HCI is the set of processes and resources that users employ to interact with computers good user interface:

: Achieves required performance by operator, control, and maintenance personnel Minimizes skill and personnel requirements and training time Achieve required reliability of person-computer combinations (reliability, availability, security, and data integrity) goals for usability Time taken to learn how to operate the system Speed of performance Error rate

Fit: the match between the computer design and the user and task so as to minimize the users human resources needed to accomplish the task A Multi-layer model of HCI

The task level pertains to the information requirements that have to be met. The semantic level pertains to the set of objects and operations through which the computer becomes meaningful to the user.

 The syntactic level dictates the rules of combining the semantic objects and operations into correct instructions. The lexical level describes the way specific computer devices are used to implement the syntactic level, e.g., move a mouse pointer to the document label and click twice to open it.

User Activity

Physical resources Cognitive resources Affective resources

methodology revolves around a systems development life cycle that includes 4 phases: planning, analysis, design, and implementation/operation. Each phase focuses on 4 human concerns of HCI: Physical, cognitive, affective, and usefulness. planning phase determines the organizational information needs. Analysis involves several unique HCI techniques. We believe that HCI considerations should start in the analysis stage to uncover user needs and opportunities. Three major analyses are conducted: context, user, and task analyses. The design phase specifies the user interface on the basis of the analysis according to HCI principles and guidelines and tested against the evaluation metrics. Finally, the implementation stage makes the target system a reality. Star lifecycle

4 human-centered design activities which are central to a system development project:

 Understand and specify the context of use Specify the user and organizational requirements Produce design solutions Evaluate designs against requirements

Output Device is a machine capable of representing data from a computer. Visual Display is an output device that is capable of rendering data from a computer. Data may take the form of graphic, tabular, text or other. Voice Recognition is the ability of the computer to recognize human speech. The four major types of conversational tasks: Composition tasks Transcription tasks Transaction task Collaboration tasks

 Synthesized speech is appropriate when: The required message is short and simple, The message needs an immediate response, The user/receiver is visually occupied, The environment is too brightly or poorly lit for ordinary visual displays to be used, Printers Ink-jet Laser Color printers In some environments and for some tasks, non-speech auditory outputs such as beeps are very useful. An auditory non-speech output is any sound that is generated by the computer or other device that can be detected by the human ear but is not speech-related. Ergonomics the physical fit between human and machine. Ergonomic Engineering the science of human engineering which combines the study of human body mechanics and physical limitations with industrial psychology. Ergonomic engineering is concerned with the physical interfaces between the human user and the computer and has three main categories: analysis, design, and assessment (Bullinger, 1988). The analysis category focuses on: human attributes and capabilities, the tasks to be performed, and the technology that is being used to aid in task performance. The performance-related goals of ergonomics are to improve: the human ability to handle physical load or demands of the work situation, performance, and

 end user acceptance of the system. Cognitive engineering applies knowledge of cognitive psychology to the design and development of systems that support the cognitive processes of users. Normans Model
Goals

Intentions

Evaluation

Action specification

Interpretation

Execution

Perception

Physical system

Establish a goal that needs to be accomplished. Form the intention (or hierarchy of intentions) that will accomplish the goal. Specify the action sequence to implement the intentions. Execute the action. Perceive the state of system resulting from the action. Interpret the system state. Evaluate your interpretation against the expectation based on your intentions.

GOMS is a description of knowledge that a user must have in order to carry out tasks on a device or system. GOMS: Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules are the elements of a model that describes purposeful HCI. Goals specify what the user wants and intends to achieve.

 examples are: delete word move-left cursor

Operators are the building blocks for describing human-computer interaction at the concrete level. difference between goals and operators is that the goal is something the user wishes to achieve, while the operator is just something the user executes

Methods are programs built with operators that are designed to accomplish goals.

Selection rules predict which method will be used. For example, If the mouse is working, select point to an item on screen, if not select choose OPEN option in file menu.

When is a GOMS analysis done and what for? In the design phase It is a way to characterize a set of design decisions from the users point of view. In the evaluation/usability testing phase It can be used to obtain predictions of learning and performance, and to establish tasks to monitor In the documentation phase
Start

Choose Top Level

Goals

Draft Operators and Methods for Each Goal

Select Methods

Check for Goal Attainment Repeat until Satisfied Yes

Further Refinement Needed? No Stop

flow chart for building GOMS

Task analysis:-The study of what a user is required to do, in terms of actions and/or cognitive processes, to achieve a task objective. The idea is that task analysis provides some structure for description of tasks or activities then makes it easier to describe how activities fit together to explore what the implications of this may be for the design of products

Application of TA to studying how users use existing products in a predictive fashion to represent how users may operate products that are being developed Assist in the development of training manuals for products the development of evaluation plans TA Process 2 processes:-

- some understanding of sequence or dependency between diff e rent activities - one of representing how activities or tasks fit together

Technique used hierarchical decomposition Hierarchical decomposition = breaking larger activities into smaller activities until a sufficient level of detail is reached.

well known approach which breaks tasks or activities down into smaller units is the Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA ) technique developed by Shepherd (1989)

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) Graphical representation activities ordered left to right * indicates iteration indicates selection ----- indicates absence of an action Decomposition of high level task into constituent subtasks, operations, plans Uses structure chart notation

Creating an HTA diagram: 1. Start the analysis Define the area of work / main task Break down main task into 4-8 subtasks; specify subtasks in terms of objectives Draw subtasks as layered plans

2. Progress the analysis o Choose level of detail o o click mouse v. delete block of text

Choose depth-first, breadth-first, or combo Use hierarchical numbering convention 1, 2, 3, then 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and so on ...

3. Finalize the analysis Check for consistency in decompositions and numbering of tasks Consult with user knowledgeable in task domain

When to use (TA)? during the analysis phase of design to ensure proper description of user activities: to analyse interactions with an existing system

a means to structure discussions about a hypothetical product As input to the detailed design of interfaces to products used in planning evaluation studies

Later stages of the development: the current solution can be checked against the original task or activity analysis to see how the design deviates from the intended solution what consequences this leads to

Who can use (TA)? Helpers, users, experienced designers, domain experts can be valuable informants for task analysis.

Procedure(TA)

Textual HTA

Diagrammatic HTA

Chapter 9 Analytical evaluations normally do not need collected evidence from users but rely on evaluators using structured approaches for inspections and evaluations Heuristic Evaluation A group of experts, guided by set of higher level design principles or heuristics, evaluate whether interface elements conform to the principles. The process of heuristic evaluations take place, which consists of the following: A brief session, in which the evaluator are told what to do.

 A prepared script is useful as a guide and to ensure that each person receives the same briefing. The evaluation period, in which each evaluator typically spends one to two hours independently inspecting the product, using the heuristic for guidance. A debriefing session, in which the experts come together to discuss their findings, remove duplicates, prioritize the problems, and suggest solution. There are generic heuristics, such as the 10 usability heuristic by Nielsen (Table 7.6) and 8 golden rules by Shneiderman (Table 7.7) Guidelines Review (GR) GR occur in the design context or environment. They normally do not require using real users. They are conducted by designer or experts outside the design team. Some GR do consider user task or activities. For example, there are specific guidelines for navigation, data entry, and getting the users attention. These types of evaluations can happen at both early and the late stages of the development. They can also be used for summative evolution on finished products. Cognitive Walk-through (CWT) CWT involve simulating a users problem-solving process at each step in the human computer dialog, checking to see if the users goal and memory for actions can be assumed to lead to the next correction action. CWT are conducted by evaluation experts, and do not need involve users. CWT involve the following steps: The characteristic of typical users are identified and documented and sample tasks are developed that focus on the aspects of the design to be evaluated. A designer and one or more expert evaluators then come together to do the analysis. The evaluator walk through the action sequences for each task, placing it within the context of a typical scenario, and as they try to answer

few question like will the correct action be sufficiently evident to the users and so on. As the walk-through is being done, a record of critical information is compiled. The design is then revised to fix the problems presented. Pluralistic Walk-through (PWT) Steps are involved in PWT Scenarios are developed in the form of a series of hard copy screens representing a single path through the interface. Often just two or few screens developed. The scenarios are presented to the panel of evaluators and the panelists are asked to write down the sequence of actions they would take to move from one screen to another screen. When everyone has written down their actions, the panelist discuss the actions that they suggested for the round of the review. Then the panel moves on to the next round of screen. This process continues until all the scenarios have been evaluated. Inspection with conceptual frameworks such as TSSL model This a structured analytical evaluation method, that is to use conceptual frameworks as based for evaluation and inspection. One such framework is the TSSL model as we discussed earlier. This framework can be used to evaluate whether a design us an effective one. From the procedure perspective, this method is similar to the heuristic evaluation. However, this method emphasis starting from identifying user tasks and then evaluate the system from the angle of supporting tasks. No real user are needed. Example Evaluating option/configuration specification interface of two software application, & Evaluating the most popular search results of 2003 by the three top Web Portals and search engine. User model-based analysis , such as using GOMS model This a method that is used to predict users behavior and performance during interaction with the computer system.

 Empirical Method (EM) EM are normally conducted by involving users and collecting facts about users interacting with the system. Empirical Methods Survey/ Questionnaire Interviews Lab Experiment Observing and Monitoring Usage through Field Studies Survey/Questionnaire Surveys are commonly used to collect quantitative data from a large poll of respondents. A survey may focus on opinions or factual data depending on its purpose. A survey can be conducted in ways such as telephone, e-mail, or mail; they can be paper-based or online. Advantages: Inexpensive Flexible to conduct Involving a large number of respondents. Allowing anonymity of respondents Providing unbiased understanding if using validated or standard instruments. Disadvantages: Reliability of survey result Respondent sometime unable to answer questions well especially related to the pass action. Sometime respondent are not truly represent the indented population because they selected based on taken of granted. Use a Likert Scale to collect answers on question about a specific concern, such as opinions, perceptions or belief, attitudes, satisfaction, behavior, or specific assessment. Interviews An interview is a conversion with a purpose

 Interviews can be open-ended (unstructured), semi, or structured A quick guidelines for developing questions: Avoid long questions as they hard to remember. Avoid compound sentences/questions by splitting them into 2 questions. That is one sentence is for one idea or question. Avoid using jargon word or language Avoid imposing or implying any bias when presenting the question to the interviewees. Lab Experiment Are appropriate if evaluators have clear focus. A lab study involve the following steps: Develop a research questions Develop theory-driven hypothesis to be tested that outline the specific relation ship between dependent variable and independent variables. Design the experiment Pilot test the experiment Recruit subject and take care of the requirements for human as participants Conduct the experiment, collect and analyze data, draw conclusion. Observation One way to evaluate a system is to observe and monitor the real users actually using the system in a real setting. Field study means that the study is conducted in a normal working environments, or the real filed. Field studies can be valuable in formative evaluations and in use and impact evaluations. Ethnographic observation attends to actual user experience in realworld situations with minimum interruption or intervention from the evaluators. Several actual use episodes can be observed if necessary.

 Depending on the collected and evolution goals, both qualitative and quantitative data analyzes may take place.

Context
1 Introduction

Foundation
4 Physical Engineering 3 Interactive Technologies 5 Cognitive Engineering 6 Affective Engineering 9 Organizational Tasks 7 Evaluation

Application
8 Principles & Guidelines 11 Methodology 10 Componential Design

2 Org & Business Context

12 Relationship, Collaboration & Organization

13 Social & Global Issues

14 Changing Needs of IT Development & Use

Additional Context
Collaboration software: Allows people to work together and includes groupware, e-mail, instant messaging, data conferencing, and videoconferencing, among others. The growth of the Internet has increased access to collaboration software and made it more affordable. An early framework for understanding collaborative or computersupported collaborative work (CSCW).

Collaborative software framework

Time
Same Same
Electronic meeting room, local conferencing, control rooms Chat, IM, remote video conferencing

Different
Logs, team coordination, resource allocation E-mail, bulletin boards, blogs, collaborative writing, collaborative design

Place
Different

All collaboration software designs have 3 commonalities: 1. A shared interface. 2. The shared user interface must be WYSIWIS or What you see is what I see. 3. Each participant also has a private space.

Public Space

Private Space
Collaboration Semantic and Syntactical Level The objects and operations available in the private workspace are similar to those we have already examined. Their primary purpose is to allow the user to compose in private and, when finished, upload the information to the public or shared space. The shared workspace enables the operations that directly support collaborative work. For example, in the system shown in Figure 12.2, users operate on objects such as Contact, Message, and Call. Users can manage a contact by adding, editing, or deleting the contact from their contact list.

They can initiate or terminate a call and add a contact to a call.

Collaboration Task Level Collaboration includes many different tasks such as sharing knowledge, coordinating action, informing colleagues or subordinates of events, and meeting. The task level for collaboration is based on communication. One such task is chatting or meeting to communicate ideas.

Another task is collaborative document creation. Shared Document Creation

Trust Trust is the willingness to rely on an exchange partner due to confidence that the partner will fulfil obligations. Trust is essential to the success of e-commerce transactions Online consumers must be confident that transactions are: Executed completely and accurately. Privacy is protected and Transaction details such as credit card numbers are safe from potential theft

One of the signals of secure transactions is a pop-up dialog box that alerts the user when he or she is about to enter or leave a secure transaction environment. Information Richness Theory states that ambiguity can be reduced through richer media selection and face-to-face communications provide the richest information.

Time

Synchronous
Face-toFace VideoConferencing

Asynchronous

TeleTelephone Instance Voice Threaded Email Conferencing Conversation Messaging Messaging Discussion

Rich Richness

Lean

Project Selection & Planning

Project Selection

Project Planning

Analysis

Requirements Determination Context Analysis User Analysis

User Needs Test Task Analysis

Evaluation Metrics Alternative Selection

Formative Evaluation

HCI Principles & Guidelines

Interface Specification

Design

Metaphor Design Dialogue Design

Media Design

Formative Evaluation

Presentation Design

Implementation

Coding

Formative Evaluation

Summative Evaluation

6 Affective Engineering 9 Organizational Tasks 4 Physical Engineering 7 Evaluation 8 Principles & Guidelines 11 Methodology 12 Relationship, Collaboration, & Organization 10 Componential Design 3 Interactive Technologies 5 Cognitive Engineering

Context Foundation Application Additional Context

1 Introduction 2 Org & Business Context 13 Social & Global Issues 14 Changing Needs of IT Development & Use

Components are the building blocks with which we construct the humancomputer interface. Functions (functionality) are the components services to the user. Component Functions

Color

Differentiate data items, group elements, signal order and mea impact mood

Voice

Convey meaning and emotion, signal importance, instruct tools

Text

Convey meaning and emotion

Video

Convey meaning and emotion; display dynamic behavior

General function

Description of function

Specific interface objects

Data input & feedbackInput data by selecting from predefined Selection: Radio button; check box values or generating new values box. Generation: textbox, messag for feedback, specific dialog boxes

Navigation controls & Control the inter-system and intrafeedback system flow and user navigation

Menu, command buttons, dialog b

Quantitative graphics Output quantitative information

Graphics (bar-charts etc.), tables

High level Function Components

Input information about some entity

Form fill-in

Output information about some entity

Output screen

Search and browsing

Query screen

Decision making

What-if screen

Navigation and control within some website; introduce a site

Homepage (also menu); Multiple wi

Low-level components (infrastructure) Color Color in HCI is used extensively. Color calls attention Color helps comprehension Color adds cues Color is appealing Color facilitates recognition, attention, memory, comprehension and positive affect. Two general design guidelines First, allow for redundancy so that differentiation by color is also accompanied by differentiation by shape or size. Secondly, whenever possible, empower the user to adapt colors to fit their preferences and their culture. Medium level components Data input The main design objectives of data input are to ensure correct input with minimal user effort There are two general methods of inputting data: User generation of data values User selection of data values

Data input - the building blocks The common building blocks (widgets) for selecting symbolic values include radio buttons check boxes list boxes

The syntactic and semantic levels of Data Input components Widget Formatted (coded) fields Function Guidelines

Enhance clarity of what Use meaningful labels adjacent to the data entry field; is expected; prevent entry field should be clearly visible and match the exp errors and guide specification of input; value in format ease input and size; recognizable but restrictive formats when pos provide

explanations nearby the data entry field; provide cons

feedback upon incorrect input; use defaults when poss

(e.g., common or personalized value)

List box

Display values and help Order values in obvious sequence (e.g., alphabetical); p select explanation of the list values or categories

Radio buttons

Display values to enable Organize values to enable parallel view of holistic view and easy all options (e.g., order categories in increasing ascendin choice provide explanation of the values or categories

The Task level data input and choice Input circumstances Possible values known; several values allowed. Main concerns Widgets recommended

Recall and specification is difficult Check box for limited numbe and accuracy of input is crucial of values. (e.g., areas of interest for marketing purposes).

Possible values known; one value allowed.

Free form specification may be Radio buttons for few possib ambiguous and accuracy of input is values. List box for multiple crucial (e.g., spelling of country name). values (ordered if possible). Choice of value depends on Radio buttons to display comparison with other options (e.g., simultaneously the possible exact marital status on tax form). values.

Possible values known; one value allowed.

Possible values unknown; free form alphanumeric input expected.

In some cases, specification of input Text box with short labels wh is difficult. specification is straightforwa

and additional constant labe or popup message boxes to help with ambiguous or

difficult specification.

Possible values unknown; some Free form specification may be Formatted input box with predefined restrictions. ambiguous and accuracy of input is message box as feedback to crucial (e.g., phone number with area code and country code). validate input.

Navigation mechanisms Menus Command controls Dialog controls

Menus and navigation - the syntactic and semantic levels In tree structured menus the main design issues are: Breadth-depth tradeoff

Organization of menu items Sequence of menu items and Graphic layout. Effective choice of semantics is crucial for correctly and efficiently locating an item. Familiar and unambiguous terms are key to recognizing and interpreting the labels of the menu items. The main application text-based menu is commonly positioned at the top of the screen horizontally. By convention, more specific menus are positioned vertically on the left hand side. Icon-based menus are arranged in a two-dimensional space to be read left-toright and top-down by infrequent users.

Menus and navigation - the task level

 Menus support several types of user tasks, all related to navigation and control. Once an intention has been formed, the user has a search target in mind. There are three types of searches in menus: 1) matching the search target with an identical menu-item label 2) locating the category that includes the search target 3) finding a label that is equivalent (but not identical) to the search target Quantitative graphics In recent years, graphics have played an increasingly important role in managerial work, primarily in decision-making and communication. The increasing importance of graphics is, at least in part, due to the amazing graphical power that is found in today's graphical packages and the affordability of high quality screens, printers and plotters. Why use computer graphics? 1.Graphics are effective communicators for most types of quantitative information. 2.Computer generated graphics are low cost alternatives to manual charts (think how easy it is to construct a high quality chart in most commercial spreadsheets). 3.Computer generated graphics readily access corporate databases. 4.Computer generated graphics help interactive decision-making. Table 10.5: Graphics versus text

Lexicon

Text composed of words in clauses within paragraphs.

Images composed of sha

Syntax

Procedural processes as sequence of Holistic process as a un elements. parallel relations.

Semantics

Functional, logical and abstract relations.

Spatial built on proximity and direction.

Graphics - the building blocks

Title shoul dcon veya mesa gein thegr aph 4 5 43 05 Do lars32 05 21 05 1 0 Co mpany 21 Penti05 Penum Latium pto iMac I IV Pe tiumn I Qua rtesof 205

Figure 10.8: A 3D bar chart, representing quantitative data with a title, grid, legend and labels. The building blocks for representing quantitative data (the graphics lexicon) include labels and numeric data represented by spatial elements such as lines, angles, circles, boxes etc.

Table 10.6: Resources needed in decision-making that graphics support Decision-making aspect

Psychological resources supported by grap

Problem finding Information analysis Performance review

Detection, attention Comprehension, memory Detection, attention, comprehension, affect

Forecasting Exception reporting Planning Exploratory analysis Simulation

Detection, comprehension Detection, attention Memory, comprehension, attention Detection, attention, comprehension Memory, comprehension, attention, affect

Graphics The Task level - decision-making and communication Five basic graphs for business presentations: pie chart bar chart column chart (vertical bar charts) line chart dot chart A three-step strategy for chart selection: 1) determine your message - a single point to be made, 2) identify the comparison (out the five types), and 3) select the type of chart.

Pentium III Pentium IV Laptops P iMac 31%

Company 1 5% 34%

Distribution of computers in company

Company 2 10% 20%

43% 30%

27%

Distribution of com puters in company 50 40 30 20 10 0

Pe nt iu m Pe I II nt iu m IV La pt op s P ac iM

Distribution of computers in com pany 100%

Computers

Company 1 Company 2

80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Company 1 Company 2

iMac Laptops P Pentium IV Pentium III

Types

Com puter distribution

Distribution of com puters in com pany

Pentium III 50 iMac 0 Laptops P Pentium IV Company 1 Company 2

Company 2

iMac Laptops P Pentium IV Pentium III

Company 1 0 20 40 60

Form Design One common design technique is to build a form that includes all the relevant information about a particular entity (like an order or a person) this is called a form fill in. Its main advantages lay precisely in the full view of the relevant information to be entered into the computer system.

Form fill in - the building blocks Form fill ins are high-level components that are in fact assemblies of lowerlevel components. The main building blocks of the form fill in include: components for accepting and selecting data

feedback and organizers

Form fill in - the task level The task supported by a form fill in is simply feeding data into the system. A person requesting a service or product can either fill in a form directly or indirectly through an operator. Form fillin - the task level The cost of erroneous data in the system is high for both the individual and the company. Detecting and correcting errors that have entered the system is extremely costly. Good HCI designs of form fill ins are those that above all reduce error and minimize effort.

Design principles: High-level and largely context-free design goals based on theories of HCI.

Design guidelines: Specific and usually context-dependent rules for designers to follow in order to achieve the principles.

The goal of principles and guidelines is to achieve fit between user, technology and task. We need to understand the user, the tasks from the users point of view, and the context in which user accomplishes the task.

 User has several categories of previous knowledge, for example: computers, use of natural language, problem solving Design Principles

Improve users task performance and reduce their effort Any reduction in resources to complete task will improve performance. Automate or partially automate the user activity (functionality aspect systems services and operations available) with minimal effort. This should lead to efficiency, ease of use, and comfort with established functionality. There could be a trade-off between functionality and usability. For example, added options on menu facilitate additional functionality, but may render the menu difficult to use. This would be an effort to achieve high functionality along with high usability. Can constitute substantial portion of users time Consistency of data-entry transactions similar sequence of actions, delimiters, abbrev. Minimal input actions by user fewer actions = greater productivity and less error. Single key-stroke vs. mouse selection Typing is typically better Command line vs. GUI Too much hand movement is not good. Experts prefer to type 6-8 characters instead of moving a mouse, joystick, etc. Avoid redundant data entry (waste of time, perceived effort, increased error). System should aid but allow overriding.

 Automation Increases familiarity Increases over time Improves speed Strive for fit between the information representation needed and presented Representation: A simplified depiction of a real-world phenomenon constructed to support some activity. Users mental model: mental representation of the task in order to act. Designers conceptual model: design a way of supporting the user in performing task. Computer system: display elements of the task externally and internally process info.

Mental Model FIT

Conceptual Model

System Display

Design Principles To achieve cognitive fit between representations. Cognitive fit: The state in which the systems representation of the problem supports the users strategies for performing the task. The idea is central to cognitive engineering. A natural representation of a particular problem requires minimal transformation. Fewer steps lead to less cognitive effort and smaller chance of errors.

 Provide and constraint affordances to capture real-world knowledge Affordance: The aspects of an object that the user perceives as indicating how to use the object. Inefficient to use real-world knowledge because it may overload user with information. Designers dilemma how to provide affordances that relieve cognitive effort and at the same time constrain the inappropriate users actions. Affordances: to give a clue

Example1: various cords to be inserted into computer keyboard, mouse, monitor. Good design and shape (and color) require minimal effort. Example2: dimmed (grayed out) and inactive some irrelevant options in the menu. Further constraining any unwarranted action. Example3: a raised OK button invites user to click on it. This is an affordance that draws the users attention to a possible action. Visibility

How would you make this action more visible? make the card reader more obvious provide an auditory message, that says what to do (which language?) provide a big label next to the card reader that flashes when someone enters make relevant parts visible

 make what has to be done obvious Physical affordances: How do the following physical objects afford? Are they obvious? Virtual affordances How do the following screen objects afford? What if you were a novice user? Would you know what to do with them? 4. Design for error Users are error-prone. Therefore, designers must: i. ii. iii. iv. attempt to minimize the occurrence of errors, indicate that the error has occurred, help correct or undo the error, and indicate the impact of the error and possibly minimize the cost of error.

Sources of error: skill-based, rule-based and knowledge-based(Chapter 5 pg103). Error message should be specific.

Mode errors: erroneous classification Design Rule of the situation (e.g. insert mode versus strikeover mode). Do not have modes. Distinguish clearly between modes. Distinguish between commands associated with different modes so that inappropriate commands do no change. Description errors: ambiguous or incomplete specification of the intention (e.g. specifying the destination for moving files by imprecisely pointing at a location in a directory). Arrange controls (menus, fields) in functional patterns, procedures. Distinguish between controls (dialogs, displays) with a different look and feel. Make it especially difficult to perform actions with serious cost of error. Capture errors: when performing a sequence that is similar to a more frequent one, the frequent one will capture control (e.g. shutting down a system instead of an intended but less frequent restart). Minimize overlapping sequences. Try to catch it when it occurs by identify the critical point of deviation from the correct sequence (requires knowledge of the intention.

Activation errors: inappropriate actions get performed and appropriate actions do not. Maintain a display of incomplete sequences to prompt the user to act appropriately. Source

Limit errors a user can make Gray out menu items that dont apply No characters in a numeric field

In case of errors Detect error Simple, constructive, and specific instructions Do not change system state

Designing for an enjoyable and satisfying interaction High levels of functionality and usability produce high user satisfaction. For example, an aesthetic interface, image and range of colors (vividness) or better response time and control over the navigation (interactivity). The goal: to win users attention and loyalty.

Promote trust

How to design HCI that positively affects the users trust in the system and in the services it provides? Cognitive trust: knowing enough about the trusted agent to have good reasons for trust. Emotional trust: consists of feelings that are part of an emotional bond e.g. established or close relationships. Users of website expect them to honor a social contract between owners and users.

Support diversity of users Design should be of effective use of diverse populations of users. Assume users from different nationalities with different backgrounds may use the system. Some users may be handicapped in one way or another and find it impossible to use certain features. Do not put some users at a disadvantage when using the system.

Design Guidelines Two elements to consider: Design is often about trade-offs and therefore designers need to prioritize and compromise. Guidelines often apply to the four levels of interaction task, semantic, syntactic and lexical. Guidelines apply to these levels of interaction are in different ways with differences in importance.

Issue I: Consistency guidelines Golden rule of good design. Consistency lead to faster task performance, with fewer error and less effort, and to facilitate learning and easier transfer from one application to another. Internal consistency: The same appearance, meaning and operation hold true for all the users interactions within the same application. External consistency: The same appearance, meaning and operation hold true for the users interactions across applications.

Analogical consistency: The correspondence between the systems representation and the real-world phenomenon in terms of appearance, meaning and operation. To achieve consistency e.g. Use of standard colors to produce the same look and feel. For example, the standard Save As and Open dialog boxes used by MS application. The same dialog boxes are also used across all MS Office applications. Standard dialog boxes are internally consistent (across a single application) and externally consistent (multiple applications). Consistency is critical to automatic behavior because without it the user must stop the flow to choose for an appropriate tool for the task. A consistent look and feel enhances learning and efficient operation.

Identical Terminology (prompts, menus, help) Consistent visual layout (fonts, color, etc.) Table 8.4 Design Rules for Consistency 1. Standardization of interface designs: Follow accepted (usually published) guidelines whenever possible. 2. Stability: Do not change something unless it really needs changing. 3. Training: Add new skills to the users skill set rather than expecting the user to modify existing skills. 4. If you must change, make it a large and obvious one. 5. Consistent interpretation of user behavior by the system is more important than consistent system objects or behaviors. Inconsistency issues It may increase learning burden on user It may make them more prone to errors But it may still benefit frequent or experienced users Feedback support three important factors of user activity: motivation, control and learning. Control feedback is designed to enhance users control over the interaction and the completion of the task at hand. Two aspects of control: Feedback on action should inform users on:

 The effect their action has on the system Possible consequences of that action The new system state The new location of the user in the system or state Format and timing of feedback utilize minimal cognitive resources while ensuring accurate processing. Feedback should correspond to goals and intentions. Feedback should help evaluate goal accomplishment. Feedback should be sufficiently specific to control user activity. Feedback should help develop accurate mental models. feedback should reduce cognitive effort, for example: Alert users to legal actions and dependencies between objects as they become relevant. Give feedback in the most usable way. Frequency of task affects feedback type Common tasks modest feedback Errors/uncommon tasks substantial feedback Issue III: Metaphor guidelines Metaphors relate user actions to an already familiar concept. Help designer build a conceptual model of the system by transferring idea from the real world to a more abstract world. Table 8.6 Use of Metaphors Metaphor Typewriting (typing, using keyboard Document (elements of a document and their attributes and operations) Ledger sheet (matrix structure Spreadsheet Lotus 123, Desktop publishing Etude PageMaker, Application Word processor Examples Word

 for numbers) Drawing (with paper, pencil, and palettes) Table of data (managing data organized Access in rows and columns) Table 8.7 Guidelines on Metaphor Design Database

Excel Drawing and painting MacPaint, Paintbrush QBE,

Make use of common metaphors that have readily anticipated characteristics. Determine which of the metaphor characteristics are essential. Make explicit any mismatch between system functions and features of the metaphor. Provide analogies that explain to the user the implications of the metaphors. Issue IV: Direct manipulation Direct manipulation: objects are represented and manipulated in a manner analogous to the real world 3 ingredients characterize direct manipulation (Shneiderman & Plaisant, 2005): Continuous representation of the objects and actions of interest. Physical actions or labeled buttons instead of complex syntax. Rapid incremental reversible operations whose impact on the object of interest is immediately visible. Direct Manipulation Manipulate visual representations ex. Desktop metaphor, CAD, games Pros: fast, feedback, easy to understand and retain (ex. icons on your desktop), exploration encouraged, good for novices, and can be good for other classes, visual data Cons: hard to program, interaction devices are harder to design or modify Menu Selection User reads a list of items, and selects one

 Pros: no memorization, few actions, clear structure, tools for validity and consistency exist Cons: Make actions understandable not easy, careful task analysis Issue V: Aesthetics in screen design Two important issues of concern: How important are aesthetics? How to create an aesthetically pleasing design? Table 8.8 Aesthetic Criteria of Screen Design Criterion Aesthetic Rule Example Do not place

Balance Balance the optical weight of heavy (large) elements on one side of the screen on the other side. Equilibrium Maintain a midway center of center of the layout on the center of the screen. Symmetry in upper and parts of the screen. Order to their size from right in descending order. replicated on the other side. suspension. screen elements.

and light elements Place the

Arrange elements so that elements Background colors gradually fade off similarity on one side of the center line are lower

Order elements to correspond with Arrange the objects on the screen according hierarchy of perceptual prominence. left to If the

Consistent Maintain a consistent ratio between width of the overall frame is greater than its height, ratios elements to follow this ratio. Unity another than height and width. arrange the

Attempt coherence of the layout by Arrange elements in close proximity one to

keeping elements in relative proximity. distance to frame. Three text

Alignment Align elements horizontally and boxes roughly of the same size but misaligned disturbing to the eye. Density space is eye. screen. vertically.

are usually

Optimize the occupied areas of the Leaving about half of the screen area as white pleasing to the Two

Rhythm Introduce regular patterns of changes moving elements on the screen should move at the same in the elements. pace.