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A constructivist approach to Educational Technology By Daniel Matthews Graduate student at Boise State University EDTECH 504 August, 2, 2013

Abstract Educational Technology remains without a definition after more than forty years of experts and scientists trying to come up with a definition they could agree on. As a result educational theories related to the field of Educational Technology are also largely undefined. In response to the lack of definition, this paper suggests a definition for Educational Technology and discusses how it is closely linked to constructivist theories. It also looks at the role technology plays in the rapidly growing field of constructivism. It looks at some of the challenges technology faces today and some solutions that will allow teachers to run a classroom using educational technology without needing a large budget.

The Application of Constructivism in Educational Technology Introduction The internet has revolutionized the way we live as a society. As a result education has made drastic changes from the way attendance is taken to the way grades are entered and how parents can gain access to student information. In the classroom, many teachers have not made changes with the changing trend in education. Consequently educational technology that has been introduced has gone largely misused and educationally sound constructivist theories have been fundamentally misapplied in the classroom (Petraglia, 1998, p. 53). The constructivist learning theories describe many characteristics that make educational technology most effective in the classroom. Definition of Educational Technology The field of educational technology is still largely undefined. It has remained that way for the past almost fifty years (Luppicini, 2005, p. 103). One challenge facing those trying to define educational technology is the challenge of defining the word technology. Engineers and social scientists have two different definitions of technology (Luppicini, 2005, p. 104). While engineers will look at technology as a tool, they will consider the structure of the technology and how it is used. Social scientists will look at the roles the technology plays in society. In order to create a working definition we must look at technology both as a tool and look at its roles in society today. As we advance in a technology driven world, Luppicini (2005) created his definition of Educational Technology in society as:

4 a goal oriented problem-solving systems approach utilizing tools, techniques, theories, and methods from multiple knowledge domains to: (1) design, develop, and evaluate, human and mechanical resources efficiently and effectively in order to facilitate and leverage all aspects of learning, and (2) guide change agency and

transformation of educational systems and practices in order to contribute to influencing change in society (p. 105). The definition helps clear up misconceptions about Educational Technology and its use in the classroom. The first important part of the definition is a goal oriented problem-solving systems approach (Luppicini, 2005, p. 105). The whole theme in the classroom is as a goal oriented environment where students are working on their own with their peers to problem solve. The ability of students to problem solve is critical in retention of information. As they work through the problems they internalize more information which helps their intrinsic motivation; it also helps create a more transformative experience because they get into that place where theyre on the edge of knowing and still learning (Taylor, 2007, p. 185). The technology helps with utilizing tools such as software and allowing students to use their own mobile devices in the classroom which improves student engagement and allows them to utilize tools they use every day in society. Students who have access to their class work when they are at home are more likely to complete assignments outside class. One example of a program students can use is USA TestPrep, which offers state standardized test questions for K-12 in all 48 continental states in the United States. Teachers can assign certain test questions or organize a test for the students to take; the students can take the tests on their mobile device, a tablet, or a computer anywhere they have an internet connection. The software then gives

5 immediate feedback and the instructors receive a report analyzing what types of problems students in the class do not understand which helps instructors see what standards they need to cover at greater length. The next part in the definition is using techniques, theories, and methods from multiple knowledge domains (Luppicini, 2005, p. 105). Technology helps teachers utilize multiple domains in the classroom by allowing students to research some information on their mobile devices or laptop; students can find audio, video, or text-based information about the topic. Something as simple as a blog where the instructor posts tutorial videos, assignments, and due dates can make a huge difference in collaboration between students, parents, and educators. Students need to use multiple domains to design, develop, and evaluate, human and mechanical resources efficiently and effectively in order to facilitate and leverage all aspects of learning (Luppicini, 2005, p. 105). The purpose of technology use in the classroom is to allow the instructor to design instruction and learning activities that allow students to evaluate, and learn, and develop their own projects or parts of work that relate to what theyre learning in the classroom. This is where many students will draw the parallels between the work they are doing in class and what is going on in the world around them. Not only does technology allow the use of multiple domains, but technology can be great way to create alternate assignments so teachers can individualize

assignments. For example, a teacher could assign five questions at the end of a chapter and allow students to choose one of the three options to answer the questions; they could write down the questions and the answers on paper, design a Prezi answering the questions and share it with the instructor, or make a short audio podcast answering the questions. Some students chose each one of those

6 categories and the number of students who completed the assignment and the quality of work could be higher because the students are more engaged in their work. Some students even willingly share their ideas with the rest of the class because they accomplish something they are excited about. The technology allows teachers to increase collaboration and create more meaningful, hands-on learning activities. The final part of the definition is to guide change agency and transformation of educational systems and practices in order to contribute to influencing change in society (Luppicini, 2005, p. 105). The key to this part of the definition is using technology daily to create an opportunity to produce a transformative (changes the way students view something) experience. A well designed activity will lead students to enact their sense of social and/or environmental responsibility (Taylor, 2007, p. 178). Instructors can use technology to challenge students to test the validity of an assumption instead of starting with the assumption being true. This critical thinking by the students can help lead to a more transformative experience because the students have to evaluate their own stances on a topic. In the evaluation of their stance, students decide what they really believe. As a result students will leave the class period and have a desire to change something in their personal lives or in society. That transformation leads students to influence change on society down the road. Educational Technology and Constructivism Using a working definition of Educational Technology, we can now look at how constructivism fits well in the classroom. Many research studies have been done and an equal number have failed to come up with a working educational theory

7 related to Educational Technology (De Castell et al., 2000; Issroff & Scanlon, 2002; Lankshear, Peters, & Knobel, 2000; Taylor, 2007). All of the research studies compose their own ideas of what educational theory of technology should be and how it should be constructed. Some even say the field is too big to have a single educational theory (De Castell et al., 2000; Issroff & Scanlon, 2002). The challenge with an undefined Educational Technology is it is very difficult to define a theory related to an undefined area of study. Using our definition we can apply principles and theories that will help clear up the issue and give a great opportunity to give clear direction to the use of technology in education. The given definition fits very well with a constructivist viewpoint. Constructivism is the belief that students need to experience things in order to create a meaningful relationship between the things they are learning and their experiences. As students have more experiential knowledge from their surroundings they develop a deeper level of understanding and it increases intrinsic motivation for the students to learn (Petraglia, 1998, p. 57; Reeves, 1994, para. 16). This increase in intrinsic motivation is a goal for many teachers because it leads to higher retention of information and improves behavior and homework completion. Collaborative learning, apprenticeship, and cognitive flexibility are the key theories linking constructivist psychology and pedagogy. Collaborative learning says that learning in a social setting leads to increased ownership of the materials. Apprenticeship is the idea that authentic, hands-on learning is superior. Cognitive flexibility states that if students face ill-structured problems in a learning environment, it will translate to real-world problems which are typically also illstructured. In the middle of it all is the need for authenticity both in the tasks the students are doing in the classroom, but alsoand for the social experience the

8 students are having through the course of the year. Teachers who gain a mastery of the process allow for students to live with some discomfort while on the edge of knowing, in the process of gaining new insights and understanding (Taylor, 2007, p. 187). It is in that place on the edge of discomfort where students can really take ownership of the content and have a potential transformative experience with their education. A part of creating a transformative experience in the classroom is creating experience that relate well to real life. Petraglia (1998) stated the problem many constructivists run into is trying to create real-life experiences in the classroom before students have gained the prerequisite knowledge outside the classroom (p. 60). He calls this preauthentication, while experiencing something in the classroom after experiencing it in real life is called authentication. Petraglia argues that if students try to learn something inside the classroom before they have the prerequisite skills, it is actually detrimental to their learning and it works against many of the things constructivists are trying to accomplish. The instructor needs to know the students well enough to gauge when they are disconnecting because they do not have enough prerequisite knowledge about a topic; sometimes it is best if the teacher will stop or slow down an activity. While using technology can help increase authenticity in the classroom and allow the students to have more opportunities for collaborative learning and cognitive flexibility, none of these are guaranteed solely because the instructor chooses to use technology in the classroom. Authentication is going to be based on a genuine, real-world experience and then students enter the classroom and work with a model after gaining valuable first-hand knowledge. Teachers who can create more learning activities filled with

9 authentication will find students leave class very fulfilled about what they have learned. Creating a transformative learning experience is important (Taylor, 2007, p. 173), this can only be accomplished through collaborative environment where students do hands-on learning activities they have to think critically about. In the process the activities allow students to problem-solve and evaluate not only a solution but also the method for coming to that conclusion. In the past decade there has been a shift in education from a focus on information of a particular content to an emphasis on communication, collaboration, and understanding the factors that support a community (Conole, Dyke, Oliver, & Seale, 2004). This recent emphasis on communication came in conjunction with increased ability to communicate and collaborate in an online community. An influx in mobile technology has swiftly increased the amount of communication happening all day long between students. Technology helps with communication in the classroom because of the ability to communicate with a large community at the click of a mouse or a single touch on a mobile device (Lankshear et al., 2000, p. 31). An important result of greater communication is students utilize more collaboration opportunities even with students who are in different class periods or different schools. Greater collaboration leads to the opportunity for greater community awareness. Constructivists believe the development of content alone does not lead to more effective learning, there must be a structure and a learning environment that enables communities to develop (Conole et al., 2004). The networking capabilities of the web enable more diverse access to different forms of expertise and more potential for development in communities. Technology also allows for multiple forms of synchronous and asynchronous communication which allows a richer, more

10 diverse form of dialogue between students, instructors, and peers. It also leads to more indirect forms of learning. Instead of receiving all of their knowledge from an instructor, students gain an opportunity to learn from experts in the community and in the world abroad. The opportunity for asynchronous learning also offers increased opportunity for student reflection. As students are able to collaborate more and have more opportunities for reflection that sense of accomplishment and belonging happens in the classroom. With all the scholastic opportunities technology offers in the classroom, it doesnt come without its share of challenges. Technology Issues in Schools Educational theories over the last ten years have been reared significantly toward social interaction in learning and how technology can increase that (Issroff & Scanlon, 2002, p. 10). As a result, schools are trying to keep pace by growing increasing technology access in the classroom to match the growing number of students coming into the school system. A challenge as technology rapidly evolves is keeping up with the growing use of technology on individual mobile devices and allowing equal access for low income and high income, rural and urban schools. In a time of financial insecurity with the recent decrease in the housing market and reduced property taxes coming in to help cover the costs of school systems, technology has been one of the first things school systems have cut in spending. Teachers in the classroom then face a growing number of teacher evaluation tools, including any states that are a part of Race to the Top initiative, that evaluate a teachers use of technology in the classroom. Without access to updated technology and proper training on the technology they have, teachers are concerned about the evaluation tools and have a good reason to be concerned about it.

11 The National Education Association (2013) says the best way to make sure teachers are being properly trained on new technology is to spend one-third of the technology budget on training for the teachers involved (para. 1). The key to using technology correctly in the classroom is the proper training for teachers. Many technologies available to students today would not require additional money to be spent. Most schools that have wireless internet in the school could use simple technology like Google Apps for Education (GAFE) which is a free, web-based software schools can use to give students access to school documents at school and at home. The Google Apps software can be accessed from any student or teachers Smartphone, tablet, or computer anywhere they have an internet connection. All of this at no extra cost to the school. Other technology will help with collaboration and hands-on learning activities is also available free of charge. For example the website Todays Meet is a free collaboration based website where students can text comments or questions for a teacher. A student can post a question on the site and it can then be answered by another student or the teacher can reply to the questions posted at the appropriate time in the classroom. For schools that do not have Wi-Fi in the schools or even high speed internet yet, there are many grants available from the U.S. Department of Educations Education Technology

department. The ultimate challenge facing schools is the lack of funding to maintain functional equipment which can be solved in many districts by switching expensive software to free software offered through web-based programs. These free collaborative tools will allow students to continue to collaborate in the classroom and follow solid theory-based learning without a large expense to the schools. Conclusion

12 Free technology available to schools can greatly reduce the stress on policy makers trying to figure out how to save teacher jobs, keep classroom sizes down, and keep technology in the classroom up-to-date all at the same time. That same technology contains all the tools to allow students many opportunities to collaborate with peers, teachers, parents, and community members. The social links to the community and the world allows students to have more engaging experiences in the classroom and create a link between their learning and the real world. As students collaborate in problem solving activities with their peers they are forced to think critically about different scenarios in the classroom they will begin to bring the same thinking into their home lives. They gain the opportunity to access information through multiple forms of media and multiple domains, and they have improved time to reflect on their learning. These collaborative learning opportunities that are the center of constructivist learning theories work perfectly hand-in-hand with Educational Technology. In education today teachers and policy makers should adapt the definition of Educational Technology proposed in this paper so they can begin to design instruction that has clear written out goals so they can link it up with the most effective learning theories.

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References Conole, G., Dyke, M., Oliver, M., & Seale, J. (2004). Mapping pedagogy and tools for effective design. Computers & Education, 43(1/2), 17-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2003.12.018 De Castell, S., Bryson, M., & Jenson, J. (2002). Object lessons: Towards an educational theory of technology. First Monday, 7(1). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/923/84 5 Issroff, K., & Scanlon, E. (2002). Educational technology: The influence of theory. Journal of Interactive Media in Education , 6. Retrieved from http://wwwjime.open.ac.uk/2002/6/issroff-scanlon-02-6.pdf Lankshear, C., Peters, M., & Knobel, M. (2000). Information, knowledge and learning: Some issues facing epistemology and education in a digital age. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 34(1), 17-39. Retrieved from http://michaelbatie.com/papers/information_and_knowledge.pdf Luppicini, R. (2005). A systems definition of educational technology in society. Educational Technology & Society, 8(3), 103-109. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_3/10.pdf National Education Association (2013). NEA Position on Technology and Education . Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/home/30096.htm Petraglia, J. (1998). The real world on a short leash: The (mis)application of constructivism to the design of educational technology. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 46(3), 53-65. Reeves, T. C. (1994). Evaluating What Matters in Computer-Based Education. In M. Wild & D. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), Computer education: New perspectives, 219-246. Retrieved from http://www.eduworks.com/Documents/Workshops/EdMedia1998/docs/reeves. html Taylor, E. W. (2007). An update of transformative learning theory: a critical review of the empirical research (1999-2005). International Journal Of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 173-191.

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