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INDEX

Introduction What is Conflict? Why learn about Conflict & Conflict Management The ingredients of Conflict Positives & Negatives of Conflict How Public & Private Conflict differ? What does Conflict Management aim at Managing Conflict Ways people deal with Conflict How might you select your conflict management style? Individual Reflection Exercise Case Study Conclusion 9 9 11 11 12 12 16 22 22 24 26 29

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INTRODUCTION
There are many ways in which conflict management definitions and concepts could be organized, which in turn also will influence the way it is practiced. The different Conflict management tasks will be easier to perform if definitions are broad and inclusive, focusing on the specific problems in a conflict that need to be addressed, rather than trying to organize every policy into perfectly worded definitions or assigning them to specific actors. The table below provides a helpful point of departure for an overview of how the five different approaches are played out in practice. We have chosen to look at the five "phases" in terms of the problem that needs to be addressed, the actors who can perform the intervention, the tasks that need to be carried out, and the target group of those actions. By using functional rather than theoretical definitions, theory and practice are brought closer together.

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Phase Conflict Prevention

Problem Rising tensions, Polarization, Militarization

Actors External/Internal: International Organizations (IOs), NGOs, Governments External/Impartial: Mediators, IOs, Foreign governments

Task Prevent escalation

Target Potential opponents, Political instigators, Leadership/Elite

Peacemaking

Perceived incompatibility of interest

Facilitate negotiation, Mediate differences, Attain agreement Monitor ceasefires, Separate & demobilize parties, Enforce peace Reconcile population, Rebuild trust & confidence, Develop economic opportunities Restructure political & civil institutions, (Re)build civil & economic infrastructure

Leadership/Elite

Peacekeeping

Destructive violence

External: Int'l & regional organizations, Military organizations, Foreign governments External/Internal: IOs, NGOs, Governments

Fighters, Conflicting parties, Militants

Peace building

Negative attitudes, Socioeconomic problems, Trauma

Local & national government, NGOs, Civil Society, Grassroots

State building

Collapsed States, Weak political institutions, Devastated Economy

External/Internal: Int'l & regional organizations, NGOs, Governments

Leadership/Elite, Political parties, Civil society, NGOs

By asking what is being performed, why it is being performed, who is performing it and who it targets, the distinction between the five different concepts becomes more logical. Even if an attempt at Conflict Prevention usually takes place prior to rebuilding war-shattered institutions (State building), one perspective does not preclude the other, and frequently they need to interact.

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Whereas Peacekeeping missions target the warriors and are generally performed by Peacekeeping forces, Peacemaking is diplomatic and focuses on the political elite. Peace building, which is a multipurpose task, is often performed by local or regional Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), such as churches or civic groups. It is concerned with healing and reconciliation and primarily targets the grassroots level of society. State building deals with restructuring societys institutions, requiring close cooperation with the governing elite. Target Groups and Problems When referring to the population groups that the different conflict management activities focus on we talk about Target Groups. However, in a war-torn society, these groups are not just the focus of externally led activities but they are also often involved as local actors in reconciliation and peacemaking on their own. Although dividing a population into separate groups for analysis is somewhat superficial, it is helpful for understanding the challenges and tasks facing conflict management today. We have chosen to use a simple three-part division of a population. The elite: The top leadership is represented by military/political leaders with high visibility, is usually led by a highly visible, single personality. The middle range: The middle-range leadership is made up of respected "elders," academics, intellectuals, and leaders of non-governmental organizations (usually large international agencies), who generally have to rely on persuasion and advice in order to influence change in matters of war and peace. The grassroots: The grassroots community makes up the bulk of the population in a conflict and is often the group that has taken the heaviest casualties from the conflict. Grassroots leaders have very little power to change top-level political decisions but are central in providing the infrastructure for building participation at a local level. The grassroots leadership consists of local activists and elders, leaders of indigenous NGOs, health officials, refugee leaders, etc. These leaders are vital for creating participatory civil societies in post-conflict situations. The structure of the above mentioned three part division of society implies that communication has to function not only on a horizontally between the adversaries engaged in peacemaking, but also vertically, between these different levels of decision-making within the home community. Ideas and proposals that emerge from a "top-down" perspective have no foundation in a society if they dont bring up the grievances and problems that are experienced by the population. Each level of a society needs to accept and embrace peace in order for an agreement to be negotiated and implemented effectively. However, these different groups often have very different needs, depending on their exposure to violence or their role in the conflict. Whereas the grassroots population may need healing from trauma, relief operations or empowerment programs, the leadership elite needs to be encouraged to look beyond entrenched values towards common goals and visions. Often, by empowering and encouraging the middle range leadership to explore options and pursue reconciliation initiatives, they can act as catalysts for both the leadership and the grassroots to accept change. The middle-range leadership often serves as a communication link between the other two levels, making sure that top-down peace programs "trickle down" or that bottom-up initiatives are heeded by the leadership.

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The successful management of a destructive conflict thus requires work to "undo" the destruction of conflict on all levels of a society in order to achieve peace.

Actors and Tasks The actors engaged in conflict management and peacemaking can be internal or external, international, regional or local. Ideally, societies deal with conflict by exposing it to the political process, where competitive politics substitutes for direct violent confrontations. However, in circumstances where states are either weak or collapsing or where a participatory political system is absent, external actors may need to be deployed to carry out some of the conflict management activities. Exactly who carries out the activities is not imperative, as long as they property address the challenges that stand in the way of peace. However, due to this problem-based approach, there is also a risk of different actors doing overlapping activities without proper coordination. The goal of any external intervention is in some ways to "make itself redundant," by training and capacitating internal and local actors to manage and prevent conflict situations independently without external help. The extent of external support needed will therefore vary in each case depending on the severity of a conflict, the degree of collapse of a society and the extent to which human and social capital is available. External actors therefore have a vital role to play in terms of supplying the capability needed for creating a viable political environment. The tasks that are carried out can be everything from funding local peace initiatives to taking over the administration of a country during its transition. Here are some examples of actors and tasks involved in the conflict management process: External Examples of Actors International Organizations Foreign Governments Global nongovernmental & nonprofit organizations International Relief Agencies Regional organizations Internal National political organizations, regional and local government Non-profit, nongovernmental local institutions Citizen-participation groups and religious associations Local and traditional leadership Track II Diplomacy

Types of

Diplomacy (Track

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Tasks

I+II), Negotiation & Mediation Demobilization & Peace Enforcement Funding, Services & Supplies Organization & Coordination Technical assistance & training Implementation & Monitoring of peace accords Security Guarantees Economic assistance

Administration & Workforce Implementation of Peace Accords Knowledge and Knowhow Services & Humanitarian Assistance

Diplomacy as Conflict Management Conflict management activities carried out by foreign government representatives are usually referred to as diplomacy. Since the time of Machiavelli, diplomats have become known as the official link of communication between states and in the past diplomacy was often the forum where the decisions on war and peace were ultimately taken. In their capacity as foreign emissaries, diplomats today in embassies around the world handle everything from cultural relations to trade and politics. The use of the term diplomacy can therefore be both vague and misleading, especially if one is referring only to official political relations between states in matters of war and peace. Because of this confusion the literature has come to distinguish between track I & Track II diplomacy, where Track I represents the official relations between states conducted by elite representatives, and track II refers to unofficial communications between lower level officials, academics or intellectuals, whose communications can potentially lead to higher-level communications in the future (a good example is the Oslo Process between Israel and the Palestinians). First Track, First Tier, or Track I Diplomacy, as it can be called, is therefore the interaction between official state actors or elites that represent each party to a conflict. It also often involves diplomats or officials of other states - partisan or nonpartisan - in the capacity of facilitators or mediators. However, Track I diplomacy refers not only to the actors themselves but also to the processes used in conflict management. Usually Track I diplomacy is overt, using open channels and with full knowledge of all parties involved, including their consent and authorization. In order

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for Track I diplomacy to be worthwhile, diplomats have to have the capacity to offer credible and non-retractable commitments and concessions. It is therefore expected that Track I diplomats either have full decision-making capability or stand in close contact with those individuals at the center of power whose consent is needed for any agreement to be accepted.

Track I diplomacy has been used to determine rules for warfare and conditions of defeat. Yet, in the past fifty years, the face of diplomacy has changed. More international contact and the development of relations with states also mean more ministries, agencies, and other organizations working under the auspices of official authority. This can be seen in regional organizations becoming increasingly involved in international affairs and with them new types of Track I diplomacy. More agencies and organizations are able to participate in international relations yet at the same time, with the loss of concentration in representation, there is more availability for representatives to be present in all stages of conflict Second Track, Second tier, or Track II diplomacy is the interaction between lower-level actors in a conflict. As with Track I diplomacy, this refers not only to the actors themselves but also to the methods used during Peacemaking. Track II diplomacy provides supplemental and parallel functions to help foster relations at various levels in support of Track I efforts. Often times it seeks to carry out the mandates of Track I diplomacy but through more covert and subtle means, through secret channels or lower-level official talks. The means and efforts of the Track II diplomat extend beyond Peacemaking into the Conflict Prevention and Peace building stages of conflict. In recent years, a new level of diplomacy has emerged. Track One-and-a-half Diplomacy refers to situations when official representatives give authority to nonstate actors to participate, negotiate and act on behalf of the state actors. Empowering Local actors External actors can do a good job of managing a conflict through peacekeeping or peace enforcement, but there is unlikely to be true conflict resolution and transformation without the involvement and commitment of local actors. Communication therefore needs to go in three directions during a peace process: internally-externally between leaders of the local parties and foreign sponsors or guarantors; vertically, between the leaderships of the antagonistic parties; and horizontally, between the top leadership and the lower echelons of both societies. A peace process implemented by a foreign sponsor that lacks the vertical and horizontal elements is unlikely to properly address the real grievances of the parties involved and may therefore fail to take root in local society. On the other hand, former enemies are often unable to produce enough trust and reconciliation on their own to be capable of implementing a peace process without the help of outsiders to guarantee their security. . Local leadership thus has to be empowered on each level of diplomacy in order for agreements to not be imposed from the top-down. Each leadership group has different tasks and responsibilities: The elite: The top leadership mainly focuses on high-level negotiations over cease-fires or peace agreements. Members of the elite either have the ability

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to make policy related changes, or are in close contact with those leaders who have such decision-making capacity. In order for a peace process to "fly" with those groups who have suffered and fought in a conflict, elites have to make sure that their constituents most important grievances are addressed through the negotiations and that change - although slow - is visible on the ground. The Middle Range leadership: They focus on such issues as the coordination of training in conflict resolution, the implementation of peace commissions, as well as problem-solving workshops. The Middle Range leadership can often serve as a back channel to top-level negotiators by engaging themselves in Explorative, or Track II diplomacy. Because intellectuals and academics lack the public pressure exerted on the political leadership, they are often free to be more creative in searching for new options or alternatives. Because their decisions were not binding, the small group of Arab and Israeli intellectuals who lay the groundwork for the Oslo agreement was able to be much more flexible than those officials who were negotiating in the parallel Washington process. When higher-level government officials became involved, much of the facts had already been laid out on the table and previously unthinkable options had been explored. Grassroots: These leaders often have to carry the heaviest load of all the three groups, in that they are faced with the largest target group, but with the least resources and capabilities in terms of political decision-making. Tasks include grassroots training, prejudice reduction, and socio-psychological work in reducing post-conflict trauma of the many victims of violence. In short, the grassroots activists are imperative for creating local peace and reconciliation between groups, but are often unable to do so without topdown or foreign/external assistance. For societies with little prior experience with representative government, the peace process itself can be a good starting point for practicing increased citizen participation required for future State building. Local actors can often carry out much of the administrative activities of foreign sponsors and donors (such as humanitarian aid or development assistance), while requiring less of the training. They are valuable for providing local access to target groups and for identifying real needs and grievances both in preventive conflict situations and in the stages of post-conflict reconstruction. Local actors on all levels also have a growing role during Evaluation and assessment of conflict management activities, where money spent on the right causes may be critical for the success or failure of a peace agreement. There are thus important choices facing the external parties when investing in a peace process, so as to follow the principle of "doing no harm". Grassroots are easily swayed by demagogic or religious leaders who often use the manipulation of public sentiments as a means in their struggle for power and popularity. As economic and social conditions in a society worsen, be it because of the ongoing conflict or because of internal political mismanagement, it is always very practical to put the blame on the enemy group. External parties have to be careful not empower the "wrong" local elites in such a struggle. Looking back at the breakdown of federal Yugoslavia, many analysts put the blame entirely on Milosevic and the Serbian civilian/military elites who used "ethnic rallying" to bolster their own power. However, outside parties and sponsors also have to make sure not to leave out important players from the process if these players are vital for the implementation of an agreement. Outliers or extremist groups who are barred from negotiations or who opt out because their demands are not met by an agreement, often feel that they have nothing to loose from spoiling the process through extremist acts or

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terrorism. In some cases the most extreme groups from either side of a conflict end up in an "unholy alliance" that opposes a peace process, thus in a way projecting their own expectations of non-compliance on to the enemy.

What is conflict? Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available. Dealing with Conflict: Conflict occurs when individuals or groups are not obtaining what they need or want and are seeking their own self-interest. Sometimes the individual is not aware of the need and unconsciously starts to act out. Other times, the individual is very aware of what he or she wants and actively works at achieving the goal. How do people respond to conflict? Fight or flight? Physiologically we respond to conflict in one of two wayswe want to get away from the conflict or we are ready to take on anyone who comes our way. Think for a moment about when you are in conflict. Do you want to leave or do you want to fight when a conflict presents itself? Neither physiological response is good or badits personal response. What is important to learn, regardless of our initial physiological response to conflict, is that we should intentionally choose our response to conflict. Whether we feel like we want to fight or flee when a conflict arises, we can deliberately choose a conflict mode. By consciously choosing a conflict mode instead of to conflict, we are more likely to productively contribute to solving the problem at hand. Below are five conflict response modes that can be used in conflict. Why learn more about conflict and conflict management? Listening, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and teamwork rank near the top of skills that employers seek in their new hires.3 When you learn to effectively manage and resolve conflicts with others, then more opportunities for successful team memberships are available to you. If we can learn to manage this highly probable event called conflict (we average five conflicts per day), then we are less apt to practice destructive behaviors that will negatively impact our team. Although conflict may be misunderstood and unappreciated, research shows that unresolved conflict can lead to aggression. Most of us use conflict skills that we observed growing up, unless we have made a conscious effort to change our conflict management style. Some of us observed good conflict management, while others observed faulty conflict management. Most of us have several reasons to improve our conflict-management skills. Faculty members should help students develop their conflict management skills. Most people do not resolve conflicts because they either have a faulty skill set and/or

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because they do not know the organizations policy on conflict management. All team members need to know their conflict styles, conflict intervention methods, and strategies for conflict skill improvement.

Conflict is inevitable: o o o o Conflict develops because we are dealing with people's lives, jobs, children, pride, self-concept, ego and sense of mission or purpose. Early indicators of conflict can be recognized; There are strategies for resolution that are available and DO work. Although inevitable, conflict can be minimized, diverted and/or resolved.

Beginnings of conflict: Poor communication Seeking power Dissatisfaction with management style Weak leadership Lack of openness Change in leadership

Conflict indicators: Body language Disagreements, regardless of issue Withholding bad news Surprises Strong public statements Airing disagreements through media Conflicts in value system Desire for power Increasing lack of respect Open disagreement Lack of candor on budget problems or other sensitive issues Lack of clear goals No discussion of progress, failure relative to goals, failure to evaluate the superintendent fairly, thoroughly or at all.

The ingredients of Conflict: Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise when we ignore others' needs, our own needs or the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse needs with desires (things we would like, but are not essential).

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Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the severity, causes and consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing perceptions may come from: self-perceptions, others' perceptions, differing perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat. Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number and types of conflicts that occur. This also influences how conflict is managed. Conflicts can arise when people try to make others change their actions or to gain an unfair advantage. Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important. Serious conflicts arise when people hold incompatible values or when values are not clear. Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept the fact that the other party holds something as a value rather than a preference. Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major influence over how they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people ignore their own or others' feelings and emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over a particular issue.

Conflict is destructive when it: Takes attention away from other important activities Undermines morale or self-concept Polarizes people and groups, reducing cooperation Increases or sharpens difference Leads to irresponsible and harmful behavior, such as fighting, name-calling

Conflict is not always negative: Conflict is constructive when it: Results in clarification of important problems and issues Results in solutions to problems Involves people in resolving issues important to them Causes authentic communication Helps release emotion, anxiety, and stress Builds cooperation among people through learning more about each other; joining in resolving the conflict Helps individuals develop understanding and skills In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed. Healthy conflict can lead to... Growth and innovation New ways of thinking Additional management options If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus that meets both the individual's and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits and strengthens the relationship. The goal is for all to "win" by having at least some of their needs met. How public and private conflicts differ?

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Most of us have experience with conflict management and negotiation in private disputes (with a salesman, among family members or with your employer). Public conflicts, like those that can occur during watershed management efforts and other environmental issues often are rooted in trying to balance environmental protection and economic growth and jobs. Keep in mind, however, that effective watershed management can result in both economic and environmental benefits. Some complicating factors include: Distribution of costs and benefits: Those who benefit may not be the same as those who pay the costs. Perceptions of problems: People tend to blame others for causing the problem. Speed of clean-up or other actions: Some will want changes to take place more quickly than others.

WHAT DOES CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AIM AT:

Conflict Management aims to: Prevent the eruption of destructive conflict. Facilitate a move from violent to spoken conflict Enable a transformation from conflict to lasting peace by addressing root causes and effects of conflict. The Conflict Management Toolkit identifies five devices or strategies of conflict management: Conflict Prevention Peacemaking Peacekeeping Peace building Conflict Prevention: Conflict Prevention is the object of a wide range of policies and initiatives; its aim is to avoid the violent escalation of a dispute. Conflict Prevention includes: Monitoring and/or intervening to stabilize a potentially violent conflict before its outbreak by initiating activities that address the root causes as well as the triggers of a dispute. Establishing mechanisms that detect early warning signs and record specific indicators that may help to predict impending violence.

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Using planned coordination to prevent the creation of conflict when delivering humanitarian aid and in the process of development. Institutionalizing the idea of preventing conflict at the local, regional, and international levels.

The concept and practice of Conflict Prevention evolved from being focused almost exclusively on Preventive Diplomacy, to a new more comprehensive approach that can be defined as Structural Prevention. This new approach includes long-term initiatives targeting the root causes of conflict. The evolution of Conflict Prevention as a practice will depend on the necessary resources being committed to Conflict Prevention initiatives in the future. Conflict Prevention faces serious problems in this respect because it is extremely difficult to evaluate whether conflict prevention initiatives have been responsible for a conflict not having happened. It is possible to distinguish three sets of elements that compose the process of Conflict Prevention: The definition of the context with reference to the nature of a conflict, its causes, and its cyclical phases; The use of mechanisms to monitor indicators and signs to forewarn impending violence; and The selection of the specific initiatives to be taken.

Peacemaking: The Peacemaking section of the Theory category focuses primarily on the negotiation process, as it forms the basis for mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. Definition: Peacemaking Peacemaking is the diplomatic effort intended to move a violent conflict into nonviolent dialogue, where differences are normally settled through representative political institutions. The objective of peacemaking is to end the violence between the contending parties. A peace agreement is the desired end result of negotiations; such an agreement can be comprehensive or limited. To be sustainable, peace agreements have to include all key players of the conflict, end destructive violence, which is often established through a ceasefire agreement, and address the root causes of the conflict. The peace agreement should outline the means to strengthen a non-violent process of conflict de-escalation that ultimately leads to the transformation or resolution of the root causes of the violence. Peacemaking can be done through negotiation, mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. International law provides another channel through international courts. Peacekeeping: Peacekeeping is a military third-party intervention to assist the transition from violent conflict to stable peace. Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs) contribute to this goal providing security; supporting and facilitating other non-military initiatives; and making available the tool of military force. PKOs evolved from neutral monitoring

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missions to complex multi task endeavors. Their effectiveness is heavily influenced by their institutional structure and by practices at the operational level. A theoretical analysis of Peacekeeping should go beyond a historical perspective, to define theoretical guidelines that help distinguish between different types of missions. This distinction allows to best match the types of intervention with conflicts; to guide training programs for peacekeepers; and to set the criteria to measure the effectiveness of the operations.

Peace building: These web pages outline target areas for Peace building efforts. For the complex process of post-conflict reconstruction, all of these subject matters should be considered for a comprehensive strategy. Peace building is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building and political as well as economic transformation. Peace building initiatives are not limited to the post-conflict environment. Most of the tasks described above are effective tools to prevent conflicts. Furthermore, a negotiated peace-agreement should include an agenda for reconstruction to secure sustainability. And during peacekeeping missions the first steps into postconflict reconstruction can be taken. Reconstruction should be multidimensional and multi sect oral. Peace building is complex and results materialize only in the medium and long-term. A great number of agents engage in a wide variety of reconstruction efforts. These efforts include addressing the functional and emotional dimensions of peace building in specified target areas, such as civil society and legal institutions, among others. Evaluating the success and failure of peace building efforts is therefore especially challenging. Tasks Create an environment conducive to self-sustaining and durable peace: Resolve the problems of willingness to cooperate. Social and economic transformation is paramount for the establishment of durable peace. Reconcile opponents: Consider the psychological and emotional components of protracted conflict and the relationships between antagonist groups. Address structural and social factors: Direct efforts towards transformation of the conditions that caused the conflict. Prevent conflict from re-emerging: Create mechanisms that enhance cooperation and dialogue among different identity groups in order to manage conflict of interests with peaceful means. Integrate civil society in all efforts: Include all levels of society in the post-conflict strategy. Design political transformation to include civil society in decision making (bottom-up and top-down approaches).

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Establish mechanisms to handle issues of justice: Set up institutions that aim to avoid impunity of crimes that were committed during the conflict (truth commissions, war crime tribunals, fact finding missions).

Dimensions In carrying out the tasks, Peace building should address all dimensions of society; the societal and state structures as well as the emotional conditions of individuals. Functional structures: Building institutions that provide procedures for channeling conflict into acceptable solution mechanisms. Emotional conditions and social psychology: So much less tangible than the physical destruction of war, the effects of conflict on the psychology of individuals and a society are as profound as they are neglected. If the attitudes that lead to conflict are to be mitigated, and if it is taken that psychology drives attitudes and behaviors of individuals and their collectivities, then new emphasis must be placed on understanding the social psychology of conflict and its consequences. Social stability: Restoring peaceful interaction among groups on the horizontal as well as on the vertical levels. Rule of law/ethics: Re-establishing social norms, the rule of law and ethics in the population. Cultural dimension: Understanding the needs and cultural peculiarities of the affected groups.

Agents Peace building targets all levels of society as well as all aspects of the state structure. Therefore, a wide variety of different agents engage in the implementation of post-conflict reconstruction. Notice that success requires local ownership, thus external agents (international organizations and NGOs) can only facilitate and support Peace building, but can never impose it. International organizations intervene at the governmental level on request of the affected country. Their engagement carries the legitimacy of the international community, thus they have the ability to change and transform established structures. Donor institutions provide the necessary funding for Peace building projects. International organizations are the largest donors. Private foundations contribute through project-based financing. Regional institutions are international organizations with a regional mandate. They fund and/or implement Peace building strategies NGOs in most cases carry out small-scale projects to strengthen the grassroot level of affected countries. The Government of the affected country is subject as well as object of Peace building. The government structures are often changed after conflicts. At the same time, the government oversees and engages in reconstruction. Specialists (lawyers, economists, scholars, educators, teachers) are employed to carry out the specific Peace building projects. Their expertise plays an important role for the reconstruction of the state and transformation of society.

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Religious networks can play an important role for the reestablishment of moral ethics. Their role might be questionable in cases where the conflict had been aggravated by religious differences in the population. Academia provides important insights for practitioners through research and theories, which are derived thereof.

MANAGING CONFLICT
There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are: Analyze the conflict Determine management strategy Pre-negotiation Negotiation Post-negotiation Step 1: Analyze the conflict: o The first step in managing conflict is to analyze the nature and type of conflict. To do this, you'll find it helpful to ask questions. Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage. You may want to actually interview some of the groups involved.

Step 2: Determine management strategy: o Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved will need to analyze and select the most appropriate strategy. In some cases it may be necessary to have a neutral facilitator to help move the groups toward consensus.

Conflict Management Strategies: Collaboration Compromise Competition Accommodation Avoidance

Collaboration o o This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win." This strategy is generally used when concerns for others are important. It is also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition, some partners may take advantage of the others' trust and openness.

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o Generally regarded as the best approach for managing conflict, the objective of collaboration is to reach consensus

Compromise o This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This strategy is generally used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles or when time pressures exist. One drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and longterm objectives. This approach can also distract the partners from the merits of an issue and create a cynical climate.

o o

Competition o o This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with less concern for others. The outcome is "win/lose." This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate and losers may try to retaliate.

Accommodation o These results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win." This strategy is generally used when the issue is more important to others than to you. It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you recognize that you are wrong. The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You may also lose credibility and future influence.

Avoidance o o These results from a low concern for your group's own interests coupled with a low concern for the interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other issues are more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more information is needed. The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.

Conflict Analysis Exercise: Think of a controversial issue to analyze. On a separate sheet of paper, answer these questions.

Groups involved Who are the groups involved? Who do they represent? How are they organized?

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What is their power base? Are the groups capable of working together? What are the historical relationships among the groups? Substance How did the conflict arise? How are the main and secondary issues described? Can negative issues be reframed positively? Are the issues negotiable? Have positions been taken and, if so, are there common interests? What information is available and what other information is needed? What values or interests are challenged? Possible strategies Would consensus serve all interests? Are there external constraints or other influences that must be accommodated? What are the past experiences (if any) of the groups working together? What is the timeline for a decision? How will the public and the media be involved and informed? Will an outside negotiator be needed? Step 3: Pre-negotiation: To set the stage for effective negotiation, the groundwork must be laid. The following should occur prior to negotiation. Initiation One partner raises the possibility of negotiation and begins the process. If no one is willing to approach the others to encourage them to reach an agreement, a trusted outsider could be brought in as a facilitator. Assessment o Conditions must be right for negotiation to be successful. o Key players must be identified and invited. o Each side must be willing to collaborate with the others. Reasonable deadlines and sufficient resources to support the effort must exist. o Spokespersons for each group must be identified and involved. o Parties need to determine which issues are negotiable and which are not. Ground rules and agenda o o o The groups must agree on ground rules for communication, negotiation and decision making. They should agree on the objectives of the negotiation process. An agenda of issues to be covered needs to be developed.

Organization o Meeting logistics must be established, including agreed upon times and places.

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o o People must be contacted and encouraged to attend. Minutes must be taken so that information can be distributed before and after meetings.

Joint fact-finding o The groups must agree on what information is relevant to the conflict. This should include what is known and not known about social and technical issues. o Agreement is also needed on methods for generating answers to questions.

Step 4: Negotiation: Interests o When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated positions. o Interests include the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the common goal. Options o To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests. o Do not judge ideas or favor any of the options suggested. o Encourage creativity, not commitment. Evaluation o Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be discussed. o Determine together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests. Written agreement o Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding. o This helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated clearly. Commitment o Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of the agreement. o Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor their commitments. When o o o evaluating options... Use objective criteria for ranking ideas Make trade-offs among different issues Combine different options to form acceptable agreements

Step 5: Post-negotiation: Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some key steps include:

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Ratification o o o The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that have a role to play in the agreement. These organizations should be partners and should have been involved in the previous steps. Each organization will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt the agreement.

Implementation o o o You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement. Communication and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried out. The partnership will need to have a plan to monitor progress, document success, resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.

Negotiation skills: o Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts develop at home, at work and when dealing with issues like those related to watershed management. When negotiating...

Separate people from the problem: When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique needs, emotions and perceptions. Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions: These conflicts may exist mainly in peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put themselves into the other's shoes so they can understand each other's point of view. Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions: Be careful not to place blame. In addition, recognize and understand the other side's emotions as well as your own. Interest vs. Position: o o o People often confuse interests with positions. An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are many possible ways of addressing this interest. One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another position might be a deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organizing a clean-up day.

Focus on interests, not positions: o o Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up with better agreements. Even when people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few shared interests.

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o o It takes time and effort to identify interests. Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to write down each group's interests as they are discovered. It helps to ask why others take the positions or make the decisions they do. Partners will have multiple interests. Interests involving important human needs (such as security, economic wellbeing, a sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are difficult to negotiate.

Develop optional solutions: o o o When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to meet as many of each side's interests as possible. Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision). Brainstorming is discussed in the Leading & Communicating guide.

Some obstacles to developing innovative options are: Judging and rejecting prematurely Searching for a single best answer Putting limits on scope or vision Considering only your own interests To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different partners. Focus on shared interests to make the process smoother for all involved. Look for meaningful opportunities, not simple solutions. Developing objective criteria: o o o When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives, revisit the conflicting interests. These can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin developing criteria for judging alternatives. Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.

Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it helps to explore the criteria used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with your partners or outside experts.

Ways People Deal With Conflict: There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation. Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict.

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1. Avoid it: Pretend it is not there or ignore it. a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time. 2. Accommodate it: Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you compromise yourself. a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and causes conflicts within you. 3. Competing: Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors love accommodators. a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position. 4. Compromising: Mutual give-and-take. a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on. 5. Collaborating: Focus on working together. a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs. b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment. How might you select your conflict management style? There are times when we have a choice to engage in or avoid a conflict. The following six variables should be considered when you decide whether to engage in a conflict. 1. How invested in the relationship are you? The importance of the working/personal relationship often dictates whether you will engage in a conflict. If you value the person and/or the relationship, going through the process of conflict resolution is important. 2. How important is the issue to you? Even if the relationship is not of great value to you, one must often engage in conflict if the issue is important to you. For example, if the issue is a belief, value, or regulation that you believe in or are hired to enforce, then engaging in the conflict is necessary. If the relationship and the issue are both important to you, there is an even more compelling reason to engage in the conflict. 3. Do you have the energy for the conflict? Many of us say, There is not time to do all that I want to do in a day. Often the issue is not how much time is available but how much energy we have for what we need to do. Even in a track meet, runners are given recovery time before they have to run another race. Energy, not time, is being managed in these situations. 4. Are you aware of the potential consequences? Prior to engaging in a conflict, thinking about anticipated consequences from engaging in the conflict is wise. For example, there may be a risk for your safety, a risk for job loss, or an opportunity for a better working relationship. Many times people will engage in conflict and then be shocked by the outcome or consequence of

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engaging in the conflict. Thoughtful reflection about the consequences, both positive and negative, is useful before engaging in or avoiding a conflict. 5. Are you ready for the consequences? After analyzing potential consequences, determine whether you are prepared for the consequences of engaging in the conflict. For example, one employee anticipated a job loss if she continued to engage in the conflict she was having with her boss over a particular issue. After careful consideration, the employee thought and believed strongly enough about the issue that she did engage in the conflict with her boss. Her annual contract was not renewed for the upcoming year. Because this individual had thought through the consequences of engaging in the conflict, she was prepared to be without a job for a while and able to financially and emotionally plan for this outcome. Most consequences of engaging in conflict are not this severe, but this example illustrates the value of thinking through consequences.

6. What are the consequences if you do not engage in the conflict? To avoid losing a sense of self, there are times when you must engage in conflict. Most people have core values, ideas, beliefs, or morals. If a person is going to sacrifice one of their core beliefs by avoiding a conflict, personal loss of respect must be considered. In such cases, even if a person is not excited about confronting the conflict, one must carefully consider the consequences of evading the conflict. When the personal consequences of turning away from the conflict outweigh all other factors, then a person usually must take part in the conflict. Rationale "Students do not come to school with all the social skills they need to collaborate effectively with others. Therefore, teachers need to teach the appropriate communication, leadership, trust, decision making, and conflict management skills to students and provide the motivation to use these skills in order for groups to function effectively. Faculty must take responsibility to help students develop their skills to participate on and lead teams. How might individual students apply this information to improve their conflict management skills? Applying the preceding information about the five different modes of conflict management, factors affecting models of conflict management, and processes for selecting one or more approaches to conflict involves both self-awareness and an awareness of the others involved in the conflict. In terms of self-awareness, reflecting on the following questions would provide useful information in selecting how to approach a conflict situation. 1 1. Am I in conflict? 2 2. With whom am I in conflict? 3 3. Why am I motivated to resolve the conflict? 4 4. What conflict mode am I going to use to manage this conflict? Since conflict involves at least two people, improving awareness of the other party involved in a conflict might also be useful in choosing how to approach a conflict situation. Reflecting on the following questions might improve awareness of the other party involved in a confliction. 1 1. What is the nature of the conflict, that is, what is the conflict about?

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2 3 4 2. What might motivate the other person(s) involved to resolve the conflict? 3. What conflict modes is the other person using? 4. How might I Intervene to resolve/manage the conflict?

Learning more about conflict allows greater intentionality in selecting a conflict response. Most people have set reactions to conflicts. By learning more about principles of conflict, conflict modes, and reflection on the above questions, we can be more intentional in deciding on a conflict response. Greater intentionality will likely lead to more effective conflict management. The following examples provide additional suggestions that individuals might use to improve their conflict management skills.

Individual Reflection Exercise In addition to reflecting on the preceding questions, Karl Smith6 suggests that the following exercise might provide individuals with valuable information about their perspectives on conflict. Exercise: Write the word conflict in the center of a blank piece of paper and draw a circle around it. Quickly jot down all the words and phrases you associate with the word conflict by arranging them around your circle. Review your list of associations and categorize them as positive, negative, or neutral. Count the total number of positive, negative, and neutral associations, and calculate the percentages that are positive, negative, and neutral. Did you have more than 90% positive? Did you have more than 90% negative? What do your associations with the word conflict indicate about your views about conflict and your approach to conflict? Learning About Your Conflict Modes Review brief descriptions of the five modes and choose your primary conflict mode. Supplementing individual reflection on conflict modes, you might find out more about your modes of conflict using instruments that are available. Completing the questionnaire, scoring your responses, and reflecting on your answers might provide valuable information about your approaches to conflict. The TKI is a more recent instrument that is based on the Blake and Mouton conflict model and provides information about your conflict modes in terms of the modes. Taking the TKI assessment would provide information about your primary conflict modes. Equipped with this information, additional individual reflection would help you to determine your current level of comfort with your conflict resolution styles. Then, you might decide whether you want to make changes. Creating an Individual Conflict Management Plan Create a conflict management plan. A conflict management plan is a thought and behavior process one can follow when in conflict. A person creates a list of steps she/he can follow when a conflict comes up so that the person can productively manage/solve the conflict. These steps have to be thoughts or behaviors that can be realistically done. The literature shows that, if we can identify we are in conflict and can then implement a conflict management plan, our opportunity for resolution of the conflict increases significantly. We identify we are in conflict by identifying our physiological responses when in conflict and by identifying thoughts and feelings we

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are having that trigger us to realize that we are experiencing a conflict. There are three steps to making a conflict plan. First, write down what physiological responses you have when you know you are in conflict (e.g., my palms are sweaty, my heart is racing). Second, write down what thoughts you typically have when in a conflict (e.g., I want to hurt him; I want to just get away from her). Finally, list 48 steps you can follow to help you manage your thoughts and emotions in a productive way to manage/solve your conflict Listening Improving listening skills is one approach to improving conflict management skills.

How might a student team apply this information to improve its approaches to conflict and/or skills in managing conflict within the team?
Applying the preceding information about the five different modes of conflict management, factors affecting models of conflict management, and processes for selecting one or more approaches to conflict within the context of a student team involves increasing the awareness of the each of the team members about the way the other team members view conflict and how the other team members approach conflict. There are two basic types of team activities. 1 In the first type of team activity, individual team members learn more about their perspectives and approaches to conflict through either individual reflection or appropriate instruments. Then, the individuals share with their team members what they have learned. 2 In the second type, the team engages in an activity that simulates a hopefully low level of conflict. Then, the team reflects about its actions, learns from its experiences, and develops ways to address conflict more constructively in the future. The following examples provide suggestions for possible team activities. Collaborating with Different Individual Conflict Modes Ask each member to complete the exercise on the preceding page in which she/he identifies their primary mode of conflict management. Then, ask each individual team member to share her/his own primary mode of conflict management and to provide examples that illustrate that mode. Next, ask the team to identify potential strengths for the combination of different styles and potential problems that might arise with the combination of conflict management modes. Finally, ask the team to develop strategies to minimize potential problems and build on their strengths. Developing a Positive Team Perspective about Conflict Start with the individual reflection exercise on the preceding page in which each member writes the word conflict and associates different words or phrases with conflict. Then, ask each member to share the insights she/he learned through the individual reflection. Next, ask the team to take all of the positive associations with conflict and combine them together to construct positive ways in which the team might view conflict. Finally, ask the team to take all of the negative associations with conflict and devise ways in which the negative associates might be eliminated or minimized.

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Developing a Consensus Decision Ask teams to rank fifteen causes of death in the country in terms of their frequency of occurrence. These types of exercises can stimulate team development in several ways. One of the ways is to provoke a low level of conflict within the team and to learn from its experience. After completing the exercise, the team can debrief its performance. The team might address several questions. What were the positive aspects in the way we handled conflict? How did our various modes of conflict management help our performance? How did our various modes of conflict management hinder our performance? How might we improve the ways in which we managed conflict within our team? Intrateam Communication Improving intrateam communication can reduce the likelihood of conflict and increase the chances for faster, more effective management of conflict when it occurs.

Case study: Dr Agadir

The letter from the plant pathology department was very strong. It concluded by observing: "If this is the attitude of the biochemistry department, we shall have no research in collaboration with them as of now. Not only do they lack a healthy attitude towards collaborative work, they have often refused to share achievements. Now they want to stifle our work on cocoa swollen shoot virus, notwithstanding the fact that we have been working on it for over a decade. We would of course continue our work in this area, but without the biochemistry department." Dr (Mrs.) Swanson, Executive Director, Cocoa Research Institute of Savana (CRIS) put down the letter and was quite annoyed. She had known that there was trouble between the biochemistry and plant pathology departments, or rather between two senior scientists of these departments. She had not expected it to reach this level. There had been several instances of conflicts between the scientists and their divisions, but the conflicts had never reached boiling point. They were usually resolved amicably, even before the executive director took note of them. Mostly the conflicts arose over allocation of plots for experiments, budgetary allocations and participation in international conferences. Scientists designed their experiments in consultation with the statistician. They would then apply for a plot of land, providing a drawing of the area for laying out the experiment. The request would be considered by the plots committee, consisting of the heads of the research divisions and head of the plantation division. Each division had a certain land area allocated to it, and it could use that land for its experiments as agreed upon within the division. The plots committee simply took note of that. Difficulties arose when the land belonging to some other division was sought, and in particular when the other division did not want to release its land. In the recent past there were some problems with the plant breeding department over a large piece of land on which a cocoa plantation had stood from the very beginning of the institute. The plantation had to be destroyed because of a large-scale disease infestation which was impossible to cure. When the land was cleared, almost all other divisions put in a request for parts of the land for their experiments. The plant breeding department resented these requests, and there were heated discussions in the plots committee. The issue was somehow resolved satisfactorily within the plots committee. The plant

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breeding department retained most of the land, although a small part was temporarily allocated to other divisions for their experiments. Objections were often raised by scientists when an area proposed for use in an experiment was considered by them to be unsuitable. For example, all experiments on virus studies had to be conducted on land at the edge of the experimental farm so as to isolate them from other experiments; otherwise they might be a source of infection and spread the virus diseases. In such cases, a scientist had to give up a preferred location. Frequently the scientists asked for a larger area than was necessary for their experiments. In those cases, the statistician - who was a permanent invitee to the meetings of the plots committee - was asked to review the experimental design with the scientists. When the plots committee denied the request for allocation of a particular plot, for whatever reason, it helped find another plot. Occasionally a proposed experiment might not be appropriate for a particular purpose, even though the scientist proposing the experiment might insist on it. Such cases were also resolved through peer intervention within the division concerned. Conflicts over allocation of funds were not unusual, with every division trying to get more so that its research program could proceed smoothly. Participation in international conferences also led to some conflict among the competing scientists. Conflicts over sharing of scientific material and equipment were not uncommon. But all such conflicts were temporary, and had never affected the work culture of the institute. However, the conflict between the plant pathology and biochemistry departments was different. It was a conflict between two departments which had always collaborated in the past. It was a conflict between two senior scientists who had worked together on the same problem over a decade, and had jointly published their work in respected journals. For some strange reason, friends had become foes. In the process, they had vitiated to some extent the research environment of the institute.

Dr Agadir (As narrated by Dr Agadir)

Dr Agadir joined CRIS as a Research Assistant (now re-designated as Assistant Research Officer) in 1965. That was soon after he had obtained his first degree in biochemistry. He was put in what was then the chemistry division, which comprised both soil science and biochemistry. The biochemistry wing was at that time mainly engaged in research on cocoa swollen shoot virus, in collaboration with the pathology division. Collaboration between various research divisions was part of the culture of the institute, as it was always necessary, particularly so between plant pathology and biochemistry. There had been close collaboration between the virologists, breeders and biochemists in the study of screening techniques, detection of infection, symptomatology, etc., for research studies on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Dr Agadir was asked to work on various aspects of the cocoa swollen shoot virus purification problem. His work during the period 1965-66 was published in a respected professional journal. In September 1966, Dr Agadir went to the University of Sheffield to do a doctoral programme. He successfully defended his research thesis in 1969, was awarded his PhD, and returned to the institute. He was then promoted to research officer. Dr Asmera, the then director of CRIS, suggested several research problems to Dr Agadir. He selected four problems:

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(i) Pesticide residues in cocoa beans, (ii) Cocoa bio-products (pectin and cocoa husk), (iii) Cocoa swollen shoot virus purification, and (iv) Nutrition of mealy bugs. The last problem was in fact suggested by a Swedish biologist who was interested in rearing mealy bugs artificially and feeding them on a liquid diet. He was keen to know the most desired composition of the diet. The interest in mealy bugs arose because they are the vectors of cocoa swollen shoot virus. By 1972, Dr Agadir had published in several scientific journals. His work on mealy bugs and pectin was well received. These were independent publications. By then, Dr Agadir was working as the main biochemist since Mr R.H. Wode, who was part of an Overseas Development Administration (ODA) technical team from the United Kingdom, had left for Rustberg at about the time Dr Agadir returned from Sheffield in 1969. Dr Agadir recalls that his collaborative work with Dr Ouadda began in 1969 when the latter suggested a research project on factors which affected virus multiplication and symptom development in cocoa. This problem was originally suggested to Dr Ouadda by the chief of the ODA team. Since this involved research in biochemistry, both Dr Ouadda and Dr Agadir teamed up. Together they published some research papers. Dr Ouadda left for the University of Dublin to do a PhD. From 1971 to 1974, while Dr Ouadda was away, Dr Agadir continued to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus purification. The plant pathology department was providing infected material, such as cocoa beans and leaves, but no pathologist was involved directly in the research work. Dr Agadir faced several impediments in his work. He felt that the head of the ODA technical team, himself a plant pathologist, did not want him to work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. The ODA team had been working on cocoa swollen shoot virus for many years without making much progress. In contrast, Dr Agadir was already claiming remarkable progress. The ODA team brought back Dr C.H. Cantor to continue work on cocoa swollen shoot virus. Dr Cantor came as a plant pathologist and not as a biochemist.

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CONCLUSION
Productively engaging in conflict is always valuable. Most people are willing and interested in resolving their conflicts; they just need the appropriate skill set and opportunities in which to practice this skill set. Without a conflict skill set, people want to avoid conflict, hoping it will go away or not wanting to make a big deal out of nothing. Research and personal experiences show us that, when we avoid conflict, the conflict actually escalates and our thoughts and feelings become more negative. Through conflict self-awareness we can more effectively manage our conflicts and therefore our professional and personal relationships. Furthermore, by discussing issues related to conflict management, teams can establish an expected protocol to be followed by team members when in

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conflict. All teams and organizations have a conflict culture (the way the team responds to conflict). However, most teams never discuss what the conflict culture is, therefore providing the opportunity for individual team members to make assumptions that can be counterproductive to the team. Practicing ones conflict management skills leads to more successful engagement in conflict with outcomes of relief, understanding, better communication, and greater productivity for both the individual and the team. When we manage our conflicts more effectively, we use less energy on the burdensome tasks such as systemic conflict and get to spend more of our energy on our projects at work and building our relationships. Below are references that can assist both individuals and teams to greater conflict management success. In a world where huge friction exists between individuals, Conflict Management becomes an area which needs to be

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addressed very seriously & the topic should be inculcated in the B-Schools & Corporate around the world.

BIBLOGRAPHY

The information has been collected from the following: www.soople.com www.google.com Organizational Behavior by Stephens Robbins. The Times of India (Sunday Edition). The case study has been copied from www.wikipedia.com Power Point Presentations have been adapted from the text.

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