Introduction to Nuclear Physics Structure of Matter

 Molecules: grouping of atoms

Structure of Matter  Atoms:
Large sparse outer cloud: electron shells - chemistry
Basic Nuclear Phenomenology
Nuclear Stability and Decay

Ruth E. Schmitz, PhD - rschmitz@u.washington.edu, 543-3316

Course Website with slides, practice questions/answers:
http://depts.washington.edu/uwmip/ Small dense core: nucleus - nuclear physics
} Atomic
MODEL

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Nuclear Model Basic Constituents of Matter

 Nucleons
We can’t see the nucleus! » Constituents of the nucleus:
- Protons (charge +1)
- Neutrons (charge 0)
Treat as black box: typically probe it with particles and/or » Held together by the strong nuclear force
gamma rays - see what comes out and build a model  Photons
Gamma rays » Transmit the electromagnetic force
» Massless
» A Gamma-ray is a photon produced in a nuclear reaction or decay
p,n,d particles  Electrons, Positrons (Antielectrons)
» Charge -1, +1
» Interact via the electromagnetic and weak forces but not the strong
Heat, etc nuclear force
» Nuclear β radiation consists of electrons (β-) or positrons (β+)
 ν, ν (Neutrinos, Antineutrinos)
Model: mathematical description that allows to

€
» approx. massless
calculate observed phenomena and to visualize » weak interaction only
the underlying processes.
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Classification of Atoms Examples of Atom/Nucleus Classification

Atom =  Notation:
Z electrons orbiting a nucleus Element (symbol X) with Z protons, N neutrons, A mass number:
with Z protons and N neutrons
⇒ A
Z XN, often only AZX or AX (equivalent to X-A)
» Nucleus: A nucleons (A = N + Z)
Example: Fluorine: symbol F, atomic number 9,
– Z protons -- 10 -13 cm, 1.7 x 10-24 g (938 MeV/c 2)
isotope with 18 nucleons (-- neutron number?)
– N neutrons -- 10 -13 cm, 1.7 x 10 -24 g (940 MeV/c 2) 18 18 18F
⇒ 9F9 , 9F , , or F-18
Z = Atomic Number = Number of Protons
N = Neutron Number  Nuclides:
A = N + Z = Mass Number Nuclear species of atoms uniquely identified by number of protons,
» Atomic Size: 10-8-10 -7 cm = 10-10-10 -9 m number of neutrons, and energy content of the nucleus.
» Nuclear Size: ~ 10-13 cm = 10-15 m = 1 fm (Fermi) Groups that share properties:
» Atomic Mass: A atomic mass units (amu) Isotopes - nuclides with the same proton (atomic) number, Z
1 amu ~ 1.66 x 10 -24 g (~ 931.5 MeV/c 2 ) ≡ 1/12 of the mass of C-12 Isotones - nuclides with the same neutron number, N
Isobars - nuclides with the same mass number, A
» Electron Mass: Me = m0 = 9.1 x 10-28 g (0.511 MeV/c 2)
Isomers - nuclides with the same A and Z, but different energy

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

 Chart of the Nuclides Forces in the nucleus
 Analogous to the Periodic Table of the elements Coulomb force,
Force on positively FC -> infinity as r -> 0 (repulsive)
 Rows of constant Z (proton number): Isotopes (same chemical properties) charged particle Increases with more protons
Example: C-12 and C-14: Z=6
FC
 Columns of constant N: Isotones
131 132
N 7 8 9
Example: 53I (N=78) and 54Xe (N=78) Z
15O 16O 17O 0
 Isobars lie on diagonals of Distance from
8 center of nucleus
constant mass number A
Example: 99Tc and 99 Mo 14N 15N 16N
FNuc
7 Nuclear strong force,
 Isomers are the same entry FNuc is short range (attractive)
with different energy levels 6 13C 14C 15C
but VERY strong
Example: 99mTc and 99Tc Increases with more nucleons

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Factors in Nuclear Stability Full Chart of the Nuclides

Line of N=Z
 Nuclear stability represents a balance between: “Band of Stability”
» Nuclear “strong force” (basically attractive)
stable
» Electrostatic interaction (Coulomb force) between protons
(repulsive)
» Pauli exclusion principle
» Residual interactions (“pairing force”, etc.)

 Stability strongly favors N approximately equal to (but Z

slightly larger than) Z. This results in the “band of stability”
in the Chart of the Nuclides. N

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Phenomenology of Stability Nuclear Binding and Stability

 Protons and neutrons are more stable in a nucleus than free.
 Stability strongly favors nuclides with even numbers of
The binding energy is the amount by which the nucleus’ energy
protons and/or neutrons
(i.e. mass) is reduced w.r.t. the combined energy (i.e. mass) of
» ~50% are Even-Even the nucleons.
» ~25% are Odd-even
 Example: N-14 atom - Measured mass of N-14 = 14.0037
» ~25% are Even-Odd
mass of 7 protons = 7 * (1.00727 amu) = 7.05089 amu
» Only 4 out of 266 stable nuclides are Odd-Odd! The heaviest
stable Odd-Odd nuclide is 14N. mass of 7 neutrons = 7 * (1.00866 amu) = 7.06062 amu
mass of 7 electrons = 7 * (0.00055 amu) = 0.00385 amu
 “Magic Numbers” -- analogous to closed atomic shells
mass of component particles of N-14 = 14.11536 amu
» Result in many stable isotopes or isotones
» Magic nuclei are particularly stable and more “inert” Binding energy is mass difference: Ebind = 0.11229 amu = 104.5
» Magic #’s: 2,8,20,28,50,82,126 MeV

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

 Fundamental Concepts Raphex Questions
 Raphex 2003, G 16. In heavy nuclei such as 235U:
 Total energy = E = mc 2 A. There are more protons than neutrons.
B. Protons and neutrons are equal in number.
 Rest energy = Eo = m oc2 C. There are more neutrons than protons.
D. Cannot tell from information given .
⇒ C. With higher mass number, more neutrons needed to balance the attraction
 Classic kinetic energy = 1/2(mv 2) of all masses (nucleons) with the repulsion between positively charged protons.

 Classic momentum = P = mv  Raphex 2003, G12. A 10MeV _____ travels at the greatest
speed in a vacuum.
A. Alpha particle
 Binding energy per nucleon = Eb (total Binding E)/A B. Neutron
C. Proton
D. Electron
⇒ D. 10MeV is the kinetic energy of the particle. The lightest one travels
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006
fastest. Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 , 2006 th

More Raphex Questions Nuclear Decay Occurs…

• Raphex 2001, G 15. The number of neutrons in a U-238 atom (Z=92) is: …when a nucleus is unstable
A. 330
B. 238
C. 146  An unstable nucleus metamorphoses (“decays”) into a more
D. 92 stable nucleus
E. Cannot tell from information given.
⇒ C. Neutron Number N = A - Z = 146
 Difference in energy levels ==>
• Raphex 2000, G15. Elements which have the same Z but different A are called: mass and kinetic energy of the decay products
A. Isotopes
B. Isomers  Mass is converted into energy ==> radiation
C. Isotones
D. Isobars E = mc2
⇒ Isotopes have the same number of protons (atomic number, Z)
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Nuclear (Radioactive) Decays Alpha Decay

 Fission -- only very heavy (high Z) elements (U, Pu, etc.)
 Spontaneous emission of an α particle (2p 2n = He-4
spontaneously fission. Nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei.
nucleus)
 Alpha decay -- like very asymmetric fission, usually occurs in  Only occurs with heavy nuclides (A>150)
heavy elements “above” the valley of stability. Nucleus emits an  [often followed by gamma and characteristic x-ray emission]
alpha particle: the same as a He nucleus, (2p 2n).  Emitted with discrete energy (nuclide-dependent, 2-10 MeV)
 Not used in medical imaging
 Beta decay -- element X transforms into neighbor element X’.
Nucleus converts a neutron to a proton or vice versa and emits a beta
particle (electron): n -> p + e - + ν. - Can also occur as Electron Capture A X A-4 4 He +2
Z → Z-2 Y + 2 + transition energy

 Gamma decay -- “excited” nucleus reduces its excitation

Example: 220 216 4 +2
energy without changing nuclear species (N, Z). Nucleus emits 86Rn → 84Po + 2He + 6.4 MeV transition energy
a gamma ray (electromagnetic quantum: the photon). - Can also occur
as Internal Conversion Electron.
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006
 Beta (β) Decay Beta (β) Decay - II
Basis:
 A free neutron decays:  Free neutron decay: n ⇒ p + e− + ν
neutron ==> proton + electron + antineutrino
Beta (β-) emission: A A
 Half-life (T 1/2) = 10.5 minutes ( for a free (unbound) neutron) 
Z XN ⇒ Z +1 N-1 Y
 The released energy is split between 3 decay products, so n ⇒ p + e_ + ν
each has a spectrum of possible energies up to the max  Positron (β+) emission: p ⇒ n + e+ + ν
 This basic process (and its inverse) forms the basis of all β
decay
A A
Electrone - Neutron
Proton
Z X N ⇒ Z-1YN +1
(beta,
negatron)
 Electron (e -) capture: p + e− ⇒ n + ν
Orbital electron captured, characteristic x-ray emission follows
Anti-neutrino ν
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Gamma Decay (Isomeric Transition) Decay in the Chart of the Nuclides

 Nucleus in excited state with lower-lying nuclear energy Beta (β-) decay:
Nuclear Decay Modes
levels open (usually formed as product daughter of other A A
decay) Z+1
- Z+1 Z+1 Z X N ⇒ Z+1YN-1
 Excited state marked by * (e.g. 99*Tc) βN-1 N N+1 Positron (β+) decay:
 Gamma ray (high-energy photon) emitted during transition A A
to stable state
Z Z Z Z XN ⇒ Y
Z-1 N+1
Z N-1 N N+1
 Usually occurs instantaneously
Alpha (α) decay:
 Some excited states persist longer (10 -12 sec - 600 years!) Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
A A-4
 Metastable or isomeric state (e.g. 99mTc, ) N-1 N N+1+
β Z XN ⇒ Y
Z-2 N-2

 Can also emit internal conversion electron - all energy is Z-2

transferred to inner shell electron, which is ejected, αN-2 Gamma (γ) decay:
A*(m) A
characteristic x-rays follow to fill the opening
Z XN ⇒ Z XN
N
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Energy Level Diagram: Positron decay Energy Level Diagram

Nuclear Medicine Example: 99m

43Tc
18
9F

99
Beta+ 97% 42Mo
Why the vertical line?
β- decay: 42Mo 99 -> 43Tc
99m + e-
EC 3%
82%

P mass = 1.67252 x 10 -27 kg

18 N mass = 1.67482 x 10 -27 kg 43Tc
99m 0.143
8O Electron shell transition
E mass = 0.0009 x 10 -27 kg
0.141
Neutrino mass = 0
γ decay
141 keV γ T1/2 = 6 hours

So, part of Energy -> mass 0.0

Ground state
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006
 Decay Terms Decay Terms - II
 Activity, A  Half-life, T 1/2
• Number of radioactive decays per unit time (t) - or » Time after which half of the initially present nuclei (N 0) will have
• Change in number of radioactive nuclei present: A = -dN/dt decayed
• Depends on number of nuclei present. During decay of a fixed initial number » After n half-lives, N = N 0 × (1/2) n nuclei will be left
of nuclei, A will decrease.
• Measured in Becquerel (Bq): » Also characteristic of nuclide, constant in time
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second (dps) » Related to decay constant, λ, by natural log of 2:
traditionally in Curies (Ci): λ = ln 2 / T1/2 = 0.693 / T 1/2
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq (1mCi = 37 MBq)
Radionuclide T1/2 λ
 Decay Constant, λ
Fluorine 18 110 min 0.0063 min -1
• Fraction of nuclei that will decay per unit time: λ = (−dN/dt) / N = A / N
• Related to activity: A = λ N Examples: Technetium 99m 6.2 hr 0.1152 hr -1
• Constant in time, characteristic of each nuclide Iodine 123 13.3 hr 0.0522 hr -1
• Example: Tc-99m has λ = 0.1151 hr -1, i.e. 11.5% decay per hour
Molybdenum 99 2.75 d 0.2522 d -1
Mo-99 has λ = 0.252 day-1, i.e. 25.2% decay per day
Iodine 131 8.02 d 0.0864 d -1
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Fundamental Decay Equation Raphex Questions

Raphex 2003 G 28. The following radioactive transformation

 Nt/A t: Number of nuclei / activity represents ____ .
Nt = N 0 e-λt= N0 e-t log e(2)/T 1/2 present after time t A X → A
Z Z-1Y + γ + ν
 τ: average lifetime
A. Alpha
 λ: decay constant
At = A 0 e-λt= A 0 e-t log e(2)/T 1/2 B. Beta minus
 T1/2 : half-life
C. Beta plus
D. Electron capture
Example: Patient injected with 10 mCi F-18 FDG, scan started E. Isomeric transition
60 min later. How much activity is present in the scan?
⇒ A(60min) = A 0 × e -λt = 10mCi × e-(60min*0.0063/min) Answer: D - As Z decreases by 1, it must be either beta plus or
= 10 mCi × 0.685 = 6.85 mCi electron capture. However, no positron is created, so beta plus is
ruled out.
Nuclear decay is statistical process => can only predict averages!

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

More Raphex Questions Extra: Models of the Nucleus

Raphex 2002 G 23-30. Match the mode of decay to the description
below:  Liquid Drop model
A. Beta minus
B. Beta plus Answers:  Shell model
C. Alpha G 23: C  Optical model
D. Isomeric G 24: A
G 25: B  Collective model (includes ‘modern’ notions of
G23. Ra-226 to Rn-222 G 27: D string vibration states, etc).
G24. Z increases by 1 G 28: A
G25. Z decreases by 1 G 29: D
G27. A and Z remain constant G 30: B ⇒ The one of interest to Nuclear Medicine is the
G28. Tritium (H-3) to Helium (He-3) Shell model
G29. Tc-99m to Tc-99 ⇒ It need to explain nuclear stability and decay
G30. Electron capture can be a competing mode of decay to this.
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006
 Shell model Consider 24Mg
 Similar to the electron shell model in atoms
n -> p + e- + v
=> “Magic numbers” 24Na
 Complicated by two kinds of nucleons (proton, neutron) Z=11
24Mg

4.12
15N
Free

1.36
Bound
24Mg
Ground
Z=12
Ground state
state Energy
Energy
p n p n
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

Where does the energy go? 24 Na to 24Mg

 When the nucleon changes levels (but not species), the  Decay occurs because there is a proton level open at a
energy is usually emitted as a gamma ray (or internal lower energy than an occupied neutron level
conversion electron).

24Na 24Na

2.76 MeV gamma ray

4.12

1.36 MeV gamma ray n -> p + e - + v

1.36

Beta decay
24Mg
p n

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

18 F to 18O

 Decay occurs because there is a neutron level open at a

lower energy than an occupied proton level

Lets recap a few points

p -> n + e + + v

Positron decay

p n

Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006 Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006

 Nuclear Decay Occurs...
…when a nucleus is unstable (lower open energy
levels)
 An unstable nucleus metamorphoses (“decays”) into a more
stable (more tightly bound) nucleus
 Difference in binding energy ==>
mass and kinetic energy of the decay products
 Mass is converted into energy ==> radiation
E = mc2
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006
What’s next
Next week we will take a look at
Radiation detection and
measurements
Dr. Lawrence MacDonald
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006
Nuclear Decay Characteristics
 Type of decay (fission, alpha, beta, electron capture, etc.)
 Decay constant (transformation rate)
» N = N 0e-tλ Half-life, T 1/2 = 0.693 / λ
 Radiation type (β+, β-, α, fission fragments, etc.)
 Emission energy -- if continuum, then express as
maximum energy or mean (average) energy
 Associated gamma (γ) or x rays
 “Daughter nucleus”
» is it stable?
» Produced in “ground state” or “excited state”?
» With what probabilities (“branching ratios”)?
Ruth E. Schmitz, May 25 th , 2006