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Todd Sayers Chapter 7 In our world, most machines are not 100% efficient.

Most machines evolve thermal energy through friction. The study of thermodynamics allows for an understanding of the limitations of efficiency for machines. Thermodynamics deals with the study of thermal energy and the transfer of energy to and from a particular system. We utilize the heats of combustion of materials by burning coal, oil, and natural gas in our power plants. Figure 7.1 shows the flow of energy in the U.S. electricity system in 2003. A few definitions: 11. Temperature: a measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference to some standard value. The temperature of two systems is the same when the systems are in thermal equilibrium. 12. Distinguish between heat and thermal energy. Heat is energy transferred between substances or systems due to a temperature difference between them. Thermal energy is the total internal energy of the system. This has to do with the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules, i.e. how fast the molecules are vibrating and their chemical bonds. 13. Is cold the opposite of thermal energy or the lack of it? Cold is the lack of thermal energy. 14. What is Absolute Zero or zero temperature? Is it attainable? How much energy can be taken from a system at 0K? Absolute zero is the coldest possible temperature. More formally, it is the temperature at which entropy reaches its minimum value. The laws of thermodynamics state that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means. A system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state. The kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed. However, in the classical interpretation, it is zero and the thermal energy of matter vanishes. 15. How does the law of conservation of energy relate to the first law of thermodynamics? The First Law of Thermodynamics states that the change in a system's internal energy is equal to the difference between heat added to the system from its surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings. Which is the same thing as conservation of energy. 16. State the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Relates what we have learned about the direction of heat flow. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that when energy is transferred, there will be less energy available at

Todd Sayers the end of the transfer process than at the beginning. Due to entropy, which is the measure of disorder in a closed system, all of the available energy will not be useful. 17. State the Third Law of Thermodynamics: Restates what we have learned about the lowest limit of temperature. The third law of thermodynamics states that as the temperature approaches absolute zero (0 K), the entropy of a system approaches a constant (and minimum) value. The entropy of a perfect crystalline state is zero at 0 K. In this way, the third law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy of any substance. The third law also says that it is not possible for any system to reach absolute zero in a finite number of steps. This effectively makes it impossible to
ever attain a temperature of exactly 0 K.

18. Specific Heat Capacity (c): The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius is called the specific heat capacity of the substance 19. Does a substance that heats up quickly have a high or low specific heat capacity? Low specific heat capacity 20. How does the specific heat capacity of water compare with the specific heat capacity of other common materials? Much higher than most

21. Why does a bimetallic strip bend with changes in temperature? How might it work in a thermostat?

It is composed of two different types of metal. Different metals expand and contract at different speeds and amounts when subjected to a temperature change. Thermostats use bimetallic strip thats made of different metals such as copper and iron, copper and steel and brass and steel thats bonded

Todd Sayers together and rolled into a coil. As the temperature changes, the different metals expand or contract at different rates, causing the strip to bend. When the strip bends enough to touch an electrical contact and complete an electrical circuit, it turns on the heating or cooling system. If the temperature changes enough to unbend the strip, contact is lost, and the system turns off.

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