1 1
, , q p V
2 2 2
, , q p V
3 3 3
, , q p V
4 4 4
, , q p V
( )
ri i
i
r
i
i
p q
p
q
=

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Radial Flow of slightly compressible fluids
Pseudo steady-state flow occurs regardless of the geometry
of the reservoir.
Irregular geometries also reach this state when they have
been produced long enough for the entire drainage area to
be affected.
( )
0.00708
ln 0.5
i wf
e
w
kh p p
Q
r
B
r
=
(
| |
( |
\ .

( )
0.00708
ln 0.75
r wf
e
w
kh p p
Q
r
B
r
=
(
| |
( |
\ .

Development Phase
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Radial Flow of slightly compressible fluids
The Shape Factor (C
A
) after Ramey and Cobb, 1971
( )
2
4
162.6 log
1.781
r wf
A w
kh p p
Q
A
B
C r
=
(
(

2
0.23396 162.6 4
log
1.781
wf i
t A w
QBt QB A
p p
Ah c kh C r
|
( (
=
( (

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Pseudo steady-state flow Regime Shape Factors Table
After Earlougher, R., Advances in Well Test Analysis. SPE, 1977
Development Phase
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Radial Flow of compressible fluids (gases)
The approximation to the above solution of the diffusivity
equation are:
Pressure-squared approximation
Pressure-approximation
( ) ( )
1422 ln 0.75
r wf
g
e
w
kh m p m p
Q
r
T
r
(

=
(
| |
(
|
\ .

Q
g
: gas flow rate, [ Mscf/day]
T: temperature, [ R]
K: permeability, [ md]
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Radial Flow of compressible fluids (gases)
Pressure-squared approximation: for p < 2000 psi
Pressure approximation: for p > 3000 psi
(
)
2 2
1422 ln 0.75
r wf
g
e
w
kh p p
Q
r
T z
r
=
| |
|
\ .
( )
1422 ln 0.75
r wf
g
e
g
w
kh p p
Q
r
B
r
=
| |
|
\ .
( )
2
2
2
r wf
p p
p
+
=
2
r wf
p p
p
+
=
0.00504
g
zT
B
p
=
Development Phase
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Skin Factor
Skin effect: Altering the permeability around
the wellbore
r
w
r
skin
k
skin
Undamaged
Zone
Damaged
Zone
Pressure Profile
r
w
r
skin
k
skin
Undamaged
Zone
Damaged
Zone
k
k
Near Wellbore Skin Effect Center of
the Well
Center of
the Well
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Skin Factor
According to Hawkins (1956):
Permeability in the skin zone is uniform
Pressure drop across the zone can be approximated
by Darcys equation.
Ap < 0
Ap > 0
Improved
k
Reduced
k
r
w
r
skin
Pressure Profile
Representation of positive
and negative skin effects
Ap
skin
=
Ap in skin zone
due to k
skin
Ap in skin zone
due to k
-
Development Phase
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Skin factor (s)
Positive Skin Factor, s > 0
Negative Skin Factor, s < 0
Zero Skin Factor, s = 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
actual
actual
i wf i wf
ideal skin skin
ideal
p p p p p p p p A = A + A = + A
s
141.2 1 ln
o o o skin
skin
kin w
Q B k r
p s s
kh k r
( | |
(
A = =
| (
(

\ .
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Skin Factor
Steady State Radial Flow
Unsteady State Radial Flow
For Slightly compressible
fluids:
For Compressible fluids:
2
162.6 log 3.23 0.87
o o o
i wf
t w
Q B kt
p p s
kh c r
|
(
| |
= +
| (
\ .

( )
0.00708
ln
i wf
o
e
o o
w
kh p p
Q
r
B s
r
=
(
+
(

2 2
2
1037
log 3.23 0.87
g
wf i
i ti w
Q T z
kt
p p s
kh c r
|
(
= +
(

Development Phase
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Skin Factor
Pseudo steady state Flow
For slightly compressible
fluids:
For compressible fluids:
( )
0.00708
ln 0.75
r wf
o
e
o o
w
kh p p
Q
r
B s
r
=
(
| |
+
( |
\ .

( )
2 2
1422 ln 0.75
r wf
g
e
w
kh p p
Q
r
T z s
r
=
(
| |
+
( |
\ .

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Turbulent Flow Factor
Not always laminar flow conditions are observed during
flow.
During radial flow, the velocity increase as the wellbore is
approached and might result in the development of a
turbulent flow around the wellbore.
If turbulent flow does exist, it is most likely to occur with
gases and causes an additional pressure drop similar to
that caused by the skin effect.
Non-Darcy Flow
Development Phase
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Referring to the additional real gas pseudo-pressure drop
due to non-darcy flow as A, the total (actual) drop is
given by:
Wattenburger and Ramey (1968)
Non-Darcy flow coefficient
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Unsteady-State Radial
Flow
( )
( )
2
1637
log 3.23 0.87 0.87
g
i wf g
i ti w
Q T
kt
m p m p s DQ
kh c r |
( | |
= + +
| (
\ .

Turbulent flow factor
Total Skin Factor
Development Phase
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Semi-steady State Flow
Steady State Flow
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Oil Well Performance
Introduction
Vertical Oil Well Performance
Vogels method
Wiggins Method
Standings Method
Fetkovichs Method
The Klins-Clark Method
Horizontal Oil Well Performance
Method I
Method II
Horizontal Well Productivity under Steady-State Flow
Horizontal Well Productivity under Semi-Steady-State
Flow
Development Phase
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Introduction
Production performance of a well is affected by
several factors that govern the flow of fluids
from the formation to the wellbore.
Production performance analysis is bases on:
Fluid PVT properties
Relative permeability data
Inflow performance relationship (IPR)
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Productivity Index (J)
Measure of the ability of the well to produce.
Ratio of the total liquid flow rate to the pressure
drawdown.
For a water-free oil production, the productivity
index is given by:
Development Phase
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Generally measured during a production test on the
well.
The well is shut-in until the static reservoir pressure is
reached.
The well is then allowed to produce at constant flow
rate of Q and a stabilized bottom-hole flow pressure of
p
wf.
The productivity index is a valid measure of the well
productivity potential only if the well is flowing at
pseudo steady-state conditions.
Productivity index during flow regimes
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The productivity index can be numerically calculated, but
must be defined in terms of semi steady-state flow
conditions.
Development Phase
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Productivity Index Features
Valuable methodology for predicting the future
performance of wells
Useful for determining if a particular well has become
damaged due to completion, workover, production,
injection operations, or mechanical problems.
Good indicator of wells difficulties or damage during
completion through comparison between different wells
in the same reservoir.
In terms of relative permeability
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Productivity Index Normalization Specific Productivity Index
Productivity indexes may vary from well to well because of the
variation in thickness of the reservoir, therefore J is normalized by
dividing each by the thickness of the well.
Q
o
vs. Ap relationship
Assuming that the well s productivity
index is constant:
Development Phase
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The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
Graphical representation of the relationship that exist
between the oil flow rate and bottom-hole flowing
pressure.
IPR
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The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
Features
When p
wf
equals average reservoir pressure, the
flow rate is zero due to the absence of any
pressure drawdown.
Maximum rate of flow occurs when p
wf
is zero.
(Absolute Open Flow - AOF)
The slope of the straight line equals the
reciprocal of the productivity index.
Development Phase
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Inflow into a well is directly proportional to the pressure
drawdown. The constant of proportionality is the
productivity index (J).
When the pressure drops below the bubble point pressure,
the IPR deviates from that of the simple straight-line
relationship.
IPR below p
b
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Variables that affect productivity index
Overall effect of changing the pressure on the term
Development Phase
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Qualitative effect of reservoir depletion on the
IPR
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Non-linearity behaviour of the IPR for solution gas drive
reservoirs
Several empirical methods are designed too predict
such behaviour, and most of them require at least one
stabilized flow test in which Q
o
and p
wf
are measured;
and all of them also include the following
computational steps:
Using the stabilized flow test data, construct the IPR
curve at the current average reservoir pressure
Predict future inflow performance relationships as to the
function of the average reservoir pressures.
Development Phase
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To generate the current and future inflow
performance relationships, the following
empirical methods have designed:
Vogels method
Wiggins Method
Standings Method
Fetkovichs Method
The Klins-Clark Method
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Vertical Oil Well Performance Vogels
Method
Used a computer model to generate IPRs for several hypothetical
saturated-oil reservoirs that are producing under a wide range of
conditions.
Normalized the calculated IPRs and expressed the relationships in
a dimensionless form by dimensionless parameters:
Plotted the dimensionless IPR curves for all the reservoir cases
and arrived at the following relationship:
Flow rate at zero wellbore pressure, i.e., AOF
Development Phase
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Method
Can be extended to account for water production by
replacing the dimensionless rate with where
The method requires the following data:
Current average reservoir pressure
Bubble-point pressure
Stabilized flow test data that include
The method can be used to predict IPR curve for the
following type of reservoirs:
Saturated oil reservoirs
Undersaturated oil reservoirs
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Method
For Saturated Oil Reservoirs (when the reservoir
pressure equals the bubble-point pressure)
The computational procedure is as follow:
1. Using the stabilized flow data, i.e., Q
o
and p
wf
,
calculate:
2. Construct the IPR curve by assuming various values
for P
wf
and calculating the corresponding Q
o
from:
Development Phase
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Method
For Under-saturated Oil Reservoirs
Beggs (1991) pointed out that in applying Vogels
method for undersaturated reservoirs, there are two
possible outcomes to the recorded stabilized flow test
data that must be considered.
Stabilized flow test data
- The recorded stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure
is greater than or equal to the bubble-point pressure,
i.e.
-The recorded stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure
is less than the bubble-point pressure
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Method
Case1: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized
1. Using the stabilized test data point (Q
o
and p
wf
)
calculate the productivity index J:
2. Calculate the oil flow rate at the bubble-point
pressure:
Development Phase
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Method
Case1: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized
3. Generate the IPR values below the bubble-point
pressure by assuming different values of p
wf
< p
b
and
calculating the correspond oil flow rates by applying
the following relationship:
The maximum oil flow rate (Q
o max
or AOF) occurs when the bottom-hole flowing pressure
is zero, p
wf
= 0, which can be determined from the above expression as:
Note:When the IPR is linear and:
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Method
Case 2: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized p
wf
< p
b
1. Using the stabilized well flow test data:
2. Calculate Q
ob
3. Generate the IPR for by assuming several values
for p
wf
above the bubble point pressure and calculating
the corresponding Q
o
from:
Development Phase
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Method
Case 2: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized p
wf
< p
b
4. Calculate Q
o
at various values of p
wf
below p
b
, or:
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Method
Predicting wells inflow performance for future time as the reservoir
pressure declines.
Future well performance calculations require the development
of a relationship that can be used to predict future maximum oil
flow rates.
Some prediction methods require the application of the material
balance equation to generate future oil saturation data as a
function of reservoir pressure.
Without that data, there are two options:
First Approximation Method
Second Approximation Method
Development Phase
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Method
First Approximation Method
Provides a rough approximation of the future maximum oil
flow rate (Q
omax
)
f
at the specified future average reservoir
pressure (p
r
)
f
(Q
omax
)
f
can be used to predict the future inflow performance
relationships at
1. Calculate from:
2. Using the new calculated value of (Q
omax
)
f
and (p
r
)
f
generate the
IPR by using:
Where the subscript f and p represent future
and present conditions, respectively.
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Method
Second Approximation Method
Fetkovich (1973) proposed a simple
approximation for estimating future
Only to provide a rough estimation of future (Q
o
)
max
The main disadvantage of Vogels methodology lies with its sensitivity to
the match point, i.e., the stabilized flow test data point, used to
generate the IPR curve for the well
Development Phase
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Vertical Oil Well Performance Wigginss
Method
Limited by the assumption that the reservoir
initially exists at its bubble-point pressure.
It propose generalized correlations that are
suitable for predicting the IPR during three-
phase flow.
Data from a stabilized flow test on the well must be available i n order
to determine (Q
o
)
max
and (Qw)max
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Vertical Oil Well Performance Wigginss
Method
Predicting future performance
Estimating future maximum flow rates as a
function of:
Current (present) average pressure
Future average pressure
Current maximum oil flow rate
Current water flow rate
Development Phase
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Standings Method
Essentially an extended application of Vogels
method to predict future inflow performance
relationship of a well as a function of reservoir
pressure.
Productivity index J
Present (current) zero drawdown productivity index
For predicting the desired IPR expression
Estimating from the present
value of
If relative permeability data is not available,
can be roughly estimated from:
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Fetkovichs Method
Attempt to account for the observed on-linear flow
behaviour (IPR) of wells.
By calculating a theoretical productivity index from the
pseudo steady state flow equation.
Fetkovich (1973) suggests that the pressure function
f(p) can basically fall into one of the following two
regions:
Undersaturated Region
Saturated Region
Development Phase
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Fetkovichs Method
Region 1: Undersaturated Region
The pressure function f(p) falls into this region if p
> p
b
.
Region 2: Saturated Region
P < p
b
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Fetkovichs Method
Pressure Function Concept
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Fetkovichs Method
In the application of the straight-line pressure
function, there are three cases that must be
considered:
Case 1:
Case 2:
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Fetkovichs Method
Case 1:
The case of a well producing from an
undersaturated oil reservoir where
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Fetkovichs Method
Case 2:
Both reservoir pressure and bottom-hole flowing
pressure are below the bubble-point pressure.
: performance coefficient C
but
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Advantages over vertical wells:
Large volume of the reservoir can be drained by each horizontal well.
Higher productions from thin pay zones.
Horizontal wells minimize water and gas zoning problems.
In high permeability reservoirs, where near-wellbore gas velocities are
high in vertical wells, horizontal wells can be used to reduce near-
wellbore velocities and turbulence.
In secondary and enhanced oil recovery applications, long horizontal
injection wells provide higher injectivity rates.
The length of the horizontal well can provide contact with multiple
fractures and greatly improve productivity.
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Horizontal wells production features:
Actual production mechanism and reservoir flow regimes around
the horizontal well are more complicated.
Flow geometry is a combination of linear and radial flow.
Well may behave in a manner similar to that of a well that has
been extensively fractured.
It has been reported that the shape of measured IPRs for
horizontal wells is similar to those predicted by the Vogel or
Fetkovich methods
Productivity gain from drilling 1,500 ft long horizontal wells is two
to four times that of vertical wells.
A horizontal well can be looked up as a number of vertical wells
drilling next to each other and completed in a limited pay zone
thickness.
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Horizontal well drainage area
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Calculating the drainage area of a horizontal
well (Joshis Methods)
Method I:
Drainage area represented by two half circles of
radius b (equivalent to a radius of a well r
ev
) at
each end and a rectangle, of dimensions L (2b), in
the centre.
Drainage area given by:
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Calculating the drainage area of a horizontal well
(Joshis Methods)
Method II:
Assumed that the horizontal well drainage area is an
ellipse and given by:
half major
axis of an ellipse
Both methods give different values for the drainage area A and suggested
assigning the average value for the drainage of the horizontal well
Drainage radius of the horizontal well
Development Phase
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Inflow performance calculations for horizontal
wells
Flowing conditions:
Steady-state single-phase flow
Pseudo-steady state two-phase flow
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Horizontal Well Productivity under Steady-State Flow
The steady state solutions requires that the pressure at
any point in the reservoir does not change with time.
Several methods are designed to predict the productivity
index from the fluid and reservoir properties:
Borisovs Method
The Giger-Reiss-Jourdan Method
Joshis Method
The Renard-Dupuy Method
Development Phase
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Gas Well Performance
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Introduction
Flow Regime and
conditions of flow in reservoir
Proper solution of
Darcys equation
Inflow Performance Relationship
Relationship between the inflow gas rate
and the sand-face pressure or flowing
bottom-hole pressure
Flow capacity of a gas well
Flow capacity of a Gas Well:
Determination Process
Development Phase
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Introduction
Gas Well
Shut In
Unsteady-state
behaviour
Pressure drops at
the drainage boundary
of the well
Short transition
period
Pseudo-steady state
flow condition
Normalisation of flow of a Gas Well, right after production has been initiated
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Vertical Gas Well Performance
Exact solution to the differential form of Darcys
equation for compressible fluids under the
pseudo-steady-state flow condition:
Development Phase
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Productivity index (J) for a gas well:
Absolute open flow potential (AOF)
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Steady-state gas well flow
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Integral Form
Exact solution to the differential form of Darcys equation for
compressible fluids under the pseudosteady-state flow
condition can also be written as:
1
g g g
p
z B
| | | |
| |
| |
\ . \ .
:
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Gas PVT data
Area below the curve between
the appropriated pressures
Development Phase
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Region III: High-Pressure Region
Pressure functions are nearly constants, therefore:
Gas viscosity and formation volume factor should
be evaluated at the average pressure:
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Region II: Intermediate-Pressure Region
When the bottom-hole flowing pressure and
average reservoir pressure are both between
2000 and 3000 psi, the pseudo-pressure gas
pressure approach should be used to calculate
the gas flow rate:
Development Phase
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Region I: Low-Pressure Region
At low pressure, usually less than 2000 psi, pressure
functions
and exhibit a linear relationship with pressure.
Golan and Whitson (1986) indicated that the product
is essentially the same when evaluating any
pressure below 2000 psi.
Pressure-squared approximation method
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All presented before has been based on the assumption that
laminar (viscous) flow conditions are observed during the gas
flow.
During radial flow, flow velocity increases as the wellbore is
approached.
Increase of the gas velocity might cause the development of a
turbulent flow around the wellbore.
If turbulent flow does exist, it causes an additional pressure
drop similar to that caused by the mechanical skin effect.
The semisteady-state flow equation for compressible fluids can
be modified for the additional pressure drop due to turbulent
flow by including the rate-dependent skin factor (DQ
g
)
Development Phase
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First Form: Pressure-Squared Approximation Form
Inertial or turbulent flow (D)
Non-Darcy flow coefficient (F)
( )
10 1.47 0.53
1.88 10 k | |

=
( )
10 1.47 0.53
1.88 10 k | |

=
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Second Form: Pressure Approximation Form
Third Form: Real Gas Potential (Pseudo pressure) Form
Development Phase
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Total System Analysis
Pratap Thimaiah
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Content
Introduction
Tubing Size Selection
Flowline Size Effect
Effect of Stimulation
Development Phase
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Introduction
General procedure for applying total system or
nodal analysis to a producing well.
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Introduction
The system analysis procedure requires first
selecting a node and calculating the node
pressure, starting at the fixed or constant
pressure existing in the system.
Fixed pressure are usually p
reserv_avg
and either
p
wh
or p
sep
The node may be selected at any point in the
system, and the most commonly selected
points are:
Development Phase
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Introduction
Location of various nodes
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Introduction
The expressions for the flow into the node and
for the flow out of the node can be expressed
as:
Inflow:
Outflow:
Development Phase
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Introduction
In most cases:
The two criteria that must be met are:
Flow into the node equals flow out of the node
Only one pressure can exist at the node for a
given flow rate
Finding the flow rate and pressure that satisfies
the previous requirements can be accomplished
graphically by plotting node pressure versus
flow rate.
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Introduction
The intersection of the inflow and outflow curves occurs
at the rate that satisfies the requirement that the inflow
rate equals the outflow rate.
This rate will be the producing capacity for the system for
a particular set of components.
To investigate the effect of changes in any of the
components on the producing capacity, new inflow or
outflow curves can be generated for each change.
If a change is made in an inflow or upstream components
only, the outflow curve will not change, and therefore will
not require re-calculation.
Development Phase
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Introduction
If the only change made is in a downstream
component, the inflow will remain un-changed.
This allows isolation of the effect of a change in
any component on the total system capacity.
This method can be used for determining if
existing systems are performing properly and
also designing new systems.
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Tubing String is one of the most important components
in the production system.
It can represent as much as 80 percent of total
pressure loss in an oil well.
A common problem in well completions design is to select
a tubing size based on totally irrelevant criteria, such as:
What size tubing is on the pipe rack
What size has been installed in the past
Tubing size selection should be made before the well is
drilled, because tubing size dictates the casing size which
dictates the hole size.
Development Phase
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Selecting the tubing size prior drilling a well is not
possible in exploratory wells.
Once the first well has been drilled, enough data will be
available to plan other wells in the field.
Selection can also be made using a possible range of
expected conditions reservoir characteristics and then
refined as more data become available.
There is an optimum tubing size for any well system.
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Tubing too small will restrict the production
rate because of excessive friction loss.
Tubing too large will cause a well to load up
with liquids and die.
A common problem that occurs in completing
large capacity wells is to install very large
tubing to be safe, which often results in a
decreased flowing life for the wells are reservoir
pressure declines and the wells begin to load.
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To isolate the effect of tubing size, the wellhead pressure
is considered constant in the particular case of study.
This might be the case for a short flow line discharging
into a fixed separator pressure.
The node selected in this case will corresponds to Node 6
as picture previously shown.
The expressions for inflow and outflow are:
Inflow:
Outflow:
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Sometimes, it is necessary to run a small string of tubing in the
bottom section of a well if the well is completed with a liner.
If the small tubing were run from the surface the producing
capacity would be too low, especially if the well is deep.
In such wells it is often advantageous to run larger tubing from the
surface to the top of the liner (tapered tubing string)
The effect of the size of the upper string on producing capacity
can be conveniently determined by selecting the point at which
the tubing changes size as the node.
The inflow will then include the reservoir and the lower section of
the tubing.
The outflow will include the flowline and the upper section of
tubing.
Development Phase
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Tampered strings
Effect of upper string size
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Tubing performance and gradient curves
Pressure drop required to lift a fluid through the production tubing at a
given flow rate is one of the main factors determining the deliverability
of a well.
Having fixed either the wellhead or bottom-hole flowing pressure given
the rates of oil, gas, and water, pressure drop along the production
tubing can be calculated by charts or correlations, and the resulting
flowing pressure at the other end of the tubing can be determined.
With a wellhead pressure specified, a gradient curve can be used to
determine wellbore flowing pressure at several different oil rates.
Resulting relationship between flowing pressure and oil rate is called
tubing performance relation (TPR); valid for the specified wellhead
pressure.
Development Phase
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Pressure drop in tubing due to single-phase fluid (gas and highly
undersaturated oil wells) can be calculated by conventional pipe flow
equations.
However, a small quantity of free gas mixed with oil and/or water
create considerably more complicated flow conditions which require
empirical correlations.
For vertical flow of dry gas (Katz):
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The equation for vertical flow of dry gas (Katz) can only be
used for dry gas.
If water or condensate is produced as an entrained liquid
phase (GOR greater than 7,000 scf/STB), then gas velocity
must generally exceed 18 to 20 ft/s in order to be able to
use the above equation.
At lower velocities it has been observed that liquid
accumulates, thereby increasing pressure loss considerably
above that calculated from the above equation.
If velocity decreases to 10 to 12 ft/s, then the well will
probably die.
Development Phase
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Pressure elements constituting the total
pressure at the bottom of the tubing:
Backpressure exerted at the surface from the
choke and wellhead assembly (wellhead
pressure)
Hydrostatic pressure due to gravity and the
elevation change between the wellhead and the
intake to the tubing
Friction losses, which include irreversible
pressure loses due to viscous drag and slippage.
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Components of pressure loss in the tubing
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In the case of single-phase liquid, density is assumed
constant and the hydrostatic pressure gradient (pressure
drop per unit length) is a constant.
Friction loss is rate-dependant, characterized by two flow
regimes (laminar and turbulent)
The rate dependence of friction-related pressure loss differs
with the flow regime:
At low rates the flow is laminar and the pressure gradient
changes linearly with rate or flow velocity
At high rates the flow is turbulent and the pressure gradient
increases more than linearly with increasing flow rate.
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In gas wells, there is interdependence between flow
rate, flow velocity, density, and pressure.
Increasing gas rates results in increasing total
pressure loss.
In multiphase mixtures, friction related and
hydrostatic-pressure losses vary with rate in a much
more complicated manner than for gas.
Increasing rate may change the governing pressure
loss mechanism from predominantly gravitational to
predominantly friction.
Development Phase
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Pressure Traverse Curves
The pressure traverse curve is a pressure depth profile.
For a given flow rate, wellhead pressure, and tubing size,
there is a particular pressure distribution along the tubing,
starting its traverse at the wellhead pressure and increasing
downward toward the intake to the tubing.
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The pressure traverse curve (pressure depth
profile)
Sometimes it is advantageous (when there is not
computer applications available) to construct a
set of pressure traverse curves for hypothetical
values of variables such as q
L
, GLR, d, f
w
(water
cut), etc.
These curves can be used to estimate pressure
drop that would occur in a well producing under
similar conditions.
Development Phase
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Preparation of pressure traverse curve
To prepare a curve, the following parameters are selected:
Pipe inside diameter, d
Liquid flow rate, q
L
Water fraction, f
w
Average flowing temperature, T
Oil, gas, and water gravities
A pressure traverse is calculated for several values of GLR, starting
at zero pressure, zero well depth.
The maximum value of GLR used is the one that will give the
minimum pressure gradient for the chosen conditions.
Figures will be prepared for the full range of pipe sizes, liqui d rates,
and water fractions expected to occur in the field under
consideration.
The average flowing temperature and fluid properties can be
selected from fluid samples taken in the field.
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In single-phase liquid, both gravitational and friction
pressure gradients are constant along the tubing and
therefore the pressure traverse is linear with depth.
In gas, it is very nearly even though the friction and
hydrostatic pressure gradients vary significantly with
depth.
In multiphase mixtures there is general trend of
increasing pressure gradient with depth. Unfortunately,
we do not have analytical equations or simple procedures
for calculating the pressure traverse of multiphase
mixtures.
Using correlations based on experimental data limits the
application to producing wells to the conditions of rate,
geometry, GOR, and fluid properties used in the
experimental study.
Development Phase
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Vertical flowing pressure traverses
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Procedure for estimating an unknown pressure
1. Select the chart that most closely corresponds
to the known conditions of tubing ID, liquid
production rate, and water fraction.
2. Enter the pressure axis at the known pressure.
Proceed vertically from this pressure to the
intersection of the appropriate GLR curve.
Proceed horizontally to the left to the
intersection of the depth axis. This locates the
number on the depth axis which represents the
equivalent depth of which the known pressure
exists, i.e. either the wellhead or bottom-hole.
Development Phase
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Procedure for estimating an unknown pressure
3. If the known pressure is the wellhead pressure, add
the actual well depth to the equivalent depth located
in step 2. This represents the axis depth which is
equivalent to the actual well depth. If the known
pressure is bottom-hole pressure, subtract the actual
well depth from the number found in step 2. This
gives the axis depth that is equivalent to the actual
wellhead pressure.
4. From the point located in step 3, proceed horizontally
to the right to the intersection of the same GLR line.
From this point proceed vertically upward to the
pressure axis. Read the unknown pressure.
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The use of a gradient curve to determine
flowing bottom-hole pressure and flowing
wellhead pressure in an oil well.
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Remarks about the use of gradient curves:
1. The vertical axis represents distance travelled
vertically from a given point where the pressure is
known. From a given point with known pressure it is
possible to determine the pressure at any other point
by moving along the gradient curve for a distance
corresponding to the distance between the two
points. Alternatively, if the pressure at the second
point is known, it is possible to determine which
distance corresponds to the pressure difference
between the two points by moving along the gradient
curve an interval corresponding to the pressure
change between the two points.
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2. The gradient dp/dH decreases with increasing
gas/liquid ratio (GLR) until a minimum gradient
is reached. Thereafter the trend reverses and
dp/dH increases with increasing gas/liquid ratio.
The physical reason for this is a change in the
predominant pressure loss mechanism caused
by an increasing gas/liquid ratio.
3. For convenience, the high-GLR gradient curves
are shifted down on the depth scale to avoid
intersection with lower-GLR curves.
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4. If production is water-free, then gas/liquid ratio,
GLR equals gas/oil ratio, GOR. If water/oil ratio,
WOR, is reported, then the relation between
GLR and GOR is GLR=GOR/(1+WOR), or
F
gl
=R/(1+F
wo
).
Where F
gL
is gas/liquid ratio (GLR), F
wo
is
water/oil ratio (WOR), and R is gas/oil ratio
(GOR)
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Pressure Traverse Curves to construct the tubing performance
Constructing the tubing performance curve from the pressure traverse
curves for an oil well producing through tubing with a given diameter
and length at a specific gas/liquid ratio and wellhead pressure:
The wellhead pressure is specified as a constant
Selecting a gradient curve with the specified GLR, the point where
pressure equals wellhead pressure is found. This point corresponds
to zero depth.
Moving down vertically a distance equal to the tubing length and
then horizontally until the same GLR curve is reached, the bottom-
hole pressure is read on the x-axis scale. This pressure is the
intake flowing pressure for the rate corresponding to the gradient
curve chosen.
Similarly intake pressures are determined for several other rates.
The rate-intake pressure points are then plotted to form the tubing
performance curve.
Development Phase
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Pressure Traverse Curves to construct the
tubing performance
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If a well is producing into a flowline, the
wellhead pressure is equal to the sum of the
separator pressure and the pressure drop in
the flowline, assuming there is no wellhead
choke.
A common cause of low producing capacity in
many wells, especially for wells with long
flowlines, is the excessive flowline pressure
drop.
Development Phase
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Many operators have a tendency to use any
size pipe that is convenient or, in some cases,
tie two or more wells into a common, small
flowline.
This can be very detrimental, specially for gas
lifted wells, because the flowline pressure drop
increases as the gas rate increases.
In order to isolate the effect of flowline size it is
usually recommended to use Node 3, or
sometimes Node 6.
Abalt Solutions
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The effect of reducing the separator pressure is
small compared to the effect of increasing
flowline size.
This results from the fact that as average
pressure in the flowline is decreased in a
constant area pipe, the fluid must move faster
because expansion.
This creates more frictional pressure drop.
This may not apply if the flowline is in a hilly
terrain area, since the increased velocity may
decrease the pressure drop caused by the hills.
Development Phase
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Effect of Stimulation
The systems analysis approach can be used to estimate the
improvement in well capacity due to fracturing or acidizing.
Even though the reservoir capacity may be increased
considerably by stimulation; in some cases the wells actual
producing capacity increase may be small due to restrictions in
the outflow.
Before a decision is made on what steps to take to increase the
producing capacity, the exact cause of the low productivity
should be determined.
This can be accomplish only through a total system
analysis.
Large sums of money are often wasted on workover because
the wrong component of the well system is changed.

Sonatrach's - Well Performance

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Development Phase

September October 2005

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