A Brief Analysis of The Geometric Series UPLOAD VERSION

1
A Brief Analysis Of The Geometric Series

A Brief
Analysis Of
The Geometric
Series
Type 1 Mathematical
investigation
MD. Rakibur Rahman
2

Introduction

A geometric series is essentially a sequence of real* numbers, where
each term after the first is found by multiplying the first term (t
1
) by a non-
zero constant known as the common ratio (r).
For example: the sequence 2, 8, 32, 128, is a geometric sequence,
where the first term or t
1
is 2, while the common ratio (r) is 4.
While the name first term is self explanatory, the common ratio is
the non-zero constant by which each receding term is multiplied by to obtain
the next. In our example, the common ratio is:
=
nd
2
st
1
2 term 8
= = 4
1 term 2
t
t

Thus, in a more general manner, if the n
th
term is t
n
, then the previous
term is t
n-1
, then the common ratio or r:

=
1
n
n
t
r
t

Now, the definition of a term of the geometric sequence is the first
term (t
1
or a) multiplied by the common ratio to the power of the term
number minus one. To elaborate, for example: if the 1
st
term is 5, the common
ratio is 2, then the 4
th
term will be:

4 1 3
5 4 = 5 4 = 320
Again, in a more general manner, if the first term is a, the common
ratio is r, then the nth term or t
n
:

1
=
n
n
t ar
This leads us to conclude that the general geometric sequence must be
formulated as shown below:

2 3 1
, , , , ... ,
n
a ar ar ar ar

*Real numbers are defined as numbers that can be expressed using the real number system, and
thus excludes all imaginary and complex numbers
Sum of a geometric series
3

One of the most important, as well as useful applications/
functions of the geometric series is the sum of the series. If a geometric series
is defined as:

2 3 1
, , , , ... ,
n
a ar ar ar ar
Then the sum of the series or S
n
of the first n number of terms is as follows:

= + +
2 3 1
+ + ... +
n
n
S a ar ar ar ar
For example, 2, 8, 32, 128 is a geometric series. The sum of the first 4 terms of
the series is:
= + + +
4
2 8 32 128 = 170 S
Therefore, the sum of the first 4 terms of the given series is 170.

The sum of a geometric series is one of the most useful
applications of algebra used in our financial world. Interests, loans and
compounding function calculations would not be possible without the use of
geometric sequences. Patterns across natural artifacts occur while following
the rules of a geometric sequence. In physics, rate of change of many functions
occur with respect to a geometric sequence. Chemical reactions at the ionic
levels occur according to a geometric approach. Biological micro-organisms
multiply and breed with respect to a geometric sequence. The importance of a
geometric sequence and the sum is essential to almost any field of education.

Derivation of the sum formula

4

Now, it is relatively simple to calculate the sum of the first 4
numbers, considering the fact only a few terms need to be taken into account
while calculating. However, when the sum of, for example, first 201 terms
need to be calculated, a more effective as well as efficient approach needs to
be considered. Algebra can be used to manipulate the general sequence to
obtain a more feasible equation.
The sum of general geometric sequence is defined as:
= + +
2 3 1
+ + ... +
n
n
S a ar ar ar ar
Now, the sum this geometric sequence can also be defined as:
=
=
1
1
n
b
n
b
S ar
Here, the sum of the equation
1 b
ar is found from when b = 1, which gives us
a, to when b = n, which gives us
1 n
ar .
Therefore,

=

=
+ +
= + + + + +
1 2 3 1
1
1 2 3 1
1
= + + ... +
(1 ... ) ---- equation 1
n
b n
b
n
b n
b
ar a ar ar ar ar
ar a r r r r

Multiplying both sides by r in the second previous statement we get,
=
+
1 2 3 4
1
= + + ... +
n
b n
b
r ar ar ar ar ar ar
Now, subtracting (n x a) from both sides gives us n number of as on each side,
therefore an a for each term in the series:
=
+
= + + + + +
1 2 3 4
1
1 2 3 4
1
- ( ) = -a+ -a+ -a ... +
- ( ) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ( 1) ... ( 1)
n
b n
b
n
b n
b
r ar n a ar a ar ar ar ar a
r ar n a a r a r a r a r a r
(continued on next page)

(continued from last page)
Now, factoring a on the right side we get,
5

=
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
= + + + + + +
= + + + + + +
= + + + + +
1 2 3 4
1
1 2 3 4
1
1 2 3 4
1
1 2 3 4
1
1 2 3 4
1
- ( ) ( 1 1 1 1 ... 1)
- ( ) ( ... )
( ... ) ( )
( ... )
( ... ) --
n
b n
b
n
b n
b
n
b n
b
n
b n
b
n
b n
b
r ar n a a r r r r r
r ar n a a r r r r r n
r ar a r r r r r n n a
r ar a r r r r r n n
r ar a r r r r r -- equation 2

Now, subtracting equation 2 from equation 1 we get,

= =

= =
= + + + + + + + + + +
= + + + + +

1 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
1 1
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1
1 1
(1 ... ) - ( ... )
(1 ... ... )
n n
b b n n
b b
n n
b b n n n
b b
ar r ar a r r r r a r r r r r
ar r ar a r r r r r r r r r

We notice that all of the terms between 1 and r
n
cancels out, thus,

= =
=
=
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
(1 )
(1-r) = (1 )
(1 )
(1 )
( 1)
( 1)
n n
b b n
b b
n
b n
b
n n
b
b
n n
b
b
ar r ar a r
ar a r
a r
ar
r
a r
ar
r

Now we remember that
=
=
1
1
n
b
n
b
S ar (by definition)
Thereby giving us,
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

In order to test the new equation, let us consider the
geometric series:
6

2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64
Now, the sum of the first 6 terms of the series by adding the terms manually is:

6
2 4 8 16 32 64 126 S = + + + + + =

Now, the first term or a in this series is 2, while the common ratio is 2, and the
number of terms is 6. Using the formula:
6
6
( 1)
( 1)
2(2 1)
126
2 1
n
n
a r
S
r
S
= =

The sum of the 6 terms given by the derived formula and the manual
calculation is equal.
Therefore, the derived formula is correct and can be used to
calculate the sum of a geometric series.

Convergent geometric series

7

The simplest definition of a convergent geometric series is: A
geometric series whose sum of multiple terms converges, or approaches
towards a certain and real value. Now, convergent geometric series are unique
and therefore, have unique characteristics. There are certain circumstances
under which the sum of a geometric series tends to approach a certain value,
or limit. These circumstances are imposed upon the geometric series by two
contributor, the smaller being the first term or a, while the largest contributor
is the common ratio, or r.
The value of the first term does not have any significant effect on the
converging characteristics of the series. For our example, we will pick a to be
equal to 2.
The value of the common ratio however, greatly contributes to the
convergence of the geometric series.

Fig. 1) Generic number line determined for convergence testing

In the number line of fig. 1, values ranging from and including x, -2,
-1, -0.5,
1
x
, 0
1
x
, 0.5, 1, 2 and x has been chosen. For the most obvious
reasons, 0 is one of the primary choices made, as it separates positive values
from negative ones. 1 and -1 are also chosen here, because multiplication by
the prior does not change the value of the term, while the latter only causes
sign change. 0.5 and -0.5 are two of the most generic and common fractions or
decimal values used in mathematics, while
1
x
and
1
x
represent general
fractions, where { x > 1|x e N}, or x is greater than 1, while being an element
of the natural number system. This allows to test all values up to 0<
1
x
<1, and
-1<
1
x
< 0.

Therefore, this choice of testing subjects or common ratios allow us to
consider a large range of scenarios, to understand efficiently under the exact
circumstances convergent geometric series tend to occur.
-x -2 -1 -0.5
1
x

0
1
x

0.5
1 2 x
8

a = 2, r = 2
Now for r = 2, and a =2,
At term number = n,
=
=
=
1
( ) 1
2 2
2
n
n
n
n
n
n
t ar
t
t

Now, at term number n,
+
= =
1
( 1)
( 1)
2(2 1)
2 2
2 1
n
n
n
n
n
a r
S
r
S

Term number
t
n
for r = 2
(ar
n-1
)
S
n
(changes as n increases)
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 4 6
3 8 14
4 16 30
n
2
n

+
1
2 2
n

Table 1) Obtained values of t
n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of 2.
Observation from the table shows us that as the term number
increases, the sum and the term value also increases proportionally. Now, as
the term number reaches n, the term reaches 2
n
, while the sum of the series
reaches
+
1
2 2
n
.
In
+
1
2 2
n
, as n , the value of
+
1
2 2
n
as well.
Therefore, at r= 2, the value of S
n
does not converge, because it tends
to approach infinity as the value of n increases.
a = 2, r = 1

9

Following the illustrated method on page 7, at a = 2 and r = 1, we
obtain the following table of respective n, t
n
and S
n
values.
However, in this case, the formula
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r
cannot be utilized, as when
r = 1, the denominator becomes zero, and therefore the complexity of the
equation renders it impossible to solve using basic algebra.
The t
n
value will always be 2, as = 1 1
z
, {ze N, z > 0}.
If the values of the S
n
in table 2 are carefully observed, a pattern can be
observed. The S
n
values 2, 4, 6, 8 represent an arithmetic sequence. In this
sequence, the first term (a) is 2, while the common difference (d) is:
= = =
2 1
4 2 2 d t t
Therefore in this case, the S
n
for the geometric sequence represents the t
n
for
the arithmetic sequence given above.
As we know for an arithmetic sequence:
At t
1
= a and common ratio = r,
= + ( 1)
n
t a n d
In our case, a = 2 and d = 2;
= +
= +
=
2 ( 1)2
2 2 2
2
n
n
n
t n
t n
t n

Term number
t
n
for r = 1
(ar
n-1
)
S
n

1 2 2
2 2 4
3 2 6
4 2 8
n 2 2n
n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of 1
Here, as n increases, 2n or S
n
also increases. Thus, as n , 2n
as well. Therefore, at r = 1, the geometric sequence sum is divergent.
a = 2, r = 0.5
Following the method outlined on page 7, we get the values in table 3.
Term number t
n
for r = 0.5 S
n
10

(ar
n-1
)
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 1 3
3 0.5 3.5
4 0.25 3.75
n
2
2
n

+
2
(2) 4
n

n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of
0.5
If we analyze the equation

+
2
(2) 4
n
, we observe that as n ,
2
(2)
n
0. Therefore, as
2
(2)
n
0,
+
2
(2) 4
n
4. Therefore, as the
sum of the geometric series is converging to a certain value, namely 4, we can
conclude that as r = 0.5, the geometric series is convergent.
a = 2, r = 0
Following the method outlined on page 7, we get the values in table 4. .
Term number
t
n
for r = 0
(ar
n-1
)
S
n
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 0 2
3 0 2
4 0 2
n 0 2
n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of 0
We observe from the above table that as n, S
n
=2.
Therefore, the sum of the geometric series converges to the value of
the first term, when the common ratio is 0. In other words, a common ratio of
0 results in a convergent geometric series.

a = 2, r = -2

11

Following the method outlined on page 7 for r = 2, we get the values in
table 5.
Term number
t
n
for r = -2
(ar
n-1
)
S
n
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 -4 -2
3 8 6
4 -16 -10
n ( 2)
n

2 2
( )( 2)
3 3
n
+
n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of -2
In
2 2
( )( 2)
3 3
n
+ , as n , (-2) , therefore
2 2
( )( 2)
3 3
n
+
. Thus, as the common ratio of a geometric series is -2, the sum of the
series is not convergent (i.e. divergent).
a = 2, r = -1
Following the method outlined on page 8 for r =1, we get the values in
table 6 for r = -1 and a = 2.
Term number
t
n
for r = -1
(ar
n-1
)
S
n

1 2 2
2 -2 0
3 2 2
4 -2 0
n 2 ( 1)
n

2 if n is odd, 0 if n is even
n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of -1
We can see from the S
n
values that as n increases, when n is an odd
number the sum is 2, while when n is odd the sum is 0. Thus, the sum oscillates
between 0 and 2. Therefore, it does not converge or diverge, and is therefore
neither convergent nor divergent.

a = 2, r = -0.5
Following the method outlined on page 9, we get the values in table 7.
Term number
t
n
for r = -0.5
(ar
n-1
)
S
n
12

( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 -1 1
3 0.5 1.5
4 -0.25 1.25
n
1
4( )
2
n

4 1 4
( )
3 2 3
n
+
n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of -
0.5
If we analyze the equation
4 1 4
( )
3 2 3
n
+ , we see that as n ,
1
( )
2
n
as well. Therefore, this leads to the conclusion that
4 1
( )
3 2
n

, and thus the sum of the series converges to
4
3
at larger values of n.
Therefore, at r = -0.5, the geometric series is convergent.

a = 2, r = x
Following the method outlined on page 7, we get the values in table 8
for a = 2 and r = x.
Term number
t
n
for r = x
(ar
n-1
)
S
n
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 2x 2+2x
3 2x
2
2+2x+2x
2

4 2x
3
2+2x+2x
2
+2x
3

n
1
2x
n

2 2
1
n
x
x

n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of x

Here, we see that as the value of n approaches larger and larger
values,
2 2
1
n
x
x

, so does the value of x

n
. This is because { x > 1|x e N}, and
therefore as the value of the exponent increases, so does the value of the
positive natural integer which is greater than 1. Therefore, as n ,
13

2 2
1
n
x
x

, for x, given { x > 1|x e N}. Therefore, the series is not

convergent for given values of x at { x > 1|x e N}.

a = 2, r = -x
Following the method outlined on page 7, we get the values in table 9
for a = 2 and r = -x.
Term number
t
n
for r = -x
(ar
n-1
)
S
n
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 -2x 2-2x
3 2x
2
2-2x+2x
2

4 -2x
3
2-2x+2x
2
-2x
3

n
1
2( )
n
x

2( ) 2
1
n
x
x

n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of -x

Analysis of the equation
2( ) 2
1
n
x
x

shows us that as n, (-x)
n
.
This is because when n is odd, the value of (-x)
n
becomes -x
n
, and after being
divided by the negative denominator, the sum approaches positive infinity. The
scenario is the opposite for when n is even, and thus the sum approaches
negative infinity. However, this is insignificant, because for neither case the
geometric series converges to a certain value. Therefore, for a common ratio
of x, the geometric series is divergent*.

*Divergent stands for not convergent, or not converging towards a certain value.
a = 2, r =
1
x

Following the method outline in the previous pages, we obtain the
values in table 10.
Term number t
n
for r =
1
x
S
n
14

(ar
n-1
)
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2
2
x
2+
2
x

3
2
2
x

2+
2
x
+
2
2
x

4
3
2
x

2+
2
x
+
2
2
x
+
3
2
x

n
1
1
2( )
n
x

1
2( ) 2
1
1
n
x
x

n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of
1
x

In the equation,
1
2( ) 2
1
1
n
x
x
, as n , the value of (
1
x
)
n
0. This is because
of the fact that { x > 1|x e N}. Thus, as (
1
x
)
n
0,
1
2( )
n
x
0, and therefore
1
2( ) 2
1
1
n
x
x

2 2

1
1
1
x
or
x
x

. Therefore, as the common ratio of a

geometric series is
1
x
, the series will converge to
2
1
x
x
as n approaches
infinity, given: { x > 1|x e N}.

a = 2, r = -
1
x

Following the method outline in the previous pages, we obtain the
values in table 11.
15

Term number
t
n
for r = -
1
x

(ar
n-1
)
S
n
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

1 2 2
2 -
2
x
2-
2
x

3
2
2
x

2-
2
x
+
2
2
x

4 -
3
2
x

2-
2
x
+
2
2
x
-
3
2
x

n
1
1
2( )
n
x

1
2( ) 2
1
1
n
x
x

n
and S
n
for first term of 2 and common ratio of -
1
x

In the equation:
1
2( ) 2
1
1
n
x
x

, as n ,
1
( )
n
x
0. This is because
as x is greater than 1 and is a natural number and is in the denominator, as its
exponents value increases, then value of
1
x
decreases. As the exponent
approaches ,
1
x
approaches zero. Therefore, the value of
1
2( )
n
x
approaches zero. This also implies that

1
2( ) 2
1
1
n
x
x

2
1
x
x +
, as n
.Therefore, when
1
x
is the common ratio of a geometric series, the series
tends to converge to
2
1
x
x +
, given { x > 1|x e N}.
Results
Now, to sum up our results, table 12 is constructed below.
16

Common ratio (r) Nature of geometric series
2 divergent
1 divergent
0.5 convergent
0 convergent
-2 divergent
-1 oscillatory
-0.5 convergent
x divergent
-x divergent
1
x
convergent
1
x
convergent
Table 12) Analyzed common ratios and their respective geometric series nature

We notice from the above table that only 0, 0.5, -0.5,
1
x
and
1
x
produce geometric series which are convergent. All other values of common
ratio produce divergent series.
Now, it had been previously specified that x > 1. This range
ensures that the value of
1
x
produces a value which is less than 1. We notice
from our chart that when r is equal to 1, the series in no longer convergent,
but for values of r < 1; the series is convergent (i.e. at
1
x
, 0, 0.5, -0.5 and
1
x
) up to -1< r. Again, we notice that as r is equal to -1, the series is not
convergent, but for values of r > -1, the series is convergent. This leads us to
conclude the range of the acceptable r values on a number line (in fig. 2), in
order to obtain a convergent geometric series.

-x -2 -1 -0.5
1
x

0
1
x

0.5
1 2 x
17

Fig. 2) The range of usable common ratios in order to obtain a geometric series
From the above figure and analyzed data we can therefore conclude
that, in order for a convergent geometric series to form
-1 < r < 1
Or, the common ratio is greater than -1 and less than 1.
Derivation of infinite sum formula

Now, we understand that in order to calculate the sum of an infinitely
continuous geometric series, the series must be convergent. Also, we know
that in order for any geometric series to be convergent, the common ratio must
be greater than -1 and less than 1.
Here, by definition:
0
b
b
S ar
=
=

In other words, the sum of an infinite series is the sum of all values
from t
1
to t
b
or t
n
(here b is used instead of n for future algebraic manipulation),
where the value of b approaches infinity.
Now,
0
0
lim
b
b
n
b
n
b
S ar
S ar

=
=
=

Slight algebraic manipulation shows us that the prior equation is equal
to the latter, because in both the sum of the equation approaches infinity.
Only in the second one, the value of b approaches n, while the value of n
approaches infinity (making both equations equal).
0
lim
n
b
n
b
S ar

=
=

Now by definition, we know that:
18

0
n
b
b
ar
=
=
n
S
Now,
If
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

Then,

0
n
b
b
ar
=
=
( 1)
( 1)
n
a r
r

Thus substituting this in
0
lim
n
b
n
b
S ar

=
=

we get,
(according to properties of limits)
( 1)
lim
( 1)
lim - lim
( 1) ( 1)
lim lim
( 1) ( 1)
n
n
n
n n
n
n n
a r
S
r
a ar
S
r r
ar a
S
r r
= +

=

Now, we know that -1 < r < 1; thus when n , r
n
0. Thus, as r
n
0,
( 1)
n
ar
r
0.
Thus,
(as the value of n does not have any effect on this equation, the limit can be removed)
= 0 - lim
( 1)
=-
( 1)
= where -1<r<1
1
n
a
S
r
a
S
r
a
S
r

19

Verification of formula
Now, from the previous section we understand that at common ratio = -
0.5, the geometric series is convergent, where the sum of the geometric series
converges to
4
3
(as evaluated algebraically on page 12). Now, using our
derived formula at =
1
a
S
r
, let us verify the geometric series where a = 2, r =

-0.5.
Here,
2
=
1 0.5
4
=
3
S
S
+

Thus, as both algebraic manipulation and our derived formula gives us
the sum of infinity as
4
3
, we can verify the formula to be valid and usable in
future cases.

Interpretation of transformation for given equations

Visualization of an idea or fact is how human beings analyze critical
data as if it were simple. This is the function of a graph. Simply stated, a graph
is generally an equation plotted on multiple axes in order to represent the
equation visually, for critical analysis. Although this may be done using algebra
and/or limits, it is much easier to understand the equation visually first, and
then evaluate or confirm using algebra. We will analyze some equations now
and later interpret to how this relates to a geometric series.
Equation set 1
20

In the equation set 1:
1
2
3
2 -- equation 1
2 1 --equation 2
3(2 1) --equation 3
x
x
x
y
y
y
=
=
=

Equation 1 undergoes a set of transformations in order to become equation 3.
Fig. 3) shows the three of these equations plotted on the same set of axis. Note
that these equations are drawn to represent the equations only, and not the
geometric series which they are meant to represent later on.
A ti-83 Plus graphing calculator may be used for plotting these graphs
for ease of analysis. The following range of variables may be used:
x: [0,9, 1]
y: [0, 12 , 1]
A screenshot* of the window is given as below:

*An artificially computer generated mod of the Ti-83+ was used via ROM dump

21

Now, the following graphs are plotted on y
1
, y
2
, y
3
as shown:

Now, we get the graph as given below (graph also included in fig. 3):
22

In general sense, a graphical transformation is when a set of changes
are made to an original equation in order to obtain a different and unique
equation. Let us consider the equation set 1 as listed above to discuss the
transformations applied there.
Referring to fig. 3), we see that Equation 1, which is
1
2
x
y = , is an
exponential curve which intersects the y-axis through the point (0,1). Now, the
graph is moved down (vertically translated) by 1 unit on the y-axis in order to
obtain equation 2. We can see this algebraically as well as equation 2 is
2
2 1
x
y = , which is essentially 1 subtracted from equation 1. As we can
observe in the figure, equation 2 intersects the y axis at (0,0), which is 1 unit
below the intersection of equation 1.
Equation 3 is essentially equation 2 with a vertical stretch factor of 3. In
Lehmans terms, equation 3 has been stretched 3 units on a vertical aspect
from equation 2. This can be observed visually in figure 3, as well as
mathematically, as equation 3 is
3
3(2 1)
x
y = , which is basically 3 times
2
2 1
x
y = .
On a visual terrain:
1
2
x
y =
2
2 1
x
y =
3
3(2 1)
x
y =

Equation set 2
Equation set 2 utilizes the same set of skills used in equation set 1.
Equation set 2:
1
2
3
1
( ) -- equation 1
2
1
( ) 1 --equation 2
2
1
3[( ) 1] --equation 3
2
x
x
x
y
y
y
=
=
=

Vertically translated by -1 unit Vertical stretch factor of 3 applied
23

For equation set 2, the range of x and y are as follows:
x: [0, 9, 1)
y: [-3, 1, 1]
The window (which directly corresponds with the range) is as follows:

The graph obtained (also illustrated in fig. 4) is as follows:

Referring to fig. 4, we observe that as x values approaches infinity, the y
values of the equations y
1
, y
2
, y
3
respectively approach 0, -1 and -3.

24

From equation 1 or
1
1
( )
2
x
y = , the equation
2
1
( ) 1
2
x
y = was moved down
1 unit or vertically translated 1 unit down. The vertical asymptote for equation
1, which is y = 0, was transformed into y = -1 for equation 2, which was also
vertically translated 1 unit down.
From equation 2 to 3,
2
1
( ) 1
2
x
y = or equation 2 was
transformed with a vertical stretch factor of 3 with respect to the y-axis. In
this case, the vertical asymptote was transformed from y =-1 to y = -3, which is
a vertical transformation with a stretch factor of 3 as well.
1
1
( )
2
x
y =
2
1
( ) 1
2
x
y =
3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
x
y =
25

Equation set 3
Although equation set 3 looks very similar to equation set 2, it is
extremely different when we graph it.
Equation set 3 is defined as follows:
1
2
3
1
( )
2
1
( ) 1
2
1
3[( ) 1]
2
x
x
x
y
y
y
=
=
=

We will be using the same windows as equation set 3 to graph this equation set.
After applying the values inside the calculator, we obtain the following graph:

This of course, from a direct perspective, signifies nothing but a
blank graph. However, if we look at it in an algebraic approach initially, and
then a graphical, we will understand the problem.
Our function consists of an exponential graph with a negative
base. Let us take
1
1
( )
2
x
y = as an example. If for example, x was equal to
natural numbers 0, 1 and 2, the corresponding y values would be 1, -0.5 and
0.25 respectively, using simple substitution method.
Now, let us consider non-natural numbers such as
1
2
. Using the
real numbers system,
1
1
( )
2
x
y = cannot be evaluated at x =
1
2
, since it
consists of taking the second root of a negative number, which cannot be
accomplished without the use of complex numbers.
26

This means that using a real number system, equation set 3
cannot be graphed continuously, which results in a discontinuous function. Of
course, this can be graphed continuously using polar co-ordinates on a three
dimensional plane, however since this increases the complexity of this report
and is not included in the International Baccalaureate Standard Level
curriculum, we will not be going into details here.
Therefore we can conclude that, using the real number co-
ordination graphing system, equation set 3, which essentially consists of
exponential equations with negative bases, is only defined at:
x:[x e N]*
This is verified by using the trace function of the ti-83+ and
placing x values which only consist of the natural number system, thus giving us
responding y co-ordinates.
Now, graphing the defined points on the same window as
equation set 2 in fig. 5) shows us that the points on the graphs are transformed
according to the following measures:
1
1
(- )
2
x
y =
2
1
(- ) 1
2
x
y =
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y =

The equation set 3 has the same values for vertical asymptotes as set 2.
*Hint: Incidentally, the sum of a geometric series is also defined at n:[n e N]; but we will be going
into details later!

27

Equation set 4
Equation set 4 is, as discussed above, only defined at x:[x e N].
Equation set 4 is defined as below:
1
2
3
( 2)
( 2) 1
3[( 2) 1]
x
x
x
y
y
y
=
=
=

Again, graphing on the ti-83+ does not provide any useful visual
information. Therefore, we will be using the same graphing method as used in
fig. 5); i.e. by tracing the graph at x e N, and then plotting the points in fig. 6).
Our two variables x and y will be defined as:
x: [x e N|0, 3, 1]
y: [-12, 12, 1]
28

The equation set 4 has been transformed by the following
measures, as observations from figure 6 and algebraic characteristics dictate:
1
(-2)
x
y =
2
(-2) 1
x
y =
3
3((-2) 1)
x
y =

The given equations do not approach or converge to a certain
value, but extend towards positive and negative infinity on both axes.
Therefore, they do not have any vertical or horizontal asymptotes.

29

Rewriting final equation of set 1 in terms of Sum of geometric series formula
The final equation given in equation set 1 is
3
y , where:
3
3(2 1)
x
y =
Now, our purpose is to rewrite this equation in terms of the equation derived
for the sum of the geometric series, or:
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

Now,
3
3
3(2 1)

1
3(2 1)
2 1
x
x
y
y

This resembles the arbitrary equation

=
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

30

Where, a = 3, r = 2, x = n,
n
S =
3
y .
This allows us to conclude that equation 3 of equation set 1
represents the sum of a geometric series, where the variables are defined as a
= 3, r = 2, x = n,
n
S =
3
y .
Now as we know, a geometric series is defined generally as follows:
2 3 1
, , , , ... ,
n
a ar ar ar ar

In this case, we know that a = 3 and r = 2,
Thus the series represented by equation set 1s final equation is:
2 1
3,3 (2), 3 (2) ,..., 3 (2)
n

3
y , where:
3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
x
y =
Using algebraic manipulation,
3
3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
1
-0.5{3[( ) 1]}
2
0.5
x
x
y
y
=

3
1
-1.5[( ) 1]}
2
1
1
2
x
y

=

31

In terms of
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

Where a = -1.5, r =
1
2
, x = n,
n
S =
3
y
This allows us to conclude that equation 3 of equation set 2 represents the sum
of a geometric series, where the variables are defined as
a = -1.5, r =
1
2
, x = n,
n
S =
3
y .
2 3 1
, , , , ... ,
n
a ar ar ar ar

In this case, we know that a = -1.5 and r =
1
2
,
2 1
1 1 1
1.5, 1.5 ( ), -1.5 ( ) ,..., -1.5 ( )
2 2 2
n

3
y , where:
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y =
Now,
3
3
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
1
-1.5{3[(- ) 1]}
2
1.5
1
-4.5[(- ) 1]}
2
1
1
2
x
x
x
y
y
y
=
=

32

Which is in terms of
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

3
1
Where a = -4.5, r = - , x = n and y
2
n
S =

2 3 1
, , , , ... ,
n
a ar ar ar ar

In this case, we know that a = -4.5 and r =
1
2
,
2 1
1 1 1
4.5, 4.5 (- ), -4.5 (- ) ,..., -4.5 (- )
2 2 2
n

3
y , where:
3
3((-2) 1)
x
y =
Here,
3
3
3
3((-2) 1)
-3{3((-2) 1)}

3
-9((-2) 1)}

2 1
x
x
x
y
y
y
=
=

Which is in the form
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r
,
3
Where, a 9, r 2, x = n and y
n
S = = =

33

2 3 1
, , , , ... ,
n
a ar ar ar ar

In this case, we know that a = -9 and r = -2,
2 1
9, 9 (-2), -9 (-2) ,..., -9 (-2)
n

Convergence and divergence of final equation in the 4 sets
To define convergence of a graph, it is essentially when as the x
co-ordinates increases or decreases infinitely, the y co-ordinates reach a
certain, real number value. For example, in the graph y = x
2
, as x approaches
positive infinity, the y-values also approach positive infinity. Therefore, y = x
2

is not convergent. While on the other hand, in the equation
1
y
x
= , as x
approaches positive infinity, y approaches 0. Therefore,
1
y
x
= is converging
towards y = 0.
Convergence of final equation in set 1
The final equation in equation set 1 is defined as:
3
3(2 1)
x
y =
Which can be rewritten as,
3
3(2 1)
2 1
x
y

=

34

Thereby representing the geometric series
2 1
3,3 (2), 3 (2) ,..., 3 (2)
n

Now if we look at 3
3(2 1)
x
y = algebraically, as x approaches ,
3
3
3
lim lim 3(2 1)
lim lim3(2) lim( 3)
lim not defined, or y also approaches infinity
x
x x
x
x x x
x
y
y
y

=
=
=

We can observe this in fig. 3), where we see that as x-approaches infinity, y-
also approaches infinity.
Now, in terms of the geometric sum formula, let us consider the
sequence:
2 1
3,3 (2), 3 (2) ,..., 3 (2)
n

( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

=

Here a = 3, r =2
3(2 1)
(2 1)
,
lim lim3(2 1)
lim does not exist, or approaches positive infinity.
n
n
n
n
n n
n
n
S
Now
S
S

=

In addition, if we try to apply our infinite geometric sum
formula:
= where -1<r<1
1
a
S
r

We observe that it is not applicable, as r = 2, and does
not meet the constraints.
35

Therefore, in the equation
3
3(2 1)
x
y = as well as the geometric series
represented by the equation, the y-values and the sum of geometric series
value is not convergent.

3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
x
y = is the final equation in set 2, and represents the
geometric series,

2 1
1 1 1
1.5, 1.5 ( ), -1.5 ( ) ,..., -1.5 ( )
2 2 2
n

Observations from fig. 4) show us that as x approaches positive infinity,
the y-values approach -3.

Algebraically,
3
3
3
3
3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
1
lim lim3[( ) 1]
2
1
lim 3lim( ) lim3
2
lim 0 3
lim 3
x
x
x x
x
x x x
x
x
y
y
y
y
y

=
=
=
=
=

Thus, as x approaches positive infinity in
3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
x
y = , the y
values approach -3.
Using the geometric series
2 1
1 1 1
1.5, 1.5 ( ), -1.5 ( ) ,..., -1.5 ( )
2 2 2
n

,
36

( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

=

Where a = -1.5, r =
1
2

1
-1.5(( ) 1)
2
1
( 1)
2
1
3( ) 3
2
1
lim 3lim( ) lim3
2
lim 0 3
lim 3
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
n
n
S
S
S
S
S

=
=
=
=

Now, using the derived formula:
= where -1<r<1
1
a
S
r

1.5
= 3
1
1
2
S

Therefore, all scenarios shows us that the equation
3
1
3[( ) 1]
2
x
y = and its
respective geometric series approaches -3 as the x and n values approach
positive* infinity.

*It must be understood that negative infinity was not tested for here, since n >
0, as it represents the term number, which cannot be negative

37

3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y = is the final equation in set 3, and we observe
that it is a discontinuous function, only defined at x:[x e N]. This is also the
same scenario with its geometric series, where:
2 1
1 1 1
4.5, 4.5 (- ), -4.5 (- ) ,..., -4.5 (- )
2 2 2
n

, and
n:[n e N)
Algebraically,
3
3
3
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
1
lim 3lim(- ) lim3
2
lim 0 3
lim 3
x
x
x x x
x
x
y
y
y
y

=
=
=
=

Thus, as x approaches positive infinity, the y-values approach -3.
If we look at fig. 5) we observe that as the x co-ordinates
approach positive infinity, the y-values approach -3 as well.

In the geometric series,
2 1
1 1 1
4.5, 4.5 (- ), -4.5 (- ) ,..., -4.5 (- )
2 2 2
n

The sum of the series represents the equation 3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y =
Where,
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

=
and a = -4.5, r=
1
-
2

38

1
-4.5[(- ) 1]
2
1
( 1)
2
1
lim lim{3[(- ) 1]}
2
1
lim 3lim(- ) lim3
2
lim 3
n
n
n
n
n n
n
n
n n n
n
n
S
S
S
S

=

=
=
=

Therefore, as n approaches positive infinity, the sum of the geometric
series approaches -3.
If we examine the series using our infinite sum formula of,
= where -1<r<1
1
4.5
= = -3
1
1
2
a
S
r
S
+

Therefore, all of the methods shows us that as
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y = and
its geometric series approaches positive infinity in terms of x and n
respectively, the y and S
values converge to -3.


3
3((-2) 1)
x
y = is the final equation in set 4, where the
geometric series represented by y
3
is,
2 1
9, 9 (-2), -9 (-2) ,..., -9 (-2)
n

Observations from fig. 6 shows us that as x- approaches positive infinity
in

3
3((-2) 1)
x
y = , the y values approach positive and negative infinity. Thus,
when x is an odd co=ordinate, the y values approach -, while when x is an
even co-ordinate, y values approach +.
39

Algebraically,
3
3
3
3((-2) 1)
lim 3lim( 2) lim3
lim does not exist, or approaches
x
x
x x x
x
y
y
y

=
=
=

Using the geometric sum formula,
( 1)
( 1)
n
n
a r
S
r

=
where a =-9 and r = -2,

-9((-2) 1)
( 2 1)
3(-2) 3
lim 3lim(-2) lim3
lim DNE or approaches
n
n
n
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
S
S
S
S

=

=
=
=

If we apply our infinite sum formula here,
= where -1<r<1
1
a
S
r

It cannot be used as r = -2, which is greater than -1
Therefore, all methods of verification shows us that as
3
3((-2) 1)
x
y = and its geometric series approaches positive infinity in
terms of x and n values, the responding y and S
n
values do not converge to a
specific value, and is therefore divergent.

Observations
Let us consider
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y = in order to elaborate on our
observations, and come to a general conclusion between equations and their
respective geometric series.
The equation
3
1
3[(- ) 1]
2
x
y = represents the geometric series:
40

2 1
1 1 1
4.5, 4.5 (- ), -4.5 (- ) ,..., -4.5 (- )
2 2 2
n

Now, the initial observation made from the above equation, as well as
the other equation sets is that:
The base of the exponent, i.e.
1
-
2
in this case, represents the
common ratio value in its respective geometric series.
This can be verified using other equations in the sets as well.

The second observation that is made from this report is that,
The value of the first term, or a, is equal to the vertical stretch
factor, i.e. 3 in this case, multiplied by the common ratio subtracted by 1.
In simpler terms: a = (vertical stretch factor) (common ratio -1)
One can also conclude that,
a or t
1
= (vertical stretch factor) (base of exponent -1) [as base of
exponent = common ratio]

The third, and most important observation made:
If the base of the exponent is less than 1 or greater than -1, then
the equation, as well as its sum of infinity of the geometric series, will
converge to a real value. On the other hand, if the base of the exponent is
greater than 1 or less than -1, then the equation as well as its sum of
infinity will be divergent.
In general terms,
If z
x
is the given exponent in y = k(z
x
-1), Then:
41

if -1<z<1, the equation and sum of infinity is convergent
if z >1 or z < -1, then the equation and sum of infinity is divergent

The fourth observation made includes:
As the common ratio of a geometric sequence is given as:
-1<r<1
Then, the sum of the series as the terms approaches infinity can be
calculated, where the sum represents a real number.

And the final observation made from this report is that:
As the visual graph of a given equation approaches or converges to a
certain value, the sum of the geometric series represented by the equation
converges to that certain value as well. On the other hand, if the equation
diverges, the sum of the geometric series represented by the equation
diverges as well.
Conclusion
The main purpose of this report was to discover in depth the
boundaries within which a convergent, as well as divergent geometric series
forms. In order to achieve this goal, a graphical, as well as algebraic approach
was taken, where different equations representing unique geometric series
were taken into account and analyzed. Hypothesized, as well as interpreted
connections between the two were generalized into usable observations. This
report will immensely aid any individual working with geometric series, as it
will allow them to understand the reasons behind which the series acts in its
unique manner of convergence and divergence.

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1

A Brief Analysis Of The Geometric Series

, so does the value of x

, for x, given { x > 1|x e N}. Therefore, the series is not

. Therefore, as the common ratio of a

approaches zero. This also implies that

, let us verify the geometric series where a = 2, r =

values converge to -3.

where a =-9 and r = -2,

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