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C H A P T E R T W E N T Y-F O U R

N S N S

E LECTRICITY

significant portion of energy used on a daily basis is in the form of electricity, a secondary energy source. The bulk of electricity production occurs in large central power plants using fuel as the primary energy source. Switchgears and transformers control the delivery of the electricity from the central power plants to the consumers through a network of transmission lines, which interconnect nearly every utility service territory. While still a minority contributor, a growing percentage of the total electricity generated in this country comes from small and large independent power producers and cogenerators. This chapter presents basic electricity definitions and theory that are necessary for understanding the various technologies and applications presented throughout this section.

Electromotive force (EMF) is the force that causes current to flow within a conductor. This force, which can be considered electric pressure, is commonly referred to as electric potential. Volt (V) is the unit of measure of EMF. Voltage is the potential between two charges, or two points in a circuit, or the electrical pressure in the electric system. The greater the voltage (pressure), the greater the flow. Watt (W) is the common measurement of electrical power. One horsepower (hp) of mechanical work is equal to 745.7 W of electric power. Electric power, measured in watts, is the product of volts times amperes (rate of motion). For single-phase circuits, the relationship is expressed as: P = EI cos (24-1)

DEFINITIONS
Electric current (or conventional current) is the movement of free electrons within an electrical conductor caused by a difference of electric potential (voltage) between the ends of the conductor. When charges flow, they can be positive, negative, or both. It is a convention to choose the direction of current to be in the direction of flow of positive charges. However, in a conductor, such as copper, the current is due to the motion of the negatively charged electrons. Therefore, with an ordinary conductor, such as copper wire, it is customary to refer to the direction of current as being opposite the flow of electrons. However, this convention is not always used. In some cases, current is considered to be in the direction of electron flow. The direction of the flow of electric current (motion of positive charges) is always from positive to negative, while the physical motion of electrons (negative charges) is from negative to positive. Ampere (I), or amp, is the unit of measure of electric current. It is the quantity of 6.24 x 1018 electrons flowing past a point per second. Ampacity is the current-carrying capacity of conductors. The Coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in one second by a current of one ampere. Sources such as the National Electrical Code provide tables indicating the maximum allowable current for any given size conductor and insulation system.

Where: P = Power in watts E = EMF in volts I = Current flow in amperes cos = Power factor Conductor is any material, such as silver, copper, or aluminum, that has a very low resistance to the flow of electric current. It can refer to a wire, coil, cable, bus bar, or any other object used to carry electric current. Circuit is a conductor or a series of conductors through which an electric current flows. A circuit may have one or more electric components, known as circuit elements. Electric current will only flow in a closed or continuous circuit, on a continuous, non-interrupted path back to the source. Cycle is the complete pattern of a single wave form of alternating current (see Figure 24-5). Frequency is the number of cycles per second, specified in Hertz (Hz), where one Hz equals one cycle per second. The most typical frequency for alternating current in the United States is 60 Hz, although many other countries use 50 Hz. Harmonics are wave forms (in both voltage and current) with frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental wave (60 Hz or 50 Hz). Harmonic distortion is a measure of distortion caused by devices such as inverters,

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

rectifiers, transformers, and arc furnaces that distort the sinusoidal wave form, a wave in the form of a sine wave. A sine wave, which is shown in Figure 24-5, is a wave form that represents periodic oscillations. Ohm () is the unit of measure of the resistance to flow of electric current in a circuit. One ohm is the value of resistance through which a potential difference of 1 volt will maintain a current flow of 1 ampere. Ohms law states that voltage in a circuit is equal to the current flow times the resistance in the circuit: E = IR Where: E = EMF in volts I = Current in amperes R = Resistance in ohms Figure 24-1 illustrates relationships developed using Ohms law. Included are relationships between power in watts, current flow in amps, electric potential in volts, and resistance in ohms. (24-2)

magnetic lines of force (or flux). When an electric current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field surrounds the conductor. This is electromagnetism. When a conductor is wound into a coil, the field around each turn in the coil interacts with the other turns. The net result is a large number of long parallel lines of flux running down the axis of the coil and creating a large field around the coil. Such a coil is known as an electromagnet. As shown graphically in Figure 24-2, lines of force, or magnetic flux, are considered to leave the magnets north (N) pole, travel externally, and re-enter the magnet at its south (S) pole.

W A

S TT

I R EI E I E W
2

E R

E R I E

AM

PS

W E

Fig. 24-2 Magnetic Flux.

W R W 2 I

W R WR
LT S

According to Faradays Laws, when a conductor (or coil) is moved through a magnetic field, a current is produced in the conductor. This current is said to be induced. Thus, the operative principle for electric motor, generator, and transformer action is called electromagnetic induction.
AND ALTERNATING CURRENT There are two broad classifications of electric power: direct current and alternating current. The main difference is in the flow of current: Direct current (dc) is an electric current that flows in one direction only. Flow can either be steady, as shown in Figure 24-3, or variable, as shown in Figure 24-4. Figure 24-3 shows a dc current that is very tightly controlled at a constant rate. Figure 24-4 shows a more typical dc current, one that exhibits some fluctuation. Alternating current (ac) is an electric current that flows first in one direction for a period of time, and then in the reverse direction for a period of time. It is also constantly changing in magnitude. Ac current builds from zero to a maximum in the positive direction, reduces back to zero, then builds to a maximum in the negative

DIRECT

IR

W I

Fig. 24-1 Ohms Law Relationships.

Reactance is the measure (in ohms) of opposition to the flow of alternating current. Capacitive reactance is the opposition offered by capacitors and inductive reactance is the opposition offered by an inductive load. Magnetism concerns magnetic fields and their effects on materials. A magnet establishes a field around itself that can be graphically represented by directed lines, i.e.,

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VO

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Fig. 24-3 Pure dc.

Fig. 24-4 General dc.

direction and again reduces to zero. As shown graphically in Figure 24-5, plotted, the shape of ac flow is that of a wave. The common ac wave shape is the sine wave. The complete pattern of zero to maximum positive, to zero, down to maximum negative and back to zero is termed a cycle. The time needed to complete one cycle is termed the period of the wave.
I

The three basic circuit elements, or types of load, that compose an ac electric circuit are: resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Resistance consumes real power, while inductors and capacitors are reactive elements that only store and discharge energy. Resistance (R) in a circuit is any element that consumes real power in the form of heat. R, measured in , is the friction of the electrons flowing in a conductor. It is a physical property of the conductor wire used in a distribution system and results in a loss of power. Resistance causes a voltage drop in conductors and power-using devices. Power loss in a conductor from resistance is equal to the product of the current squared times the resistance of the conductor. The power loss, which is manifest as heat, is the limiting factor for allowable current. The flow of electric current is similar to the flow of fluid in a pipe. Voltage is like the operating pressure, amperage the flow rate, and resistance the friction. The resistance to current flow is similar to the friction that impedes the flow of the fluid. Like friction, resistance generates heat when current flows through substances. In some cases, such as resistance heating, this phenomenon is advantageous as it provides a useful output. Conductors are materials, such as copper, that have a very low value of resistance to current flow, thus generating a minimum of heat (power loss). Resistors are materials that conduct current, but have a significant value of resistance to current flow. They generate considerable quantities of heat energy. Resistance is expressed as: R= E = I

( )( )
P I 1 I

P I2

(24-3)

Where: R = Resistance in ohms E = Voltage in volts P = Power in watts I = Current in amperes Power loss due to resistance is expressed as: Power Loss (Watts) = Current 2 x Resistance = I 2 R (24-4)

Fig. 24-5 Plot of an ac Current.

In accordance with Ohms Law (I = E/R), the greater the resistance, the lower the current flow. For example, in a basic dc circuit with a 5 ohm resistor, the supply of 10 V will result in a current flow of 2 amps (2 = 10/5). If the voltage across the circuit is reduced to 0 (the circuit is open), then the current flow will be 0. If the voltage is doubled to 20, the current flow will be doubled to 4 amps.

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In any given circuit, resistance is usually given in a measurement of ohms per foot (meter) for the material and size of the conductor. It is measured as the length of the conductor times the resistance per foot (meter). In many cases, the effects of resistance are relatively minor. However, at large sites with long-load leads, resistance can result in a significant reduction in voltage or line voltage drop that can seriously affect the performance of the electrical devices comprising the load. Actual drop in voltage because of the resistance of the conductors is directly proportional to current flow (E = IR). Voltage drop will be maximum at full load and minimum at no load. In order to compensate for voltage drop, upstream voltage can be increased to a level that will result in the desired voltage at the load-drawing devices. Inductance occurs when a circuit is closed, current starts to flow in a conductor coil, and lines of magnetic flux establish a magnetic field around the coil. Until the current flow has reached full load and established a complete field, the flux lines are cut by the turns in the conductor, inducing a current in the coil itself. When a circuit is opened, the opposite action occurs. For a brief period after the current flow ceases, the field is still in the process of collapsing. During this period, flux lines again cut the conductors and current is induced in the coil until the field is fully collapsed. In a dc circuit, induction of current in the coil only occurs when power is being applied or removed. When current flow is constant, there is no increase or decrease in the magnetic field to cause induction of current in the coil. In an ac circuit, inductance can be of great significance. The flow of current, in a wave form, is constantly changing direction and magnitude. This means that a magnetic field is constantly in the process of forming or collapsing. When a coil is part of an ac circuit, current is always being induced in the coil as long as the circuit is receiving power. The two factors that affect induction of current in a coil are (a) the number of turns of conductor wire in the coil and (b) the number of lines of magnetic flux being cut per unit time. This rate of change of current flow is affected by the peak value of current in the coil and the frequency (number of complete electric rotations per second, generally 60 or 50 Hz) of the ac applied to the device. In an ac circuit, as current rises in the cycle, the magnetic field grows stronger with more and more energy being stored in the form of magnetism. As current decreases in the cycle, the magnetic energy returns to the

circuit and works to prevent the change in current that produced the magnetism. An inductor in a circuit creates a hindrance to current flow because the induced current opposes the flow of current. This is called inductive reactance and forms a type of inertia that causes the magnetizing current to be out of phase with the driving voltage. Inductance causes the magnetic field current to lag behind the driving voltage and produces an effective loss of apparent power. In an ac circuit with a purely inductive load imposed on it, voltage is at peak value when current is at zero, and voltage is at zero when current is at peak value. During the second and fourth quarters of the cycle, the voltage and current waves are of opposite sign (polarity). The zero point of current occurs 90 degrees after the zero point of voltage: the current wave lags the voltage wave by exactly 90 degrees. Inductive loads are, therefore, referred to as lagging loads. Inductive reactance (XL ) is measured in ohms. While voltage across a resistance is equal to current times the resistance (E = IR), voltage across an inductor is equal to the current times the inductive reactance (E = IXL). Inductive reactance, like resistance, tends to limit the magnitude of current flow in an ac circuit. For any given voltage across an inductance, the higher the XL, the lower the current flow. Unlike resistance, however, XL varies directly with frequency. If, for example, at constant voltage, frequency is reduced from 60 Hz to 50 Hz, the current flow will increase to 120% of the value at 60 Hz. Capacitance is a quantity that defines the ability of a capacitor or electron collector to hold a charge. While inductance is related to current and magnetism, capacitance is related to voltage. Capacitors, sometimes referred to as condensers, are circuit elements that have the ability to store up an electric charge. Its capacity is a function of the areas of the conducting plates, the thickness of the insulating material, and the impressed voltage. With an inductance in a dc circuit, voltage is induced only when there is a change in current flow. With a capacitor, however, current will only flow when there is a change in voltage. Inductance and capacitance both occur only when there is a change in rate of current flow and in voltage, respectively. Capacitance, thus, has the same significance as inductance in an ac circuit. In an ac circuit, both capacitance and inductance hinder current flow. However, while inductance hinders flow by opposing it, capacitance hinders flow by storing it. Capacitive reactance (XC), measured in ohms, is the

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hindrance to current caused by the presence of capacitance in an ac circuit. The voltage across a capacitor in an ac circuit is equal to the current times the capacitive reactance (E = IXC). As voltage rises in the cycle, greater volumes of electrons are impressed and stored on the plates of a capacitor up to the peak voltage. As voltage drops (the second quarter of the first half of the sine wave), the electrons are returned to the circuit. As voltage changes polarity (second half of the sine wave), the electron charges on the plates change polarity and work to prevent a change in the voltage. This forms a type of inertia, causing the voltage to be out of phase with, and lag behind, the current. It is the opposite effect of inductance and causes an equally effective loss of apparent power. A leading current is the current flowing in a circuit that is mostly capacitive. If a circuit contains only capacitance, the current leads the driving voltage by 90. Figure 24-6 shows a plot of voltage versus current for both a pure capacitance circuit and a pure inductance circuit.
I IC E IL

containing capacitive reactance is increased from 50 Hz to 60 Hz, the magnitude of current flow will increase by 120% of the 50 Hz value. Impedance (Z) is the sum of total hindrance to current flow. The equation for impedance, measured in ohms, is: Z= E I (24-5)

Impedance is the total opposition or hindrance (resistance and reactance) of a circuit to the flow of alternating current at a given frequency. In alternating current, voltage drop in a conductor is equal to current times impedance. In direct current, since there is no effect of capacitance and inductance, voltage drop is equal to current times resistance. There is always some amount of resistance in all circuits. In ac circuits, one or both of the other circuit elements inductive and capacitive reactance are often present. Impedance in an ac circuit, therefore, is a function of one or more of the following equations, depending on the circuit elements involved: Resistive elements: E = IR Inductive elements: E = IXL Capacitive elements: E = IXC (24-6) (24-7) (24-8)

To calculate the total hindrance to current flow in a circuit, the opposite (offsetting) effects of XL and XC must be considered. The relevant factor is the net effect of these two phenomena. To obtain the net total of these two reactances, one is subtracted from the other. With resistance, inductance, and capacitance in series, the equation for impedance is: Z = [R 2 + (XC XL ) 2]1/2 (24-9)

Fig. 24-6 Plot of Voltage vs. Current.

Where: IC = Current for purely capacitive circuit IL = Current for purely inductive circuit E = Voltage Capacitive reactance depends on rate of voltage change, in volts per second. Like inductive reactance, capacitive reactance is affected by frequency and tends to limit the magnitude of current flow. That is, the greater the capacitive reactance, the lower the magnitude of current flow. The critical difference is that while inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency, capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency. If frequency is increased, the value of capacitive reactance is reduced. For example, if the frequency in an ac circuit

In ac circuits, where resistance is only one of three possible forms of hindrance to current flow, Z must be substituted for R to validate Ohms Law. The formula of E = IR, therefore, becomes E = IZ.

ELECTRICAL POWER
As discussed in Chapter 2, power (P) is the rate of doing work, expressed as the product of force and rate of displacement. Power can be expressed in various interchangeable units, such as hp and W. Neglecting efficiency losses, an electric motor requires approximately 746 W or 0.746 kilowatt (kW) of electric power to accomplish 1 hp of mechanical work.

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

An alternative equation can be developed from the basic power equation P = EI to express power consumed in resistance. If, for example, a resistance load had 10 V across it and a 2 amp current flowing through it, the power consumed would be 20 W (20 = 10 x 2). Since voltage equals current flow times resistance (E = IR), IR can be substituted for voltage, yielding the following equation: P = (IR)I = I 2R (24-10)

If the resistance in the above example was 5 ohms, the power consumed would also be 20 W (20 = 22 x 5). The relationship of electric power input to actual power output is primarily a function of electric motor efficiency. Motor efficiencies typically range from 75 to 98%, depending on factors such as size and material quality. This corresponds to actual power requirements ranging from 761 to 1,066 W per hp (1.02 to 1.33 W per W).
AC

ELECTRICAL POWER

In the plot of a dc circuit or a perfectly in-phase ac circuit, the relationship of voltage times current flow always produces a positive value or zero. In the dc circuit, this is because voltage and current flow always have a positive value. In a perfectly in-phase ac circuit, the values of voltage and current are always in the same direction at the same instant, as indicated by the corresponding sine waves on the power curve. The periods of positive voltage and positive current and the periods of negative voltage and negative current correspond perfectly and pass through zero at exactly the same instant. When multiplied, they always produce a positive value or zero, because a negative times a negative equals a positive. In a purely inductive ac circuit in which the wave forms are 90 degrees out of phase, the values of voltage and current are sometimes of the same sign and sometimes of opposite signs. They are never zero at the same time. Multiplying voltage times current at any instant produces values that can be positive, negative, or zero. During periods of positive power (voltage and current are either both positive or both negative), power is stored in the inductor. This power is returned to the source during periods of negative power (when the signs of voltage and current are opposite). Because the periods of positive and negative power are identical, the sum total of positive and negative power is zero. Therefore, even though there is current and voltage in the circuit, no power is being consumed. The product of voltage at an alternator's terminals times

the current flowing at the terminals will have a given value in a purely inductive circuit of volt-ampere (VA). This only indicates, however, that the alternator is delivering apparent power to a load, while the load is consuming no real power. Exactly the same phenomenon occurs in a purely capacitive ac circuit. Here, too, the wave forms of voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase in this case, current leading voltage. The 90 degree separation of voltage and current causes electric power to be delivered to the capacitor and then returned to the source from the capacitor without the process consuming real power. Analysis of either purely inductive or capacitive ac circuits reveals that where current is displaced from voltage by 90 degrees (either lagging or leading by one-quarter cycle), no real power is consumed by the load. However, while no power is being consumed, the voltage and current do represent a load on the alternator which can be measured in VA. This apparent power load on the alternator would be referred to as reactive power (or wattless power). In reality, all of the conductors in the coil and the circuit have resistance. Circuits are never purely inductive or capacitive. Given resistance plus inductive and/or capacitive reactance in a circuit, an angle of displacement (either lagging or leading) between the voltage and current waves results in greater than zero and less than 90 degrees. The predominant reactance determines whether the angular displacement will be either leading or lagging. This angle of phase displacement is expressed as . Inductive and capacitive reactance in unequal amounts will result in a certain amount of reactive power, expressed as volt-amperes reactive (VAR), which will exceed the amount of apparent power VA. The inductive reactance of a motor's stator windings creates an angle of separation between the current and voltage sine waves. Every ac induction motor draws more apparent power than it consumes real power, unless the amount of inductive reactance is countered by an equal amount of capacitive reactance. Apparent power, which is the product of voltage and current in an ac circuit without the angle of phase separation, is simply expressed as: VA = EI Where: VA = Apparent power E = Voltage in volts I = Current flow in amperes (24-11)

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Real Power in ac-Resistive Circuits


In dc circuits, for any fixed load, the values of current and voltage are constant. The product of the two at any instant will be the same as at any other instant. In ac circuits, however, the product of these two values is constantly changing, as shown in Figure 24-7. Power calculations over the entire cycle are the total of all the instantaneous products of voltage and current. Thus, the power formula is: P = E (effective) x I (effective) (24-12)

In a purely resistive ac circuit, the sine waves of voltage and current are perfectly in phase; that is, the angle of phase displacement or separation is 0 degrees. Under full load in a purely resistive circuit, therefore, real power and apparent power are equal. Thus: P = W = VA = EI (24-12a)

P I E I t

current flow, in amperes, without regard to the phase relationship of the current and the voltage. A kilovoltampere (kVA) equals 1,000 VA. 2. W: Watt or true power measures power corrected for the degree to which voltage and current are out of phase. It is the product of current times the voltage across the resistance. If voltage and current are in phase, W equals VA. If they are at all out of phase, W is less than VA. A kW equals 1,000 W. 3. VAR: Volt-amperes reactive imaginary or reactive power measures the product of the voltage across and the current flowing through a reactance (inductive, capacitive, or both). It is the component of total current that is 90 degrees out of phase with voltage. Reactive power must flow from a generator, but none of this reactive power is actually expended. A kilovar (kVAR) equals 1,000 VAR. The power triangle, shown graphically in Figure 24-8, consists of these three values arranged in a right triangle. VA is the hypotenuse. The angle between the hypotenuse and the W vector is the displacement between line voltage and current. From the power triangle, it is seen that W is, being the adjacent side, the cosine of the angle. VAR, being the side opposite, is the sine of the angle. The angle indicates how far current is lagging or leading voltage. In the case of inductance, VAR expresses the current lagging behind the driving voltage. In the case of capacitance, it represents the current leading ahead of driving voltage.

Fig. 24-7 Plot of Relationship of Voltage, Current, and Power in a Resistive ac Circuit.

Where: E = Voltage I = Current P = Power in watts

Fig. 24-8 Power Triangle.

THE POWER TRIANGLE


The relationship of real power, apparent power, and reactive power can be understood through the trigonometric relationships of a right, or power, triangle. The power triangle consists of the following three components: 1. VA: Volt-amperes or apparent power expresses power as the simple product of voltage, in volts, and

The equation for real power is: VA cos = W (24-13)

The cosine of 0 degrees is 1 and the cosine of 90 degrees is 0. At 90 degrees of angular-phase displacement (a purely reactive circuit), real power is 0. At 0 degrees of

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VA

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

angular-phase displacement (purely resistive), real power equals apparent power and reactive power is 0. Thus: = 90 W = VA cos 90 = VA (0) = 0 = 0 W = VA cos 0 = VA (1) = VA = 30 W = VA cos 30 = VA (0.866) = 0.866VA The equation for VAR is: VA sin = VAR (24-14)

The sine of 90 degrees is 1 and the sine of 0 degrees is 0. Thus, at 90 degrees of angular phase displacement (no real power), apparent power (VA) equals reactive power (VAR). Thus: = 90 VAR = VA sin 90 = VA (1) = VA = 0 VAR = VA sin 0 = VA (0) = 0 = 30 VAR = VA sin 60 = VA (0.5) = 0.5VA These relationships can also be expressed as a function of the Pythagorean theorem: A2 + B2 = C2. VA is C (the hypotenuse) and A and B (the legs of the triangle) are W and VAR. Thus: VA = (W 2 + VAR 2)1/2 W = (VA2 VAR 2)1/2 VAR = (VA2 W 2)1/2 (24-15) (24-16) (24-17)

POWER FACTOR
Power factor (PF) is a common measure of this angle of displacement of current from voltage. The cosine of the angle of current lag behind or lead ahead of voltage is the power factor of the circuit. This is quantified as the ratio of kW to kVA. The greater the phase displacement, the lower the power factor. Power factor is expressed as: PF = Real power W = Apparent power VA (24-18)

Because power factor is a numerical expression of the angle-of-phase relationship, it can also be expressed as: PF = cos = W VA (24-19)

The leading contributor to low power factor in most facilities is the standard ac induction motor. Full-load power factor ratings typically range from 0.75 for small motors to 0.90 for large motors. Any other equipment with magnetic coils and fields, such as induction furnaces,

also have power factors of less than unity, or 1. Power factor varies with the load at any point in time. Most facilities have power factors ranging from 75 to 95%. When there is more motor power on line and less lighting, for example, power factor will be lower. Power factor will sometimes decrease with the load on a given motor. In general, for open drip-proof motors, power factor decreases as the percent full-load on the motor decreases. Because VAR from inductance and capacitance are in opposite directions, capacitors can be added to a line to cancel inductive VAR and improve power factor. Purchased power from most utilities is measured in kW. A lower power factor penalizes the utility because it requires more current-carrying capacity in the generator for a given real-power demand, indicated by kW billing, and for resistance losses in the conductors on their system. This is why utilities often require a minimum power factor (ranging from 80 to 90%) from customers. Some utilities include power factor penalties as part of demand charges. Some utilities simply bill in kVA. Both strategies shift the burden of power factor correction onto the customer. Utilities that do not account for power factor simply compensate through the capacity and energy components of the rate structure. When electricity is generated on-site, poor power factor reduces the effective output of the generation equipment by reducing the generator efficiency. Another advantage of improving power factor is that reduction of reactive current may allow for added load (growth) on the electric system without the need for upsizing transformers, main feeders, and bus ducts. Operating-cost savings potential also lies in the reduction of resistive power loss due to current flow in the conductors. All of these cases may provide sufficient impetus to cost-effectively maximize power factor. A capacitor compensates for the inductive magnetizing current locally by producing capacitance kVARs that cancel out the inductance kVARs. Capacitors typically come in various voltages in discrete increments of 30 kVAR. Number and total capacity is determined by economic analysis. They can be installed together at any point past the utility metering device, in groups connected at the electrical center of power feeders or on individual motor terminals. Ideally, they should be as close to the load as economically possible. Another way to improve power factor is with the use of synchronous motors. These motors can be designed with unity or leading power factor. When operating at a leading power factor, these motors are referred to as synchronous condensers. The leading power factor can be

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adjusted to balance the effect of the lagging power factor of induction motors. This practice, however, is quite costly relative to installing capacitors. The benefits of improved power factor can be summarized as follows: Reduction in size requirements and capital cost for transformers, main feeders, and bus ducts. Reduced power losses. Reduced loads on transformers and motors, resulting in longer life and lower failure rates. Reduced rates where electricity is billed in kVA and elimination of power factor penalties where they exist. Reduction in voltage drop at the facility, which tends to improve the overall voltage profile.

Phases

One cycle

90

180

270 360

Fig. 24-9 Plot of Three-Phase Power.

voltage. It produces a magnetic field of constant density that rotates at the line frequency, thus reducing the complexity of motor construction. It provides constant instantaneous output of the alternator if each of the phases has an identical load. When calculating the relationship between threephase power, voltage, and amperage, a phase factor of 1.732 (square root of 3) is used. Basic ac power formulas are:
Term Single-Phase Formula 746 hp I (E)(Eff )(PF) I I kW kVA hp 1,000 kW (E)(PF) 1,000 kVA E (I)(E)(PF) 1,000 (I)(E) 1,000 Three-Phase Formula 746 hp (1.732)(E)(Eff )(PF) 1,000 kW (1.732)(E)(PF) 1,000 kVA (1.732)(E) (I)(E)(PF)(1.732) (1.000) (1.732)(I)(E) 1.000 Equation (24-20) (24-21) (24-22) (24-23) (24-24)

Reactive Power and On-Site Generation


Power factor becomes more complicated with the interconnection of on-site generators. The power output of a generator is controlled by varying the torque applied by the prime mover to its shaft. The kVAR output is controlled by varying the field of excitation. If an on-site generator is overexcited, it produces kVAR as well as kW. This kVAR flows into the facility's load to provide excitation current, reducing the amount of kVAR the loads draw from the utility system. This serves the same function as installing capacitors to correct facility power factor. Interconnected on-site generators that operate in parallel with the utility can use voltage regulators as power factor correction devices to constantly adjust their excitation according to the power factor. The excitation level is trimmed to control the flow of kVARs from the generator so that the generator's power factor rating is not exceeded.
AND THREE-PHASE AC POWER Single-phase ac consists of either a single voltage or two voltages in series, with exactly the same phase relationship. Three-phase power, which is the most common form of power used by industrial facilities, consists of three separate voltages spaced 120 electrical degrees apart using three lines. This is shown graphically in Figure 24-9. No two phases are ever at zero voltage at the same time, and no two phases are ever at peak voltage at the same time. Also, when any one phase is at zero voltage, the other two phases are of opposite sign (polarity) and are at 86.6% of peak voltage. The advantages of three-phase versus single-phase power are:

SINGLE-

(I)(E)(Eff )(PF) (1.732)(I)(E)(Z)(Eff )(PF) (24-25) 746 746

It requires less cable to supply power at a given

Where: I = E = Z = Eff = PF =

Amperes per phase Volts per phase Impedance per phase Efficiency of hp output generating device Power factor

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