The Relationship Between

Organizational Support,
Employee Development, and
Organizational Commitment:
An Empirical Study

Judith W. Tansky, DehraJ. Cohen

An empirical study conducted in a major midwestem hospital found that

organizational commitment and perceived organizational support were
significantly correlated with satisfaction with career development Results
suggested that when organizations make efforts to develop their managers,
the managers become more committed to the organization and also more
likely to develop their employees.

Organizations today face many conflicting problems that must be balanced in

order to compete successfully in the world economy. They must continually
improve performance by reducing costs, innovating processes and products,
and improving quality and productivity (Becker and Gerhart, 1996). At the
same time, there is great concern about recruiting, retaining, managing, and
motivating the workforce because of the changing relationship hetween
employers and employees and a labor market that has been tight.
Over the past ten to fifteen years, various arguments have been made that
the firm's human resources may be its sole source of sustainable competitive
advantage (Ferris, Hochwarter, Buckley, Harrell-Cook, and Frink, 1999). These
arguments are drawn from the resource-based view of the firm (Barney, 1991,
1995). According to this point of view, human resources create value in a way
that is rare, cannot be imitated, and cannot be substituted (Ferris, Hochwarter,
Buckley, Harrell-Cook, and Frink, 1999). These arguments lay the foundation
for the study of strategic human resource management.
Note: An earlier version of this article was presented to the Human Resources Division of
the Academy of Management Meetings in 1997 in Boston. We would like to thank the
reviewers for their helpful comments.
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY, vol. 12, no. 3 , Fail 2001 o oc
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 285
286 Tanshy, Cohen

This stream of research has focused on identifying human resource

practices that may help the financial performance of the firm. In their
recent work, Delery and Doty (1996) identified seven human resource prac-
tices considered to be strategic: career opportunities, formal training systems,
appraisal measures, profit sharing, employment security voice mechanisms,
and job definition. Focusing on this same argument that employees can pro-
vide a competitive advantage, we can look at the area of human resource
development.
Jarratt and Coates (1995) argued that organizations must achieve flexibil-
ity and skill interchangeability from an adaptable, responsive workforce. How
do we acquire and maintain such a workforce? The traditional employment
contract that offered workers security in exchange for commitment is no longer
valid in most cases. Often workers are aware that job security is no longer part
of the employment contract; indeed, they may live in fear of being laid off.
Why should these workers be committed to the organization? What can orga-
nizations do to regain their commitment?
London (1989) has argued that job secunty is being replaced by employ-
ment security. Although workers may remain with the same company, they need
to be retrained to move into new jobs. In fact. Hall and Mirvis (1996) argued
that the new psychological contract implies that the individual turns in a strong
performance while continuously learning and adapting, and in exchange the
organization offers meaning and purpose, developmental relationships, and
good rewards and benefits. They argued that we need a greater understanding
of how to provide work environments that not only support employee devel-
opment (a key element of the new contract) but also provide an atmosphere
that encourages managers to care for their people. One of the human resource
practices that may offer a competitive advantage is continuous learning for all
employees so that they can adapt, and in turn, perform (London, 1989).
Employee development refers to the long-term personal and professional
growth of individuals (London, 1989). It falls under the umbrella of human
resource development, which refers to organized learning experiences provided
by the employer to enhance performance and personal growth (Nadler and
Nadler, 1989). An employee has grown if he or she becomes more competent
in his or her interactions with the environment and feels more competent and
confident (White, 1959).
Employee development can play an important role in helping to main-
tain employee effectiveness in an organization. Some organizations refer to their
employee development programs as career development programs because
they help employees develop skills that are necessary to move to other jobs in
the organization, or if necessary get jobs outside the organization. A study by
Gutteridge, Leibowitz, and Shore (1993) found that organizational leaders per-
ceive the following significant results because of organizational development
efforts: enhanced employee retention, enhanced employee skills and morale,
employee empowerment, improved HR planning and selection, and greater
strategic advantage.
The Relationship Between Support, Development, and Commitment 287

Managers, who are involved with employees on a daily basis, are in a

position to assist their employees in development. Schneier, MacCoy and
Burchman (1988) argued that managers who coach, counsel, mentor,
and train their employees can enhance their skills and motivation. By seeking
out opportunities to develop new competencies in different areas, employees
may make themselves more valuable to their present firm and at the same time
make themselves more valuable in the external labor market should they decide
to leave (Eeldman, 1996). No matter whether employee development is a for-
mal or informal activity in an organization, the outcomes remain important.
Considerable research has been conducted on organizational commitment,
satisfaction, coaching, and employee development as individual or organiza-
tional outcomes. Very little research has been done on the relationship between
organizational commitment, employee development, satisfaction with
employee development, and coaching. In fact, Noe and Ford (1992) argued
that additional research into training is needed on perceptual information such
as supportiveness of the organizational climate for personal-developmental
skills and technical skill upgrading.
This article will explore employee development issues. Variables examined
include satisfaction vnth employee development, organizational commitment,
perceived organizational support, perceived self-efficacy of coaching, and
knowledge of employee development plans. The article examines both the
managers' organizational commitment, based on their perception of employee
development, and the managers' knowledge of their subordinates' develop-
ment plans. The hypotheses for the current study were tested using a sample
of managers and supervisors from a large midwestern hospital.

Literature Review
No longer able to offer employees job security, organizations may offer oppor-
tunities for internal movement, continual growth, increased skills and abili-
ties, and personal and professional development (that is, employee or career
development opportunities). In return, organizations may expect certain
employee attitudes, including commitment. Organizational commitment is the
strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular
organization (Mowday, Porter, and Steers, 1982). Although little research has
focused on the relationship between organizational commitment and employee
development, there have been some related studies.
In a study of the commitment of retail salespeople, Darden, Hampton, and
Howell (1989) found that managerial style was positively related to satisfac-
tion and that a friendly, participatory approach decreased role stress and
increased career commitment to retail sales and organizational commitment to
the firm. It has also been argued that organizational employee development
initiatives are essential to maintaining employee morale and satisfaction
(Jackson and Vitberg, 1987; Tyler, 1987). As individuals consider their career
in an organization, it is possible that their perceptions of their career prospects
288 ^^^^^^ Tansfey,Cohen

in the organization (for example, assessments of promotions, employment

security, continual growth) or job opportunities if they leave the organization
(because of continual updating of skills) will have an effect on organizational
commitment (Jans, 1989). Because satisfaction is usually broken dovm into
facets for research purposes, we propose that the most relevant facet in an
employee development study is satisfaction with employee development. Man-
agers may become satisfied with employee development, leading to increased
levels of commitment to the organization because they believe they have the
opportunity to keep themselves current.
Individuals interact with supervisors, peers, and other members of their
organization in ways that evolve into relationships that involve transactions in
which both parties give and receive in some way (Organ, 1988). These rela-
tionships involving transactions can be considered exchanges. Blau (1964) has
characterized two types of exchanges: economic exchanges and social
exchanges. A social exchange is based on implicit obligations and trust.
The value of the exchange is influenced by the identities of the two par-
ties. Each party has expectations about the behavior of the other party, but
these expectations are not based on timing or the specifics of what each party
must render. If both parties benefit from the exchange, neither will know
whether the expectations of the other have been fully met. Social exchanges
probably involve reciprocity (Adams, 1965; Blau, 1964). Gouldner (1960)
defined reciprocity as the norm that assumes that the recipient of benefit is
obligated to repay the donor in some way Thus, employee development might
be viewed as a social exchange. It is based on impUcit obligations that require
trust. It offers opportunities and benefits. In return for these opportunities and
benefits, employees may feel obligated to reciprocate and may become more
committed to the organization or help their fellow employees.
At the same time, managers' satisfaction with career development may
influence how much effort they make to develop their subordinates. Research
suggests that social support from the work environment influences employee
attitudes and perceptions and in turn influences development activities
(Kozlowski and Hults, 1987; Noe and Wilk, 1993). Part ofa manager's job is
working with and developing subordinates. Kram (1996) argued that dyadic
relationships that individuals have at work can support learning (acquiring
new skills and competencies) and development (advancing their career and
developing self-esteem or a new sense of identity). If managers are satis-
fied with employee development, then they may be more likely to follow
through with their responsibilities for subordinate development. We hypoth-
esize the following:
HYPOTHESIS 1. Satisjaction with employee development will he positively related to
organizational commitment.
HYPOTHESIS 2. A manager's satisjaction with employee development will be posi-
tively related to his or her knowledge oJ employee development plans.
The Relationship Between Support, Development, and Commitment 289

Hall and Mirvis (1996) argued that firms will have to select and develop
a core group of people who have an appetite for continuous learning and the
ability to cope with ambiguity and shifting job assignments. Research has
shown that the best development occurs on the job (Hall and Associates,
1986). In fact, Seibert, Hall, and Kram (1995) maintained that development
strategies that are built on naturally occurring work experiences are more flex-
ible and responsive and thus better suited to current conditions. The
employee's supervisor or manager often does this type of development.
Kram (1996) argued that the dyadic relationships that individuals have at
work can support learning (acquiring new skills and competencies) and devel-
opment (advancing their career and developing self-esteem or a new sense of
identity). By seeking out opportunities to develop new competencies in dif-
ferent areas, employees and managers (acting as coaches) may make them-
selves more valuable to their present firms and at the same time make
themselves more valuable in the external labor market should they decide to
leave (Feldman, 1996).
Coaching has been connected with mentoring and employee development
in the literature (Evered and Selman, 1989; Shore and Bloom, 1986). Coach-
ing allows individuals to see something about themselves or their environment
that they did not see before or would not otherwise be able to see. Some of the
literature on coaching and mentoring discusses the concept of superior-
subordinate career-enhancing relations. Kram (1988) found that career-
enhancing relationships between managers and subordinates perform two
types of functions for those involved. Career functions, activities that enhance
career advancement and increase one's share of organizational resources and
rewards, are one type. Psychosocial functions are the second type; they
enhance a sense of competence, identity, and effectiveness in a professional
role. It is suggested that both managers and subordinates benefit from career
and psychosocial functions (Kram, 1988).
Support is one of the recurring themes of coaching (Shore and Bloom,
1986). According to Whetten and Cameron (1995), coaching is a form of sup-
portive communication that is a necessary skill for managers who are acting as
developers for their subordinates. Maier (1958) argued that the role of a man-
ager in employee development is supportive (for example, helping, coaching,
and counseling). It has been argued that managers view employee develop-
ment as an extra burden that they are ill-equipped to handle (Walker and
Gutteridge, 1979). Thus, managers who perceive they have coaching skills
(self-efficacy concerning coaching) will be more likely to develop their employ-
ees (Bandura, 1986). Noe and Ford (1992) argued that research on training
and learning should include self-report measures of self-efficacy

HYPOTHESIS 3. A manager's selj-ejjtcacy concerning coaching skills will be positively

related to that manager having knowledge ojhis or her employees' development
plans.
290 Tansky, Cohen

Related to economic and social exchange theory is the research on per-

ceived organizational support, which is based on the norm of reciprocity
(Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, and Sowa, 1986). This research has
shovm that employees form global beliefs, termed perceived organizational sup-
port, concerning the extent to which the organization values their contribu-
tions and cares about their well-being. Perceived organizational support is
influenced by aspects of the organization's treatment of the employees and can
thus influence their interpretation of organizational motives. Eisenberger,
Huntington, Hutchison, and Sowa (1986) argued that perceived organizational
support will influence employees' expectations of the organization in a wide
variety of situations. They reported a positive relationship between perceived
organizational support and conscientiousness in carrying out conventional
job responsibilities, expressed affective and calculative involvement in the orga-
nization or organizational commitment, and innovation on behalf of the
organization in the absence of anticipated direct rewards or personal recogni-
tion. This innovation on behalf of the organization could mean becoming more
knowledgeable about employee development plans so that it can more actively
aid these employees. Employee development opportunities may be viewed as
a positive action by the organization that sends a message to employees that
the organization cares about their well-being and values their contributions
(Nadler and Nadler, 1989). In turn, the managers may reciprocate with
increased organizational commitment or by placing more emphasis on obtain-
ing knowledge about their employees' development plans.
Developmental opportunities offered to managers could include workshops
and experiences that enable them to develop their coaching skills; these, in tum,
will increase their self-efficacy concerning their coaching skills. Again, this may
be viewed as organizational concern for employees. Managers who have high
self-efficacy about their coaching skills may be more apt to perceive organiza-
tional support and may reciprocate by becoming committed to the organization
or by gaining knowledge of their employees' development plans.

HYPOTHESIS 4. Satisjaction with employee development will be positively related to

perceived organizational support.

HYPOTHESIS 5. SelJ-eJJicacy concerning coaching skills will be positively related to

perceived organizational support.

HYPOTHESIS 6. Perceived organizational support will be positively related to orga-

nizational commitment.

HYPOTHESIS 7. Perceived organizational support will be positively related to knowl-

edge oJ employee development plans.

An area that has been getting increasing attention in the organizational

behavior literature is a model of mediation in which an antecedent influences
The Relationship Between Support, Development,, and Commitment 291_

a consequence through an intervening variable (James and Brett, 1984). The

relationship between satisfaction with employee development and organiza-
tional commitment, and the relationship between satisfaction with employee
development and self-efficacy concerning coaching skills, and the outcome—
knowledge of employee development plans—may be mediated by perceived
organizational support. For example, satisfaction with employee development
influences perceived organizational support, which in turn influences organi-
zational commitment. Thus,
HYPOTHESIS 8. The relationship between satisjaction with employee development and
organizational commitment will be mediated by perceived organizational support.
HYPOTHESIS 9. The relationship between satisjaction with employee development
and selj-ejjicacy concerning coaching skills and knowledge oJ employee develop-
ment plans will be mediated by perceived organizational support.

Method
This section describes the method used in this study
Sample. The data were collected in a major metropolitan hospital in the
Midwest. Managers and supervisors who were attending a workshop entitled
Managers as Coaches were asked to fill out the survey at the beginning of the
workshop. Two hundred and sixty-two supervisors and managers responded
to the questionnaire during eight workshops. All managers and supervisors
(including the COO) were required to attend the workshop. The questionnaire
was the first step in the workshop and thus was filled out by all participants.
The average age of participants was thirty-nine. Seventy-three percent of them
were women and 77 percent had at least a four-year college degree.
Measures. Unless otherwise noted, the measures were self-reported and
were five-point scales. The items asked respondents to express affective reac-
tions to a condition or to measure perceptions of themselves, their subordi-
nates, their managers, or the organization.
Organizational commitment was measured by the nine-item version of the
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) developed by Mowday,
Steers, and Porter (1979). These researchers characterized commitment along
three dimensions: strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals
and values, willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organiza-
tion, and strong desire to maintain membership in the organization. Price and
Mueller (1986) argued that this scale is relatively vahd and reliable and that
Cronbach's alpha has ranged from .82 to .93. In this study, Cronbach's alpha
was .89.
Perceived organizational support was measured by the sixteen-item scale
developed by Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, and Sowa (1986). This
scale measures employees' global beliefs about the extent to which the organi-
zation values their contributions and cares about their well-being. These
 Tansky, Cohen

authors argued that the scale is valid and reliable. Cronbach's alpha was .85 for
this study A six-item scale was developed to measure managers' selJ-eJJicacy
concerning coaching skills. Items included these: "I feel competent that I can help
my employees set developmental goals" and "I know a variety of ways to do
on-the-job development with employees."
A two-item scale, consisting of "I have discussed career development with
each of my employees" and "I know each of my employees' career plans and
developmental goals" was used to measure knowledge of employee develop-
ment plans.
Satisjaction with employee development was measured with a five-item scale.
Items included these: "The organization cares about my career development"
and "The organization is doing a satisfactory job of helping employees with
their development."
Respondents were asked to give their age and gender. Men were coded 1
and women were coded 2. Respondents were also asked to circle "the number
that corresponds to your highest education level," with 1 representing less than
a high school diploma and 8 representing a doctoral degree.
Data Analysis. The first part of the investigation consisted of a correla-
tion analysis that showed the strength of the zero order relationship between
variables. Hierarchical multiple regression was then used to determine the
effects of demographics, satisfaction with employee development, and per-
ceived organizational support on organizational commitment. Third, a hierar-
chical multiple regression was performed to look at the effect of perceived
organizational support on developing employees after controlling for demo-
graphics, satisfaction with employee development, and self-efficacy concern-
ing coaching skills.
The technique recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986) was used to test
the hypotheses that perceptions of organizational support (mediator) would
mediate the relationship between satisfaction with employee development
(independent variable) and organizational commitment (dependent variable)
and the relationship between satisfaction with employee development and self-
efficacy concerning coaching skills (independent variables) with knowledge
of employee development plans (dependent variable). The mediator was
regressed on the independent variable(s), the dependent variable was regressed
on the independent variable, and the dependent variable on both the inde-
pendent variable(s) and the mediator, and the results were examined (Baron
and Kenny 1986). The correlations between the dependent variable, inde-
pendent variable(s), and mediator were also examined.

Results
Means, standard deviations, the zero order correlations, and Cronbach's alphas
or correlations are shown in Table 1. Support is provided for the first seven
hypotheses: (1) satisfaction with employee development is positively related
The Relationship Between Support, Development, and Commitment 293

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero Order Correlations

Variables M S D ] 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Knowledge of
employee plans 3.11 .95 (.73)
2. Organizational
commitment 4.02 .63 -.04 (.89)
3. Perceived
organizational
support 4.27 .73 .20** .57** (.85)
4. Self-effficacy of
coaching skills 3.57 .64 .43** .02 .23** (.85)
5. Satisfaction with
employee .44** .38** .19** (.68)
3.30 .83 .19**
development
6. Age 38.78 7.65 .00 .13* .14* .12 .05 NA
7. Gender 1.73 .45 .03 .11 .02 -.05 -.07 -.07 NA
8. Education 5.25 1.40 .12 -.02 .14* .06 -.04 -.05 -.15*

*p < .05, **p < .01

Note; Numbers in parentheses represent Cronbach's alphas or correlation for the two-item scale.

to organizational commitment; (2) satisfaction with employee development is

positively related to knowledge of employee development plans; (3) self-
efficacy of coaching skills is positively related to knowledge of employee devel-
opment plans; (4) satisfaction with employee development is positively related
to perceived organizational support; (5) self-efficacy of coaching skills is pos-
itively related to perceived organizational support; (6) perceived organizational
support is positively related to organizational commitment; and (7) perceived
organizational support is positively related to knowledge of employee devel-
opment plans.
Additional analyses were used to address the problem of common method
variance (Campbell and Fiske, 1959; Fiske, 1982), which may arise in studies
using self-reports. Observed correlations among self-reports of two or more
different constructs could be inflated because both measures came from
the same source. One method used to address this problem is the Harman one-
factor test (Harman, 1967). All of the variables of interest are entered into a fac-
tor analysis. If a substantial amount of common method variance is present, a
single factor will emerge or it will account for the majority of the covariance
in the independent and criterion variables (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986).
Accordingly, a factor analysis was performed. The results indicated that five
meaningful factors could be derived. The five factors explained 24.9 percent,
10.5 percent, 5.8 percent, 4.2 percent, and 3.3 percent of the variance, respec-
tively The five factors were knowledge of employee development plans, orga-
nizational commitment, perceived organizational support, self-efficacy
of coaching skills, and satisfaction with employee development. The results
indicated that a general factor did not emerge, thus reducing the probability
of common method variance problems.
 Tansky, Cohen

The hierarchical regression results shown in Table 2 examined predictors

of organizational commitment. The variables were based on the description
previously discussed in the Measures section of this article. Forty percent of
the variance was explained. Both satisfaction with employee development and
perceived organizational support were significant predictors of organizational
commitment for managers after controlling for demographics.
Table 3 shows the results of the hierarchical regression that examined the
profile of managers who have knowledge of their employee development plans.
Although the model explained 21 percent of the variance, only self-efficacy of
coaching skills was significant in predicting knowledge of employee develop-
ment plans.

Table 2. Hierarchical Regression Results: Predictors

of Organizational Commitment
Variables Stepl Step 2 Step 3
Constants 3.11 2.21 1.32
1. Age .01* .01 .01
Gender .22* .18 .13
Education -.00 -.00 -.04
2. Satisfaction with employee development .32** .18**
3. Perceived organizational support .43**
1. AR2 .04*
2. AR^ .17**
3. AR2 .19**
4. Total R^ .04* .21** .40**
*p < .05, **p < .01

Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Results: Profile of Managers

Who Develop Their Employees
Variables Stepl Step 2 Step 3
Constant 2.55 .12 .01
1. Age .00 -.00 -.01
Gender .03 .09 .08
Education .09* .08 .07
2. Satisfaction viath employee development .16* .14
Self-efficacy of coaching skills .60** .59**
3. Perceived organizational support .07
1. AR^ .02
2. AR2 .19**
3. AR2 .00
4. Total R2 .02 .19** .21**
*p < .05, **p < .01
The Relationship Between Support, Development, and Commitment 295^

Finally in the context of the results reported in Table 2, there existed suf-
ficient justification to test the mediational hypothesis that organizational
support mediates the relationship between satisfaction with employee devel-
opment and organizational commitment (Hypothesis 8). The results reported
in Table 3 did not offer justification for testing the hypothesis that organiza-
tional support moderates the relationship between satisfaction with employee
development and self-efficacy concerning coaching skills and knowledge of
employee development plans (Hypothesis 9).
In the case of organizational support mediating the relationship between
satisfaction with employee development and organizational commitment or
Hypothesis 8, the mediator (organizational support) was regressed on satis-
faction with employee development, the independent variable, and the results
were significant; the dependent variable (organizational commitment)
was regressed on the independent variable (satisfaction with employee
development), and the results were significant; and the dependent variable
(organizational commitment) was regressed on both the independent variables
(satisfaction with employee development and self-efficacy concerning
coaching skills) and on the mediator (organizational support), and the effects
of the mediator on the dependent variable were significant (Baron and Kenny,
1986). The effect of the independent variable (satisfaction with employee
development) on the dependent variable (organizational commitment) was
less in the third equation than in the second equation, and the mediator
and the independent variable were correlated. The research indicated par-
tial mediating effects for the variable because the independent variable
(satisfaction with employee development) still had a significant effect after
the mediator (organizational support) was controlled. Thus, organiza-
tional support has both a direct and indirect effect on organizational
commitment.

Discussion
A significant finding of this study is that managers who are satisfied with
employee development will be more committed to the organization and
will perceive more organizational support than managers who are not satisfied
with employee development. There are a variety of employee development
activities (for example, tuition reimbursement, job posting, self-assessment,
job rotation, career counseling) that an organization can offer that are visible
to employees and managers. In fact, many organizations have a variety of these
activities in place but do not promote them as employee development activi-
ties. This study provides evidence that it may be important to have a formal
career development program that is common knowledge among employees.
This program should be promoted as a system designed by the organization to
help employees with their future plans both inside and outside the organiza-
tion. Participating in the program will aid in keeping them employable as well
 Tansky, Cohen

as helping them to achieve their own plans for the future. Their manager will
be their coach to help them in this endeavor.
This study also supports thefindingof Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison,
and Sowa (1986) that perceptions of organizational support infiuence organiza-
tional commitment. It could be argued that employee development activities are
a message to employees that the organization cares about their well-being; to
reciprocate they give a greater commitment to the organization. A more formal
employee development program may also enhance such reciprocity
The facets of satisfaction that are usually studied include satisfaction with
pay, benefits, coworkers, supervisors, and advancement. Studying a different
aspect of satisfaction (that is, satisfaction with employee development) adds
new insights for those interested in careers or development. For example, if
an organization was concerned about organizational commitment or per-
ceived organizational support on the part of managers, then paying attention
to and facilitating employee development activities would be one strategy to
employ Although one could argue that advancement is development, many
employee development activities do not necessarily lead to advancement. If
job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the
appraisal of one's job and job experiences (Locke, 1976), then satisfaction with
employee development can be thought of as a positive emotional state result-
ing from the appraisal of one's developmental experiences in the organization.
This would imply that organizations need to pay greater attention, both in
planning and implementing, to the development activities they make available
to employees. Future research could focus on the construct validity of sat-
isfaction with employee development as a new job satisfaction facet.
Organizations that make an effort to develop their managers may receive
a double benefit. This study provides evidence that managers who perceive
themselves as competent in coaching skills (that is, have self-efficacy con-
cerning their coaching skills) are more likely to have knowledge of their
employee development plans, and this should lead to development. Although
ideally organizations should select managers with coaching skills, often it is
not possible to do so. Therefore, assisting managers with employee develop-
ment will relate both to their organizational commitment and to their percep-
tions of organizational support. It will also create a dynamic where they will
be more likely to assist their own subordinates in development.
Likely employee development activities for managers would include
coaching, problem-solving, communicating, listening, leadership, and coun-
seling skills (Kram, 1988; Schneier, MacCoy, and Burchman, 1988; Shore and
Bloom, 1986; Tyler, 1987). These activities would help them with personal
development as well as enhance their coaching skills to allow them to engage
in developmental activities with their subordinates. In addition, such activities
can lead to satisfaction with the organization's employee development efforts.
Employee development, however, may go beyond such common man-
agement development activities. As has been stated here and elsewhere, orga-
nizations need continuous improvement and continuous learning if they are
The Relationship Between Support, Development, and Commitment 297

to compete in today's rapidly changing economic environment. Management

and employee development will help facilitate continuous improvement and
learning, but additional skills and abilities will be needed as well. The concept
of employability can be applied within a single organization and not just across
organizations. That is, individuals must maintain their employability by ensur-
ing that they have the skills necessary to compete for jobs in their organization
and perform at an accepted level. To the extent that organizations assist indi-
viduals with their internal employability or their external employability, orga-
nizations may increase satisfaction with employee development.
If sustained competitive advantage is what mostfirmsare looking for, then
one way to achieve it is through sustained employee development. Employee
development is one way to help maintain employee effectiveness. A key point
raised by the results of this study is that managers not only need to feel confident
in their roles as coaches but also must be satisfied with the employee develop-
ment process of the organization. Although development has never been simple,
thisfindingperhaps adds more pressure to the situation. The process, percep-
tions, and actual activities will all have an impact. Offering courses or training
opportunities v«ll not be enough to ensure organizational commitment and per-
formance. Satisfaction with employee development should also be monitored.

Limitations
Betause all variables were measured by self-reports in this cross-sectional
analysis, common method variance may be a problem. The Hannan one-factor
test was used to control for this problem. Some of the scales were developed
specifically for this study and one scale was measured with only two items,
which is problematic. The rehability for satisfaction with employee develop-
ment is .68, which may indicate that this scale needs further development,
although Nunnally (1978) argued that this was acceptable for new scale devel-
opment. Also, respondents were not given a definition of development, so they
responded to the items based on their own perceptions of what development
is. Furthermore, the respondents were all health care professionals so the infor-
mation may not be generalizable to other populations.
Although there are limitations to this or any study that uses self-report
data from a single industry, we believe that given the research on this topic the
results are both interesting and useful. This study is a response to calls for
research by Noe and Ford (1992), who argued that we need to look at more
perceptual data.

Directions for Future Research

The current study opens new doors for further research. First, for purposes
of causality, it would be interesting to replicate this study in a longitudinal
design so that it could be determined if employee development activities,
organizational commitment, and perceived organizational support for and
298 ^^ Tansky, Cohen

development of subordinates are conditions and relationships that are likely

to be sustained. Second, studying these issues with data from both managers
and subordinates, in dyads, may shed light on whether the perceptions of
development and coaching hold true. Third, studying a different industry out-
side of health care may also assist with the generalizability of the results.
Organizational commitment and overall satisfaction have received con-
siderable attention in the literature, but studying organizational commitment
in relation to employee development has not. In addition, studying the orga-
nizational support issue relative to employee development has not been inves-
tigated. Continued research in this area will aid organizations in their quest to
develop employees and promote organizational commitment and will aid
researchers in finding new ways to study satisfaction, organizational commit-
ment, and employee development.

References
Adams, J. A. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimen-
tal Social Psychology (pp. 267-299). New York: Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Barney, J. (1991). Finn resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management,
] 7, 99-120.
Barney, J. (1995). Looking inside for competitive advantage. Academy of Management Executive,
9(4), 49-61.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psy-
chological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal o/Personality
andSodal Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Becker, B., & Gerhart, B. (1996). The impact of human resource management on organizational
perfonnance: Progress and prospects. Academy of Management Journal, 39 (4), 779-801.
Blau, E (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the muki-
trait multimethod matrix. Psycholo^cal Bulletin, 56, 81-105.
Darden, W R., Hampton, R., & Howell, R. D. (1989). Career versus organizational commitment:
Antecedents and consequences of retail salespeoples' commitment. Journal of Retailing, 65,
80-106.
Delery, J. F., & Doty, D. H. (1996). Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource manage-
ment: Tests of universallstic, contingency, and configurational performance predictions. Acad-
emy of Management Journal, 39, 802-835.
Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational sup-
port. Journal o/Applied Psychology, 71, 500-507.
Evered, R. D., &r Selman, J. C. (1989). Coaching and the art of management. Organizational
Dynamics, 18, 16-32.
Feldman, D. C. (1996). Managing careers in downsizing firms. Human Resource Management,
35(2), 145-161.
Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W A., Buckley M. R., Harrell-Cook, G., & Frlnk, D. D. (1999). Human
resources management: Some new directions. Journal of Management, 25, 385-415.
Fiske, D. W (1982). Convergent-discriminant validation in measurements and research strate-
gies. In D. Brinberg & L. Kidder (Eds.), Forms of validity in research. New directions for
methodology of social and behavioral science, no. 12. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The Relationship Between Support, Development, and Commitment 299

Gouldner, A. W (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sodologcal

Review, 25, 161-178.
Gutteridge, T. G., Leibowitz, Z. B., & Shore, J. E. (1993). When careers flower, organizations
flourish. Training and Development Journal, 47, 24-29.
Hall, D. T., & Associates. (1986). Career development in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hall, D. T., & Mirvis, P H. (1996). The new protean career: Psychological success and the path
with a heart. In D. T. Hall 6i Associates (Eds.), The career is dead: Long live the career San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 15-45.
Harman, H. H. (1967). Modem factor analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jackson, T., cSr Vitberg, A. (1987, Feb.). Career development. Pt. 1: Careers and entrepreneur-
ship. Personnel, 12-17.
James, L. R., & Brett, J. M. (1984). Mediators, moderators, and tests for mediation. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 69, 307-321.
Jans, N. A. (1989). Organizational commitment, career factors, and career/life stage. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 10, 247-266.
Jarratt, J., & Coates, J. F (1995). Employee development and job creation: Trends, problems,
opportunities. In M. London (Ed.), Employees, careers, and job creation (pp. 1-30). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kozlowski, S.WJ., & Hults, B. M. (1987). An exploration of climates for technical updating and
performance. Personnel Psychology, 40, 539-564.
Kram, K. (1988). Mentoring at work (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Kram, K. (1996). A relational approach to career development. In D. T. Hall & Associates (Eds.),
The career is dead: Long live the career San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Locke, E. A. (1976). Nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of
industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1349). Skokie, IL: Rand McNally
London, M. (1989). Managing the training enterprise. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Maier, N.R.E (1958). The appraisal interview: Objectives, methods, and skills. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W, & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee-organizational linkages: The psy-
chology o/commitment, absenteeism, and turnover New York: Academic Press.
Mowday, R. T, Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W (1979). The measurement of organizational com-
mitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior; 14, 22^-14:1.
Nadler, L., & Nadler, Z. (1989). Developing human resources (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Noe, R. A., & Ford, J. K. (1992). Emerging issues and new directions for training research. In
G. R. Ferris and K. M. Rowland (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management
(pp. 345-384). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Noe, R. A., & Wilk, S. L. (1993). Investigation of the factors that influence employees' partici-
pation in development activities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 291-302.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Organ, D. W (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. San Francisco:
New Lexington Press.
Podsakoff, P, & Organ, D. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and
prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531-544.
Price, J. L., & Mueller, C. W (1986). Handbook of organizational measurement. Marshfield, MA:
Pitman.
Schneier, C. E., MacCoy, D., & Burchman, S. (1988, Feb.). Unlocking employee potential: Devel-
oping skills. Management Solutions, pp. 9-15.
Seibert, K. W, Hall, D. T., 6a: Kram, K. E. (1995). Strengthening the weak link in strategic exec-
utive development: Integrating individual development and global business strategy. Human
Resource Management, 34 (4), 549-567.
Shore, L. M., & Bloom, A. J. (1986). Developing employees through coaching and career man-
agement. Personnel, 63 (8), 34-41.
300 Tansky, Cohen

Tyler, D. (1987, Summer). Career paths in the face of restraint. Canadian Business Review,
pp. 28-30.
Walker, J. W, & Gutteridge, T. G. (1979). Career planning practices. New York: AMACOM.
Whetten, D. A., & Cameron, K. S. (1995). Developing management skills. New York:
HarperCollins.
White, R. W (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review,
66, 297-323.

Judith W Tansky teaches at the Fisher College oJ Business, Department oJ

Management and Human Resources, the Ohio State University, Columbus.

Debraj. Cohen teaches in the Management Science Department, School oJBusiness

and Public Management, the George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
She is also director oJ research at the Society Jor Human Resource Management in
Alexandria, Virginia.