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Advanced Wireless Communications MSEE 18 &19


Instructor: Dr. Adnan A. Khan adnankhan@mcs.edu.pk wireless comm fall2013@yahoogroups com wireless_comm_fall2013@yahoogroups.com Fall 2013 Week-2

Grading Policy
OHT-1 OHT-2 Quiz / Homework Research Paper Final Exam: 15% 15% 5% 25% 40%

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Chapter 3 (Theodore S. Rappaport) The Cellular Concept System Design Fundamentals

The Cellular Concept


Introduction Frequency Reuse Channel Assignment Strategies Handoff Strategies

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Early Mobile Telephone Systems


One high-power transmitter was used to cover a large area--approx. 50km. Located at a very high spot. The mobiles were simultaneously connected using different Frequency channels. Capacity of such systems was very limited. Bell B ll Mobile M bil i in 1970 -12 simultaneous calls over very area

Basics
Early mobile telephony systems were not cellular. Coverage over a large area was provided by a high powered transmitter mounted on a tall tower. Frequency reuse was not employed. Th t resulted That lt d in i very low l capacity. it The cellular concept arose from the need to restructure the radio telephone system with the increase in demand. The increase in demand could not be satisfied just by additional spectrum allocations. Cellular Concept: replace large transmitters with many smaller transmitters. Small Cells. Neighboring base stations (BS) are assigned different sets of channels. Capacity can be increased by rsystematically placing the BS, channel reuse with interference in view.

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Cell a geographical area covered by a BS Frequency Reuse the frequency channels allocation scheme For convenience, convenience the cells are shown with a hex pattern. pattern A hex pattern is the simplest pattern that can cover an area In practice, cells are not hexagonal and BS are not exactly in the center of the cell
B G A F E D C

An Example of a Cellular Cluster

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Capacity Computations
Assume there are N cells, each allocated k different frequency channels. These N cells are said to form a cluster. Total number of channels per cluster is given by S=kN Total capacity associated with M clusters: C=MkN=MS A cluster may be replicated more times in a given area if the cells are made smaller (note that power needs to be reduced accordingly). Capacity of cellular system is directly proportional to M, number of times a cluster is replicated.

Capacity versus interference for same size cell


Decrease N for More Capacity: If Cluster Size, N is decreased while cell size remains fixed, more clusters are required to cover the area (M increases). Therefore, Capacity increases. Increase N for Less Interference: On the other hand, if N is increased (large cluster size) means that co-channels are now farther than before, and hence we have will have less interference. Value of N is a function of how much interference a mobile or a base station can tolerate.

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Frequency Reuse
The frequency reuse factor (1/N) is the fraction of channels allocated to each cell in a cluster.

Frequency Reuse
Geometry of the hexagonal cells is such that to cover adjacent areas completely, N can have only some of the values. N should satisfy the relationship relationship, N = i2 + i j + j2 where i and j are positive integers. Typical values of N are 4,7,12 etc. To draw the cell pattern given i and j and to find nearest cochannel h l neighbour i hb 1. Move i cells across hexagons. 2. Turn 60 CCW and move j cells.

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Frequency Reuse (N=7, i=2, j=1)


B G A F B G A F E D F E C E C

i
G

B C A D

Frequency Reuse (N=19, i=3, j=2)

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Example:

A total of 33 MHz are allocated to a system which uses 2x25 kHz for full duplex (i.e., each channel is 50 kHz). What is the number of channels per cell? Number of channels per system

33,000 000kH kHz = 660 channels 2 25kHz


a. For reuse N = 4:

660 = 165 channels / cell 4


For reuse N = 7: 660 = 95 channels / cell 7

Now assume 1 MHz of the 33 MHz is allocated to control channels. Each control channel is still 50 kHz Total number of voice (traffic) channels is now

32,000 000kH kHz = 640 channels 2 25kHz


For N = 4 => 640/4 = 160 voice ch.+ control ch. For N = 7 => 640/7 = 91 voice ch. + control ch.

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Channel Assignment Strategies

Channel Allocation Techniques


To satisfy the user, a channel needs to be available on request. Reasonable probability of call blockage (GOS) is 2%. GOS fluctuate with location and time. The goal is to keep a uniform GOS across the system. Reduction of variations in GOS allow more users an increase in capacity. Three types of algorithms for channel allocation: 1 Fixed channel allocation (FCA) 1. 2. Channel Borrowing 3. Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)

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Fixed Channel Allocation Techniques


Each cell is aloc a predetermined set of voice channels Any call attempt can be served only once unused channel is aval otherwise Blocked Available spectrum is W Hz and each channel is B Hz. Total number of channels: Nc = W/B For a cluster size N, the number of channels per cell: Cc = Nc/N To minimize interference, assign adjacent channels to different cells.

Channel Borrowing
Borrow frequencies from low traffic cells to high traffic cells. Temporary channel borrowing: channel is returned after call is completed. If all the channels in a cell are occupied, channels are borrowed from neighboring cells. The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures disruption free service.

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Dynamic Channel Allocation


No permanent channel aloc, all channels are placed in a pool Channel returned to the pool, when call is completed Once a call is originated the BS requests MSC The switch than aloc a channel following an algo that takes into acct: Likelihood of future blocking within the cell Candidate channel freq Reuse distance, etc Issues related to channel allocation are still under research

Comparison of Channel Allocation Techniques Fixed Channel Allocation


Advantages: --- Less load on MSC --- Simple Disadvantages: Blocking may happen Dynamic Channel Allocation Advantages: g Voice channels are not allocated permanently. That is, resource is shared on need-basis Disadvantages: --- Requires more processing at MSC (burden on MSC) --- May be very complicated

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H d Off Strategies Hand St t i

HAND OFF: When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, MSC transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. t ti (Hard (H d handoff) h d ff) In modern wireless systems, there may be no change in the actual channel; only the base station changes (Soft Hand off). Mobile Switching Center needs to: Identify the new base station Allocate All new Voice V i and d Control C l channels h l associated i d with the new base station.

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Desired Behavior: Prioritize Hand off to new call initiation Successful transfer of call Hand off should be as infrequent as possible Hand off should be imperceptible Hand off Threshold Power Level: There is a minimum power level of the signal at BS for acceptable voice quality. quality (-90 ( 90 to 100 100 dBm) Hand off Threshold is defined D dBm above this level, so that system has time to process hand off. Pr (Hand off Threshold) = Pr min. usable + D

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When to Hand off ? (MSC needs to ensure) Power drop is not temporary (FADING) MS is actually moving away from current BS MSC measures average received signal power to: Avoid unnecessary hand off Complete necessary hand off before call drops Time available to decide hand off depends on subscribers speed. Speed of user can be estimated from slope of shortterm average Power Steep curve Quick Hand off

1st Generation Systems


Signal Strength Measurements are made by base stations and supervised by MSC. Base station constantly monitors power levels of its reverse voice channels, which tells relative location of user. Reverse Signal Strength Indicators (RSSI): Power levels of all calls in a cell are maintained. Locator Receiver (a spare receiver at each BS): Power levels of Users of neighboring cells are also measured. pieces of information are p passed to MSC for Both these p hand off decision. In 1G: Hand off processing takes almost 10sec

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2nd Generation Systems Digital TDMA


Concept of Mobile Assisted Hand Off (MAHO) Mobile station continually measures power levels of surrounding Base Stations and reports these measurements to serving Base Station. Hand off is initiated when power level from BS of neighboring cell exceeds that of current cell, for certain time, or by a certain level. MAHO method ensures faster hand off since burden of MSC is shared by Mobile Stations. MAHO is particularly suited for Micro-Cellular Systems. In GSM: The time reduces to 1-2 seconds

Inter-System Hand Off


Definition: -----When -----When a mobile moves from one cellular system to another, with different MSC. The situation occurs when
Signal in the resident cell becomes weak, and no y can take the call. other cell within the system

Issues:
Local Call becomes long-distance call Compatibility between two MSCs.

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Prioritizing Hand off


Systems differ in methods and policies of hand off:
Some systems take hand off like a new call initiation: user will be more annoyed in case of call drop than call blocking for some time.

Various Methods of Prioritizing Hand off have been devised and implemented

Guard Channel Concept


Reserve some channels exclusively for hand off
do not use them for call initiation.

Advantage
Increased probability of successful hand off

Disadvantage
Lower capacity (less number of channels for call initiation)

Suits Dynamic Channel Allocation case

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Queuing Strategy
Queuing of Hand off Requests:
Decreases probability of forced termination of a call due to lack of available channels.

Trade off between probability of forced termination and total carried traffic is,
Probability of forced termination decreases at the cost of reduced Total Carried Traffic.

Queuing is possible because finite time available between the time the rec sig drops below the handoff threshold and time call is terminated due to low sig g strength. Delay Time and Queue Size are related to tfc pattern in a service area. Queuing doesnt guarantee zero probability of call drop.

Practical Hand Off Considerations


High Speed Vehicle vs Pedestrians In micro-cells for more capacity, MSC may be overburdened in case high g speed p users changing g g the microcells quickly Obtaining a new Cell Site is not always practical due to some non tech reasons Service providers install addl base stas at same loc

Umbrella Cell
By using diff antenna heights and diff power levels it possible to provide large and small cells ay same loc known as Umbrella Cell

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1. Umbrella Cell Approach


Minimizes number of hand offs for high speed users, ,
Provides additional micro-cell for pedestrians users.

A High speed user converting into a low speed user may be switched to smaller micro-cell by Base Station, without MSC intervention. Speed Estimation can be performed by slope of short term average calculations of the received power, or by some more sophisticated algorithms.

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2. Cell Dragging
Results from Pedestrian users who provide very strong signal to base station.
In Line Of Sight (LOS) case, power does not drop to hand off threshold level even when user has moved deep into the neighboring cell.

Solution: Hand Off Threshold and Radio Coverage Parameters need to be adjusted.

3. Soft Hand Off


In CDMA systems: Same channel is used by all the cells. cells MSC decides from which BS to take the signal and pass to PSTN. (Soft Hand Off)

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Interference and System Capacity

Interference
Major performance limiting factor in cellular radio systems. systems In comparison with wired Comm. Systems, the amount and sources of interferences in Wireless Systems are greater. Creates bottleneck in increasing capacity Sources of interference are:
Another Mobile Stations in the same cell A Call in progress in the Neighboring Cells The same frequency cells Non-cellular signals in the same spectrum

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Interference
Interference in Voice Channels: CrossTalk Interference in Control Channels: missed/blocked calls
Urban areas usually have more interference, b because of f
Greater RF Noise Floor More Number of Mobiles

Types of Interference
1. Co 1 Co-Channel Channel Interference (CCI) 2. Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI) 3. Other services: like a competitor cellular service in the same area

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Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity


Cells using same set of frequencies are called cochannel cells. Interference between signals from these cells is called Co-Channel Interference (CCI). Cannot be controlled by increasing RF power. Depends D d on minimum i i distance di t between b t cochannels.

Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity


Yellow cells use same set of f frequency channels, h l and d hence, h interfere with each other In cellular system there are 6 firstlayer co-channels In constant cell size and RF power, CCI is a function of Distance between co co-channel channel cells (D), and size of each cell (R). Increasing ratio D/R, CCI decreases. Define Channel Reuse Ratio
Q = D/R

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Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity


For hexagonal geometry, D/R can be calculated:

Q = D

Smaller Q provides larger capacity, since that would mean smaller N. Larger Q improves quality, owing to less CCI. For
N = 3, Q = 3 N = 7, Q = 4.58 N = 12, Q = 6 N = 13, Q= 6.24

3N

Proof of Q = D R = 3 N b l below

is given
B G A F E B G A F E D F E D F
I =2

The Geometry of the Hexagons is such that the number of cells per cluster, N, can only have values such that N = i*i +i*j+j*j, i and j are nonnegative integers. Method to Find the Nearest Co-Channel Neighbor Move i Cells along any chain of hexagon then, hexagon, then Turn 60 degree counter-clockwise and Move j Cells.

C G

B C A
J =1 D

E B G A D C

EXAMPLE:Finding Co-Channel Neighbor, N= 7, I = 2, j=1

From the figure, using cosine law

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D2 =[i.(2R' )]2 +[ j.(2R')]2 2i(2R'). j.(2R' ).cos120 R' = ( 3/2)R, D= 3i2.R2 +3j2.R2 +i. j.3R2 D= 3N.R Q= D/ R = 3N

Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity


Signal-to-interference ratio
Number of Co-channel interfering cells io= 6
SIR = S

I
i =1

i0

S is the power of the signal of interest and Ik is power of kth interference. Signal strength at distance d from a source is

S d n That is, received signal power is inversely related to nth power of distance
where n = Path Loss Exponent

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Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity


Then we can express the SIR in terms of distance
S / I = SIR = Rn

D
i =1

i0

n i

where the denominator represents the users in neighboring clusters using the same channel and
Transmit power and path loss exponent are same

Let Dk=D D be the distance between cell centers. Then


S ( D / R) n ( 3N ) n = = I i0 i0

Note how S/I improves with N.

Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity


Conclusion: Co-Channel Interference controls the link performance which then decides Frequency Reuse Plan, and System Capacity.

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Channel Planning for Wireless Systems


Judicious assignment of the appropriate radio channels a more difficult problem in practice. Theoretical analysis provides a guideline. In general 5% of the available spectrum is reserved for control channels Frequency q y reuse of control channels more conservative. In CDMA N=1, however, practical difficulties forces some kind of frequency planning.

3.5.3 Adjacent Channel Interference


Interference from channels that are adjacent in frequency, The primary reason for that is Imperfect Receive Filters which j channel energy gy to leak into your y spectrum. p cause the adjacent Problem is severer if the user of adjacent channel is in close proximity. Near-Far Effect Near-Far Effect: The other transmitter(who may or may not be of the same type) captures the receiver of the subscriber. Also Also, when a Mobile Station close to the Base Station transmits on a channel close to the one being used by a weaker mobile: The BS faces difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile user from the bleed over of the adjacent channel mobile.

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Near-Far Effect: Case 1


Unintended Tx Strong bleed over Mobile User Rx BS as Tx

Weaker signal

The Mobile receiver is captured by the unintended, unknown transmitter, instead of the desired base station

Near-Far Effect: Case 2


BS as Rx W k signal Weaker i l Strong bleed over Desired Mobile Tx Adjacent Channel Mobile Tx

The Base Station faces difficulty in recognizing the actual mobile user, when the adjacent channel bleed over is too high.

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Minimization of ACI
(1) Careful Filtering ---- min. leakage or sharp transition (2) Better Channel Assignment Strategy For channels within a cell, cell Keep frequency separation as large as possible. Also, secondary level of interference can be reduced by not assigning adjacent channels to neighboring cells. For tolerable ACI, we either need to increase the frequency separation or reduce the passband BW. BW

3 3.6 6 Trunking T ki and d Grade G d of f Service S i 3.7 Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems

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Trunking and Grade of Service (GOS)


Trunking
A means for providing access to users on demand from available pool of channels. With trunking, a small number of channels can accommodate large number of random users. Telephone companies use trunking theory to determine number of circuits required. Trunking theory is about how a population can be handled by a limited number of servers.

Terminology
1. Traffic intensity is measured in Erlangs:
One Erlang: traffic in a channel completely occupied One call-hour per hour or one call-min per min 0 5 Erlang: channel occupied 30 minutes in an hour 0.5

2. Grade of Service (GOS): probability that a call is blocked (or delayed). 3. Set-Up Time: time to allocate a channel 4. Blocked Call: Call that cannot be completed at time of request due to congestion congestion. Also referred to as Lost Call 5. Holding Time: (H) average duration of typical call 6. Load: Traffic intensity across the whole system 7. Request Rate: () average number of call requests per unit time.

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Traffic Measurement (Erlangs)


Traffic per user Au = H H is the holding time. where is the request rate and

For U users the load is A= UAu If traffic is trunked in C channels, then the traffic intensity per channel is Ac= UAu /C Erlang B: Determines the probability that a call is blocked. It i a measure of is f GOS f for a t trunked k d system t which hi h provides id no Queuing for blocked calls

Erlang B
If blocked calls are cleared (i.e. not queued), then under some model assumptions, the probability of a blocked call is given by the Erlang B model:
Ac Pr[blocking ] = C C! k = GOS A k = 0 k!

Assumptions
Any user can req a ch any time Pr of user occupying a ch is exp Finite trunk chs C aval

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Table 3.4: Capacity of Erlang B System

Figure 3.6: The Erlang B chart showing the probability of blocking vs. traffic intensity

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Example
The required GOS = 0.5%. Each user generates 0.1 Erlangs of traffic. How many users in a blocked channels cleared system for C =5 channels?

From the chart, with GOS=0.005 and the number of channels (C) = 5: A = 1.13 => U = A/Au = 1.13/0.1 1 13/0 1 ~ 11 users users.

An urban area has 2 million residents. Three competing cellular systems provide service: System A 394 cells x 19 channels. System B 98 cells x 57 channels. y C 49 cells x 100 channels. System For each user = 2 calls/hr, H = 3min, GOS = 2% blocking. Find the number of users that can be supported by each system. System A: g Au= H = 2 x 3/60 = 0.1 Erlangs. From the curve for GOS = 0.02 and C = 19 => A = 12 Er. Users per cell (U) = A/Au = 12/0.1 = 120 users 120 users/cell x 394 cells = 47,280 users can be served

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An urban area has 2 million residents. Three competing cellular systems provide service: System A 394 cells x 19 channels. System B 98 cells x 57 channels. System y C 49 cells x 100 channels. For each user = 2 calls/hr, H = 3min, GOS = 2% blocking. Find the number of users that can be supported by each system System B: g = 2% = 0.02 Prob Blocking C =57 Au = H = 2 x 3/60 = 0.1 Erlangs. From table, A = 45 Erlangs Users per cell U = A/Au = 45/0.1 = 450 users 450 users/cell x 98 cells = 44,100

An urban area has 2 million residents. Three competing cellular systems provide service: System A 394 cells x 19 channels. System B 98 cells x 57 channels. y C 49 cells x 100 channels. System For each user = 2 calls/hr, H = 3min, GOS = 2% blocking. Find the number of users that can be supported by each system System C:

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Erlang C Model Blocked calls delayed


A different type of trunked system queues blocked calls Blocked Calls Delayed. This is known as an Erlang C model. Procedure: 1) Determine Pr[delay > 0] = probability of a delay from the chart. 2) Pr[delay>t | delay>0] = probability that the delay is longer than t, given that there is a delay Pr[delay >t | delay > 0 ] =exp[-( exp[ (C-A)t /H ] >t: > t | delay >

3) Unconditional Probability of delay Pr[delay>t ] = Pr[delay 0]

> 0] Pr[delay

4) Average delay time D = Pr[delay

> 0] H / (C-A)

Erlang C Formula
The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel is determined by Erlang C formula:

Pr[delay > 0] =

AC A C 1 Ak A + C!(1 ) C k = 0 k!
C

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Figure 3.7: The Erlang C chart showing the probability of delay vs. traffic intensity

Example
A hexagonal cell within a 4-cell system has radius =1.387 km. Total # of channels in system = 60. Load per user (Au) = 0.029 Erlangs, = 1call/hour. Erlang C system with GOS (prob of delay) = 5%. The area of a hexagon is given by 2.5981R2. (a) How many users per square kilometer will this system support?

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Area of cell = 2.598 x (1.387)2 = 5 sq km. # of cells/cluster = 4. # of channels = 60. => # of channels /cell = 60/4 = 15 . (a) From Erlang C chart, GOS =0.05, C = 15 => A = 8.8 Er. # of users = total traffic/ traffic per user => >U U= A / Au = 8.8/0.029 8 8/0 029 = 303 users. users Users per sq km = 303/5 = 60 users/sq km.

(b) What is the probability that a delayed call will have to wait for more than 10s ? H = Au / = 0.029 hour = 104.4 seconds. Pr (delay > 10 sec | delay) = exp[-(C-A)t /H ] = exp(-(15-8.8)10/104.4) exp( (15 8 8)10/104 4) = 52.22%

(c) What is the probability that a call will have to wait for more that 10 seconds ? Pr (delay > 10) = Pr (delay > 0) Pr (delay > t | delay) = 0.05 x 0.5522 = 2.76 %.

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The way in which channels are grouped affects the number of users that can be handled by the system. system For example: For GOS=0.01 and C=10 => A = 4.46 Erlangs. Let 2 groups of C = 5 => A = 1.36 x 2 = 2.72 Erlangs. Thus how allocation is done is critical to p performance.

Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems


Cost of a cellular network is proportional to the number of Base Stations. The income is proportional to the number of users. Ways to increase capacity: New spectrum expensive. PCS bands were sold for $20B. Architectural approaches: cell splitting, cell sectoring, reuse partitioning, micro-cell zones. Dynamic allocation of channels according to load in the cell (non-uniform distribution of channels). Improve access technologies.

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Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing the congested cell into smaller cells (microcells), Each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. Cell Splitting increases the capacity since it increases the number of times the channels are reused.

An Example
The area covered by a circle with radius R is four times area covered by y the circle with radius R/2 The number of cells is increased four times The number of clusters the number of channels and the capacity in the coverage area are increased Cell Splitting does not change the co-channel reuse ratio Q =D/R D/R

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Transmit Power
New cells are smaller, so the transmit power of the new cells must be reduced How H t to determine d t i the th transmit t it power? ? The transmit power of the new cells can be found by examining the received power at the new and old cell boundaries and setting them equal Pr(at the old cell boundary) is proportional to Pt1 * R-n Pr(at the new cell boundary) is proportional to Pt2 * (R/2)-n

Transmit Power
Take n=4, we get

Pt2 2 = Pt1 1/16 We find that the transmit power must be reduced by 16 times or 12 dB in order to use the microcells to cover the original area. While maintaining the same S/I.

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Cell sectoring
Another way to reduce the number of cells in a cluster and hence, to reduce Interference is sectoring. Sectoring refers to the use of directional rather than omni antennas antennas. Three (3) 120 degrees sectors are shown as an example.
1 2 3

Analysis: mobile in center cell will experience interference from only 2 cells (not 6). Improvement of 6dB in S/I. Alternatively, try to reduce the reuse factor. Sectoring entails reduced trunking efficiency.

Figure 3.10 (a) 120o sectoring; (b) 60o sectoiring

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Example of Cell Sectoring


With omindirectional antennas
( D / R)n ( 3N )n S/I = = 6 6

S 9 = N I 6

Where we assumed that the power attenuation n = 4. For N = 4, we obtain S = 13.8 dB. For N = 4 and with 3 sectors, we get S = 18.4 dB: S 9 = N I 2

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Microzones
Multiple zones and a base station make up a cell As a mobile travels within the cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest signal This technique is superior to sectoring because antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell, and any base station channel can be assigned to any zone by the base station

Microzoning

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Repeaters for Range Extension


Repeaters are radio re re-transmitters transmitters used to provide coverage for hard-to-reach areas,such as within buildings or in valleys or tunnels Repeaters are bidirectional. Upon receiving signals from base station,then amplifies and reradiates the base station signals to the specific coverage region. Also it will send signals to the serving base station. station The repeaters do not add capacity to the system-it simply serves to reradiate the base station signal into specific locations

Repeaters for Range Extension

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Summary of the Cellular Concept


Concepts of handoff, frequency reuse, trunking efficiency ffi i and d frequency f planning l i have h been b presented The capacity of a cellular system depends on several factors and the methods to increase the capacity The Th overriding idi objective bj i of f these h methods h d i is to increase the number of users in the system

Thanks

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