Lessons from Japanese Imperialism Author(s): Hilary Conroy Source: Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 21, No.

3/4 (1966), pp. 334-345 Published by: Sophia University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2383377 . Accessed: 08/10/2013 05:08
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Sophia University is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Monumenta Nipponica.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

JapaneseImperialism Lessons from

hasbeendead,orquiescent, sinceI945, and thedocumentation APANESEimperialism thelate igthcentury fulland open.Hence itscourse, from to I945, is both concerning tostudy todrawsome historical lessons therethepresent is a goodtime it,andifpossible, liketheancient varieties ofRomeor withdetachment, from. Being dead,it canbe viewed Butitsdocumentation ismuch Infact there isanembarrassment ofriches; Han China. fuller. andwarandnavy ministries, and documents oftheJapanese foreign office some twomillion ofmemoirs, "secret like have become available since I945. a veritable flood histories" andthe these before canbe mined butthey arebeing worked bywestern Itwillbe many fully, years scholars results. Numerous andJapanese with stereotypes aboutJapaneseimperiimpressive andcorrected, theresult, thewriter that feels, alism arebeing questioned with scrutinized, phenomenon, butinitswider notasa peculiarJapanese itisbecoming possible toseeitbetter, letusreview some ofthearguments about wider To getat this imperialmeaning, briefly since itwasidentified as anhistorical force. A goodbeginning ismthat havebeen expounded address EarlofCromer, "Ancient be a presidential entitled byEvelyn Baring, point might to theClassical Association ofLondon in which was delivered and Modern Imperialism" onewillsmile for LordCromer is at painsto I909. Reading at itstendentiousness, it today is thebest more that humanitarian certainly than theancient kind, show British imperialism and muchto be preferred overRussian, French or German Its Romanvariety varieties. anduplift andultimately, "localself aretocivilize toallow government under perhaps, goals until andunless human nature theCrown." Cromer entirely changes saysthat However, colonies isoutofthe for Britain's andherecommends that perhaps question, "independence" anddefinitely Roman bluntness."2 should be toldthesame "with clearly they bothbyphilosophy as chief ofBritain's andpractice, Cromer wasanimperialist Though there more than 20 years, arecertain abouthis career administration for points Egyptian
of Far Eastern History 51, Washington, I954; and JohnYoung, comp., MTHE AUTHOR is Professor of Microfilm Reproductions of the Yapanese at the Universityof Pennsylvania,currently Checklist Navy,and Other Government Agencies, 1868(I965-66) on leave at the East-West Center's Army, University Press,Washington, Honolulu,Hawaii. 1945, Georgetown ofAdvancedProjects, Institute see Cecil H. I959. of thesematerials 1 For checklists in the7apanese 2 EvelynBaring(Earl of) Cromer, and Ancient of Archives Uyehara,ed., Checklist 7apan, 1868- ModernImperialism, Affairs, Tokyo, Longmans, Green and Co. of Foreign Ministry 1949- New York,I9IO, p. I26. for the Libraryof Congress, 1945, microfilmed

byHILARY

CONROY

meaning.

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CONROY:

Lessons from Japanese Imperialism

335

by he became an imperialist bearmention at thispoint.First, and hisarguments which inhisearly Cromer considered himselfandwas Indeed years "duty"rather than bychoice. His first appointment to imperial service liberal. considered byothers to be a Gladstonian inLord Indian ini88owaswith Liberal party backing Ripon's government asfinancial officer of hisappointment tothe Egyptian a more liberal there, andhisconception topromote policy after 24years ofservice asitschief, it to anend.Indeed, administration in 1883 was to bring occupation." He had oftheEgyptian he stillargued thathe had "neverbeena partisan but the thebeginning, unfortunately "route toIndiahad tobring it toanendfrom wanted from "an unrepentant andhe hadhad to change liberal" to an "oriental to be protected," "in the East."3In abovewassometimes necessary control from liberal" whorealized that is candid to admit thatthemain is impetus hisreflections on imperialism Cromer enough defensible butthe"search for frontiers" and that notthegoodofthesubject population, Russiawereno doubtimpelled by thisno less thanBritain. Imperial Romeand modern that andis troubled "ambitious Furthermore heis willing toadmit proconsuls," bythefact Skobeleff" and theRussian wereconstantly forcing "theprototypes ofWarren Hastings times. He observes that "efforts thehand eveninRoman to avoid ofthecentral government, ofMagnesia after theBattle weremadeby theRomans (i88 B.C.)," and taking territory infavor ofa Parthian war"in27 B.C. "Reluctoevadethepopular that tried cry "Augustus withnational tance to assume further was constantly struggling pride"responsibilities hadtobeserved. Itwasthis frontiers" "defensible motive, evenin Romantimes. However, oftheHimalayas tothebarriers had the British and,whenthese aboveall,which "impelled whether eventhat frontier toaskthemselves beenreached, caused them was sufwistfully theRussians across he admitted, were"driven" Central Asia secure." Similarly, ficiently "to theconfines oftheGreat Sahara."4 seacoast from theAfrican andtheFrench its tendentiousness, ofimperialism, ofthephenomenon treatment has Cromer's despite on defense he avoidedsuchexaggerated merit. Withhishardcoreemphasis considerable ofModern ofhisolder SirJohn as those utterances History Seeley,5 professor contemporary, of andjustifier British hisera'smost famous atCambridge imperialism, explainer University, whofound the ofsuchas theCongregationalist to say nothing minister, Josiah Strong, for andgoverning ofa God-given others and racepossessed colonizing genius Anglo-Saxon unlessthe ofmankind-"inevitable" racewere to theAnglo-Saxonization whopredicted itself alcohol andtobacco."6 with "devitalize ofimperialism oftheeconomic seemsunaware which Cromer explanations Curiously, inthenext toobliterate as single andwhich few were or on theriseat thetime, were years
3 RobertL. Tignor, I883. Practitioner land, "Lord Cromer: ofBritish 6 JosiahStrong,Our Country, 7ournal ofImperialism," and Philosopher i885, quoted in Reader: Documents Louis L. Snyder,TheImperialism II, No. 2, May I963, pp. I42-I56. Studies, 4 Cromer,Ancient Van Nostrand, Expansionism, pp. andReadings inModern and Modern Imperialism, Princeton, N.J., I962, pp. I22-I23. 23-32. 5 SirJohnRobertSeeley,TheExpansion ofEng-

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

336

MONUMENTA

NIPPONICA, x,

3-4

thesort simple minded ofapproach he took.Beginning withJ. L. Hobson's Imperialism pubinI902, economic lished causes were stressed more andmore until P. T. Mooninhissixtimes classic work on Imperialism reprinted andWorld Politics textbook (I926-36)-(my ownfirst on thesubject) interests gavefirst placetobusiness inthedynamics ofimperialism. Empire is done"not by 'nations' building butby men,"he said,andforemost in every imperial business country werecertain interests-exporters, importers, shipping magnates, makers andbankers. ofarmaments, The principal "allies"ofthese business interests in promoting weremilitary and navalofficers, imperial expansion colonial diplomats, and an officials, element"-missionaries. Butthese lastweredefinitely "incongruous Economic secondary. werethecontrolling ones.These werenon-Marxist interests interpretations; of course their cuefromLenin'sImperialism: Marxists, TheFinal taking Stage ofCapitalism(igi5),pushed theeconomic adnauseam. interpretation himself However, a student ofeconomic Joseph Shumpeter, factors insociety andhistory, that economic tofeel began notsufficient, explanations ofimperialism were andinhisfamous he argued thatimperialism essayon thesubject was "atavistic," "objectless," primitive, economic motives weretoorational toexplain it. irrational; WarII somevery SinceWorld studies ofimperialism goodgeneral havebeendone,and tonote while donotgobackallthewayto LordCromer's itisinteresting that, they straight "defence offrontiers" and simple havetended in thatdirection. explanation, they Forexbrilliant ofThe E. M. Winslow's Pattern ample, study ofImperialism (Columbia, I948) conthat ofimperialism cludes economic arefallacious. interpretations This applies notonlyto that is theroot theMarxist causeof for ithasbecome argument capitalism clear imperialism, countries can be imperialistic thatnon-capitalist the "anti-imperialist" also, including Butit alsomeans Soviet heartland itself. that economic factors in general arenotapplicable, thosewhichtranscend economic It onlyseems including thatto obtainobjects systems. ofvalue,suchas oil fields, for minerals, It is notreally etc.,is themotive imperialism. so. is "fundamentally Economic he says,and onlyby "confusing activity ecocooperative," naked nomic with and"economic power with power" non-economic" canwe competition, mistake. makethis norsocialism, "Neither as economic areimperialistic orwarlike capitalism systems, and a wayoflife creates that is ofthis neither character. Bothcanbe instruments ofwelfare; or of power".... "Imperialism bothcan be instruments is a political Its inphenomenon. areindependent nations which arepotentially struments rivals andenemies," and which oneanother to thwart in seeking become in varying to a imperialistic degrees, ultimately allfree that will"destroy institutions." becomes point associated Imperialism with, perhaps term militarism: is a coequal militarism for, imperialism seeking size, strength-the opposite "notofpacificism butofcivilianism," anddestroying "allthethings mutability, tolerance, with we associate civilianism."7
7 E. M. Winslow,ThePattern A Press,New York,I948, pp. of Imperialism: ColumbiaUniversity Study intheTheories ofPower,
2IO-228, 237-239.

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CONROY:

Lessons fromlapaneseImperialism

337

ofTotal (in hisThe Century ofhistory Aron, theFrench philosopher Others likeRaymond century orless.E.g.,Aron, from hisstudyof twentieth these ideas, more War,I954), support use economic to thatthough often arguments concludes diplomats rivalries, European arenotthecauses ofcolonial rivalries andwars. And these orholding colonies, taking justify of the20th rivalsincethebeginning Britain's outstanding he notesthat"economically, In theGerman andNazi,it case,bothHohenzollern hasbeentheUnited States." century ofitsmasses ofthenation and thepassions which imperialist produced hasbeenthepower not economic Morgenthau inhis SimilarlyHans motives, heargues.8 ambition andaggression, ofhisnewrealist "national interest schoolstress Nations and thefollowers Politics Among in affairs."9 And a I963 international in of as the "main signpost in terms power" defined oftheHan Empire" theExpansion on "Motivesfor Asia) Professor (intoCentral lecture of idea the a rebuttal the that Han China fought P. Hulsewe very convincing A. F. gave the sake ofsilk orother oftrade. TheHan andcentral Asiafor innorthern products Hsiung-nu 10 of for he ,but rather for the frontier. security not or said fun, glory gold," "were conquests to "security of the on political withspecial attention to emphasis The return factors, of is of the cause in view the which case, as root Japanese interesting frontier" imperialism ecothesecurity rationale. Thisis notto saythat in thesamedirection, reinforcing points atall.Onesees, for inthe northnopart ofJapan's matters early stages example, nomic played butmuch to thedisgust the ofalively trade with Korea, eastAsian development expansion, decisions thiswasnota factor in themajor aboutKorea. In government ofthemerchants, be remembered economic considerations seemtoloom butit should that larger, Manchuria there than commercial. Thuseconomic andmining wasmore strategic development railroad an acceptance ofE. H. Harriman's famous wellhavecalledfor proconsiderations might said no. the SouthManchurian Railroad(I905), but "security" posalto helpfinance ofmaterial thewealth available tous,revealing both andprivate policy public However, tosaythat us todo more than casebuttheJapanese simply oftheJapanese, permits feelings us to see beyond It permits of andWinslow's the"rationale" tresses Cromer's argument. intowhatwe maycallits"pathology." security for itsrestraint, thelastfor wasremarkable itsexThe first imperialism stage ofJapanese interconnected. Ideasand attitudes which in, Yet thetwoareobservably emerged cesses. theMeijiera,I868-I9I2, ranrampant in theI930's tobringJapan to butdidnotdominate ofcareful, realistic men. andruin. wascomposed Theirconhorror Meijileadership Japan's oftheHan,were"notfor or gold."Theywished tocontrol the likethose fun, glory quests, butitisillustrative nottobeoverweening oftheir determination frontier toJapan, approaches didnot aims inHawaii eventhough that bytheI890's orvainglorious imperialist pursue they there dominant element ofthe had emigrated and formed a potentially 25,ooo Japanese
8 Raymond Aron, The Century A. Knopf, New York, I954, 2nd. ed., esp. of Total War, Alfred i and 5. Doubleday and Co. Inc., N. Y. I954, esp. pp. chapters 10 A. F. P. Hulsewe, Lecture at theOriental Club 64-65, 69-7I. 9 Hans J. Morgenthau, October, I963. Nations, ofPhiladelphia, Politics Among

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

338

MONUMENTA

NIPPONICA, XXI, 3-4

invited Kalakaua, ofHawaii, thelastking that buta fact, It is notwellknown, population. the lead in to take emperor Japanese the urged and Japan with alliance marriage a royal American fell under those islands before Hawaii, including federation, anAsiatic organizing whomadeup the oligarchs Iwakura, Ito,Inoueandother The Meijiadvisors, domination. hiscapacity "in theface as beyond theoffer reject hadhim matters onthese mind Emperor's nature.""1 a pressing ofsuch being ofmygovernment administration oftheinternal Koreaepitomized one in theMeiji era,for was themostcrucial question The Korean atJapan" pointed "dagger peninsular sawit.Thatthis Japanese as the problem thesecurity yetit should policy, foreign goalofJapanese wasa principal hands notbe in hostile should determination was strong there leaders, government responsible among that, be observed oremotional notbywildschemes needs, should be setbysecurity ofpolicy that thebounds aboveall with whowereconcerned ofoligarchs, circle Hencewe see theinner escapades. andcontrol caution exercising repeatedly state, modern nation intoa strong, building Japan in I873 of thegovernment from ofthisaretheousting Examples question. on theKorean to invasion a Korean to launch whowished samurai hotheads andother SaigoTakamori12 samurai. to displaced "avengeinsults"and give "honorable"-(warlike)-employment andprotege's whosemembers "peaceparty," the so-called thehotheads, Havingexpelled made a comoftheMeijiperiod, most oftherest thegovernment through todominate were nation.Okubo Korea as an independent recognized whichspecifically treaty mercial in a document group oftheemerging government thethinking formulated Toshimichil3 mature inwhich hesaid:"The most theKorean Expedition," for "Reasons Opposing called theland andprotect thenation togovern inorder is essential andforethought consideration shouldbe takenin or conservative, whether progressive and thepeople.Everyaction, This may be abandoned. should unfavorably and ifit develops to theoccasion, response that us,butwe arenottochoose maybe with butit is tobe endured; justice shame, entail in a itself notinvolve should Japan why Andhe proceeds withsevenarguments course." ofmoney andlives, enormous athome, expenditures war:inbrief, problems Korean political fish," the bytosnare standing be thefisherman "Russiawould onforeign loans, dependence toobtain must work equaltreaties.14 interfere, Japan Britain might L I 11 *4 tI L1! A~ in Frontier See the author'sstudyof The Yapanese Press, of California Hawaii, 1868-98, University ofthismatter, a fulldiscussion I953 for Berkeley,
I960 fora fuller Press,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania discussionof Japanesepolicy toward Korea. In regard to that study and also this article the for thebeneespecially to makeclear, wishes author like of terms in his use that scholars, Korean of fit Emperor the from letter Meiji esp.pp. 5I-52. The in describing of "realistic"and "security-conscious" at the Archives to King Kalakaua is preserved policy toward the JapaneseMeiji government's Hawaii. 12 that orjustify Korea,he does notmeanto condone 13 ofhisreit is one oftheconclusions policy.In fact, 14 William oftheJapanese searchon thissubjectthatthe Korean case illused.,Sources T. de Bary, and viciousPress,New York, tratesverywell thedepthsofcruelty ColumbiaUniversity Tradition, I958, pp. 658-662.See the author'sstudyof The ness to which such policy can lead, even in the to haveit so. intention of absenceofdeliberate 1868-i910, University of Korea, Seizure Japanese

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

C O NROY:

Lessons Imperialism from Japanese

339

wasupheld byhissuccessors in1878,buthisadvice assassin waskilled bya pro-war Okubo inthe in thegovernment personage single thestrongest notably at thehelm, ItoHirobumi, tobecome refused government Meijiera.ThusinI882 andI884 theJapanese middle andlater with Li-Ito convention in Seoul, andin I885 madethefamous coups in attempted involved in Korea.That sameautumn forswore interference whereby bothcountries China, (I885) by breaking restraint to practice ofits determination gaveevidence government theJapanese an expedition to"saveKorea"(from planning whowere adventurers up a bandofjapanese influence in Korea see waning Japanese Duringtheyears1885-94we Chinesecontrol). ruler ofthecountry. Butitwasonly became virtual YuanShih-k'ai, as theChinese resident, as a serious Russia's Asian railroad building program hadassessed after Yamagata15 General Even then,such an inKorean policystiffened. that Japan's threat to Japan, potential in Shanghai, KimOk-kiun, Korean, ofthepro-Japanese event as theassassination cendiary sentiment intoKorea andpro-war was wasplayed down.Onlyafter Chinahadsenttroops led by Ito, approve a oligarchs, did the"peaceparty" theJapanese government, rocking "limited war"overKorea. from butRussianowinChinese the Korea, power war,eliminated Sino-Japanese This, in the Russianlegation in various ways.The Koreankingtookup residence tervened for Korean government. hopes dashed Japanese II, I896), which (February aJapan-oriented ontheKorean issue. Instead a direct with Russia confrontation leaders avoided YetJapanese calledthe 9, I896, respectively withRussiaon May I4 andJune agreements they signed Theselimited Lobanoff-Yamagata (Moscow)agreements. Waeber-Komura16 (Seoul)andthe in Koreato I,000, with 200 to guard the Japanese "armed thenumber guards" ofJapanese atvarious settlements. and8ooas policemen built Japanese Seoul-Pusan telegraph inthe circles inner thenext developed argument years, I896-I904, a bitter eight During ofRussian todo about thegrowing penetraas towhat problem government oftheJapanese in China, forces theBoxer affair Russian Manchuria occupied tionofnortheast Asia.After financial inKoreai ncreased activities, concession, (Yalu timber activity (I9oo), andRussian oftheoligarchy to seekan agreement faction wished andthe"civilian" etc.).It6Hirobumi tochallenge faction" wasincreasingly theYamagata while with prepared "military Russia, the fact that the "civilian faction" was further Russia.The problem split by complicated into the ornot(I902). toenter alliance with over whether England into proposed twogroups Asiasettlement Russiaimwith thatit wouldmakea northeast fearing this, Ito opposed it. However, favored all ofthese likeKat6andHayashi17 butyounger diplomats possible, concern was Japanese national and theirprimary leaderswere"realists," government so as to promote for them was howto solvethe"Korean thequestion problem" security; a modus on that, andfinally wasagreed operandi thesecurity Theydidnotdisagree ofJapan. toseeka settlement anopportunity butIt6wasgiven wasmade, alliance The English upon.
15

16

, A1,P i ' 4. kg:

17

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

340

MONUMENTA

NIPPONICA, XXI,3-4

withRussiaon certain minimum conditions, whattheJapanese calledMan-Kan kjkan18Manchuria for Korea.By thistheJapanese exchanging offered to recognize predominant interests andinfluence inManchuria, iftheRussians Russian would recognize thatJapanese andinfluence should interests in Korea.The basicpolicy predominate statement, adopted cabinet inJune bythe Japanese byalltheelder statesmen, including Ito, I903, andendorsed interests andinfluence,Japan saidthat"these(Korean) having regard toher ownsecurity, to surrender cannot consent to,orshare another with, power." Russiarefused theMan-kan instead that the39th inKorea kokan exchange, arguing be negotiated parallel might as a line ofinterests, ofdivision attacked theRussian whereupon Japan at Port fleet Arthur. it should be noted that theRusso-Japanese However, warwasnever thought ofas an alloutwarorcrusade leaders. bytheJapanese government Eventhough Japanese military vicdecisive than more watched tories were andwere expected, they anxious budgets closely to a compromise at Portsmouth, make wasaccomplished New Hampshire. peace,which ofRussia from Korean affairs viathePortsmouth The ousting wasaccompanied treaty by interested other with theUnited agreements States powers, particularly andBritain, which Koreato beanareaof concern andapprovedJapan's recognized primary toJapanese security TheseweretheTaft-Katsura19 interest there. claims ofpeculiar andtherenewal agreement oftheAnglo-Japanese alliance bothaccomplished in thesummer ofI905. respectively, thesesettlements had a clearfield to takecharge After of Korea'sforeign and Japan waswhat affairs which her national interests seemed torequire, buttwosteps military were ofa Japanese taken: General (i) establishment Residency (December I905); (2) annexation these final scrutinized in whatthe When calledthe"solution" closely of stages Japanese reveal thetransgression across that theKorean linebetween problem realism and shadowy thestandpoint theResidency excess. From General brutal wasrealpolitik, a safeguard ofJapan buttheannexation most wasanunnecessary andillogical forJapan's dangerous frontier, act, whose nottobefully with were fraught until consequences the unhappiest aspects apparent
I930'S.

(August I910).

this letusretrace oursteps To explain topointing to contradiction, justa bit.In addition restraint conscious whichcharacterized theJapanese the careful, security government's issueatevery from oftheKorean toremind handling stage I873 to I905, itis alsonecessary that atevery oneofthecrisis there wasa vigorous andemotional ourselves points opposition which torestraint, became promoted bypressure ever groups, unfortunately more forJapan thefact thattheJapanese andinsistent. Thiswasdespite conpowerful Meiji government andopinion ofexpression toan unusual theorgans in a modern trolled state. Yet in degree a Korean warcausedsucha turmoil demand for that it almost theentire I873 Saigo's upset and didnotsubside oftheyounggovernment, until in equilibrium Saigohadbeenkilled rebellion.
18 A X
S

19 +:,,

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CONROY:

Lessons fromYapanese Imperialism

34I

Then Saig6'smemory did notdie,but was invoked againand againby proponents of aggressive action, particularly withreference to theKorean issue.Stalwart samurai hearts seemed to throb merely at themention ofKorea, andplansto sendprivate to expeditions saveor conquer Korea(it was never quiteclearwhich) werea principal of preoccupation malcontents in Meiji Japan.Private expeditions or coups,involving bothJapanese and Koreans, were actually undertaken inI884, i885 i894,andthemurder oftheKorean Q_een, October 8, I895, was another oftheir example activity. Actually nationalist twopowerful (ultranationalist) organizations, the Gen'yjsha (Dark Ocean Society) andtheKokuryfikai20 (Black Dragon orAmur River Society) worked incessantly to force totake thegovernment a more aggressive stand onKorea. Thenat thetime ofthe Portsmouth peacethey organized a hugedemonstration in Tokyotoprotest anycompromise as appeasement. Theyfailed to thepeace,but theyrefused disrupt to acceptthe"government" solution to theKorean which wastherealistically problem, conceived took Residency General. Ofthis 1tohimself anditisclear charge, that heintended tooperate itas a delicately balanced protectorate, controlling foreign relations andthefinancial-military power butrespecting Korean structure, in every nationality possible way.Boththemilitary thisas andcivilian factions approved sufficient andrealistic, and1to wasgiven as wellas civilian inKorea. Like military authority Cromer, 1to maybecalled thanchoice" animperialistby"dutyrather (an"Oriental liberal"?). At anyratehisrealistic conception was strength thevery without excess. Andevenafter trying (for him)episode oftheKorean King'ssecret appealto theHagueconference (June 29, I907), in arguments with hisadvisors he heldthat it wasnotnecessary ordesirable for Japan toannex Korea:"Wehavepower inforeign andmilitary affairs, andlegal rights. There is noneedfor hesaidina heated in I908, as demands more," for annexation argument began tobe heard.21 thepatriotic societies However, detested theResidency as belying thegranGeneralship deurandtherighteousness control ofKorea, anofJapan's andthey cultivated assiduously nexation sentiments. Theymadea special ofarguing project and"proving" that Koreans toliveunder thedirect rule longed to "merge" oftheJapanese emperor, with Japan (gappJ9. This was a special term which they invented to describe theappropriate "elder brotheryounger brother," "lipsandteeth" thatshould relationship prevail between Japanese and with Koreans inthesunlight oftheJapanese Koreans, basking imperial benevolence, for which western devices liketreaties andprotectorates style legalistic wereunnecessary. the Under ofUchidaRy6hei,22 chiefof theBlack a so-called leadership Dragon Society, they organized Il-chin which Society periodically presented petitions for annexation totheResident General in Korea. inJapan Meanwhile theparent societies carried onanincessant patriotic campaign against
g to *IjE, tary,Gaimush6collection,Tokyo, cited in the Kurachi Tetsukichi ?#+, "Kankoku author'sThelapanese Seizure ofKorea, pp. 375-376. 22 rq7 f heig6no ikisatsu" $ (Particulars on #4 :9 the Annexation ofKorea), by It6's privatesecre21

20

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

342

MONUMENTA

NIPPONICA, X,

3-4

and ofKoreans desire theheartfelt whowasblocking General Resident It6as a weak-kneed faction" "military to the was appeal special Their countries. of their "merger" for Japanese withincreasingly who listened and Terauchi,23 Katsura, Yamagata, ofthe government, intel"private brought Asia specialists" as these"northeast ears,especially sympathetic into the Yaluriver across whohadescaped Koreans byanti-Japanese ofplots reports ligence" orSiberia. Manchuria tousethe tohisefforts didnotrespond TheKoreans ofthestruggle. Itowearied Gradually after 1907. AndIto increased anddisaffection riots fist; themailed than velvet gloverather societies, thepatriotic hisfoe-friends, howto handle notto havebeenableto decide seems signof for every himmercilessly butcastigated measure" "strong hisevery whocheered ofa likeitin thehands inI909, butleft Generalship the Residency He resigned "weakness." Ito's ironically, Then, oftheannexationists. thetarget whowassoon successor, minded Sane, a con26, I909, gavetheannexationists on October in Harbin, by a Korean assassination was went to Korea,annexation Terauchi argument. clusive Sane was!ousted;General to was instituted, society of Korean ofJapanization program and a brutal accomplished, societies. ofthepatriotic thesatisfaction imperialism, ofJapanese phase Korean the phase, this from tobe learned lesson A principal The pressures. to extremist susceptible is highly policy conscious security is thatrealistic in this case, "our" needsnot "theirs," )concept, stressing is a one-sided fact thatsecurity and arguments torefute leaders government for itvery difficult makes notKorean, Japanese, country in a even admit, would orprudence than necessity further policy topush movements strict. andpress wasfairly ofspeech control where government likeMeijiJapan, of minds inJapanese ofKoreawas thesemi-legitimatizing oftheannexation The result Asia.TheiminEastern (ormission) role ofJapan's concepts andirrational egocentric highly ofthepatriosatisfaction the that note whenwe obvious became ofthelastpoint plications focus their immediately Almost temporary. wasonly ofKorea at theannexation ticsocieties benevolence" "imperial the about and thesamesetofarguments Manchuria, shifted-to andthelikewenttowork. issue.Buttherapid that couldforce before they Incident) It was I93 I (theManchurian intothe"China broadened Problem" after 193I, as the"Manchurian ofevents sequence to indicate pathological as so was rapid Asia"problem "Southeast into the andthen Problem" wasformed. Institute" as a "TotalWarResearch In I940 sucha monstrosity developments. a j'oint than rather finds an pathology" "underlying Masao Maruyama IndeedProfessor oftheI930's and ofJapanese leadership andbehavior pattern in thethought conspiracy" ofthe rule the of (overbearing) gekokujo, thephenomenon as haveothers, 1940's.24 He notes, in theupper of"nervousness" to theconstant This refers feeling by thelower.25 higher
23 ffit

25

Foreign of 7apanese and tail in Tale C. Maxon'sControl thought Maruyama Masao Tt.L-, Press, of California 1930-45, University OxfordUni- Policy, Politics, 7apanese in Modern Behavior Double* The Storry, Richard Berkeley, London,I963, pp. 86-89. I957; seealso Press, versity
24

in dedescribed was first Thisphenomenon

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CONROY:

Lessons from Imperialism 7apanese

343

weakintheeyesof were afraid ofseeming where "leaders" structure, echelons ofthepower bothamong theinfamous ofsubordinates, thevocabulary Bythat time their subordinates. esgovernmental inthecivilian andtoa lesser degree officials inthemilitary YoungOfficers with the sort of terwas heavily laden the general public, as wellas thatof tablishment, annexation question. vis-a-vis theKorean societies used by thepatriotic minology first not Asia" were simply and "Greater East benevolence" tothe"imperial Matters pertaining in on them, especially to negotiate leaders by government negotiable issues;attempts but branded as weak, were not only diplomats western with "alien"(non-Asian) languages be that oncethedisease imperialism might fromJapanese as treasonous. Thusa second lesson evenafter longsemiintensity it canerupt withincredible is in thenational bloodstream
quiescence.

the words, whatmade In other ofannexationism. The third lesson involves thediagnosis so extreme, first on Korea,thenon thewholeDai toa kyjeiken,26 extremists so insatiable, thenation their slogan for EastAsiaCo-Prosperity which became Sphere), the term (Greater so a historian anthropology areinvolved, andcultural WarII era.Psychology in theWorld andexpressions must be careful, butthere intheattitudes cluestobe found areinteresting oftheKorean such as thefollowing: annexationists, ofSaigo, intheConquer The followers ofsectional andclassconsciousness. i) Heritage in under hiscommand whohadserved Korea ofI873, were southwestern samurai advocacy andtheir for themselves expected rewards theWar oftheRestoration (i867-68) andwhohad When the perhaps. ofthesouthwest inthenewpower a sort ofshogunate structure, section a nationalsituation, adopted ofthe world newgovernment, study andinspection after careful to work andgetting asideoffeudal ranks international outlook which stressed theputting their to turn felt Too proud andnew-style at home, relations they betrayed. abroad, treaty todo, tobusiness andindustry, samurai urged andtalents asthe Tokyo government energies followed anddenied theKorean for them, they Saigaintoreexpedition Saigahadplanned killed. in1877andwere army, Saigobeing bellion crushed conscript bythenewgovernment alive the ofSaig6 memory Later the DarkOceanSociety, which ini88i tokeep wasorganized orientation, and revive theKorean stress on the southwestern issue,placedconsiderable anambitious 3-volume inKyushu andpublishing (Fukuoka) their headquarters maintaining in whichSaiga'srebellion becomes very workcalledRecord Southwest CSeinan ofthe kiden) no butThe WaroftheSouthwest andheroic andis callednota rebellion romantic CSeinan
eki .27

wasmoderntheme ofMeijiJapan Pillars ofthe StateCkokka no Thedominant shuseki).28 and"alien"influences wereeverydrastic ization. Thisrequired ofthemost sort, changes
2) *Patriots, Chatto and Windus,London, I957, and cellent reviewin the 7ournal of AsianStudies, the 7 volumeworkby Japanese scholars, Taibeiy5 xxm, No. i (NovemberI963), I03-II3. 26 M e no michikA-t -A&1- '. 0) it (The Road to senso 27 X I 5hAClt4_ , the Pacific War), Asahi shimbun sha, Tokyo, 28 g t I962-63, of whichAkiraIriyehas written an ex-

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

344

MONUMENTA

NIPPONICA,

XX, 3-4

where to be seen.In general, government leaders andpeopleat large wanted change, but often they were uneasy inthe face ofit. Thepatriotic societies regarded andproclaimed themselves as back-to-the-wall guardians oforiental traditions, as "pillars ofthestate"andfinal guardians oftheimperial honor. Ordinary politicians, they held, could notbe trusted inthis regard. Theyweretooenamoured ofprogress, toosusceptible tothewinds ofchange. After all theMeijiGovernment hadcometopower on thesolemn principle ofSonnojJi29 (Revere theEmperor andExpeltheBarbarians). Yet itsleaders hadforgotten thelatter partofthis and thepurity obligation, ofJapanese isolation couldnotbe recaptured. ButJapan had a to roll backthewestern great duty toperform, wavethat was engulfing eastern Asia.The hisadvisers Japanese emperor, though lacked thefaith tobelieve it,could become theguide, theleader, thehero oftheeastern world, forging a GreatOriental Merger (Dai ti gapp)30 under hisbenevolent leadership, andhold off "barbarian" (western) influences. The "pillars ofthestate"wouldnotletthenation forget itsanti-"barbarian" heritage. Apropos ofthis a principal for argument annexing Korea wasthat the"Korean mind" wasbeing "poisoned byChristianity." tactics. 3) RJnin3l The Japanese wordroninmeans In masterless, orvagrant, samurai. feudal times towarriors this referred whohadlosttheir in thefeudal beposition hierarchy cause ofthe orruin andoften death oftheir feudal lord, their waswith principal preoccupation alsoestablished a tradition Robin of"righting vengeance taking. However, they wrongs," Hood fashion. outsidethe law, theywere violent, and proud,but Operating unruly atswordsmanship skilled andcourageous. resourceful, ofSaigogavehisfollowers Thedeath andthose a rationale whojoinedwiththem for attitudes andmethods. affecting ronin This meant andpolitics, notonly with and"direct action" strong stands, impatience diplomacy andcoups, butalsoanactive andrestless plots outofthe"problem" areas ofAsia. searching in which obtained The information from travels on theAsiancontinent, they particularly andSiberia, to military So despite Manchuria was extremely valuable Korea, intelligence. theronin thefact that andtroublesome, inthepayofthe were were often unpredictable they military. a Korean Thuswehavea profile ofthe whobecame annexationist: type embittered, proud, anability asrelated with tomanipulate uneasy, suspicious, bold, national symbols, especially and withan opportunity to influence esto nostalgic via themilitary, traditions, policy in adjunct work. pecially intelligence be saidthat in"defense caseitmay ofthefronThusfrom theJapanese imperialism begins tobe measured, rational and"justifiable" in terms ofnational needs which tiers," attempts Butit is possessed ofan inner oriwherein tradition andinterests. pathology, embittered, in thesociety it atavistic, and ultimately workto render uncontrollable entedelements as they trends Theirreasons domestic than insatiable. maybe more foreign, identify they
29 30 4tA
31 ,

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

CONROY:

fromfapanese Imperialism Lessons

345

the effect of making butthey produce ownsociety with the"alien"adversary, dislike intheir sense common operation evenwhere itdifficult tocurtail orstopa frontier (orimpossible?) Bloating thenational thenecessity. interests proclaim ofnational andrational consideration they symbolism, onthe"great mission" involved andbasking itinnational egobydwelling intelligence. far their numbers ortheir beyond wieldan influence rare among those liein thecritics ofnational security-ism, Whatis theremedy? It must butwhoaresensitive canseetheproblem sides ofthefrontier, from both souls whonotonly inhabitants oftheconthe of frontiersmanship, the victims alsoto thesufferings of tragic for they countries, tosilence these, evenindemocratic tested pressure area.Thereis always andtreasured by governshould be nourished criticisms However, their seemunpatriotic. needed must be whena truce their willbe sorely in thathour ment for arguments leaders, is notto become madeif"defense ofthefrontier" pathological. suchcritics in theJapan-Korea case.The mostnotable werethemotley Thereexisted andanarchists whogathered to produce together ofChristians, socialists, pacifists, group from November 1903 to January, CHeimin People'sNewspaper" the"Common shimbun) were hounded Itsproponents Japanese government.32 itwassuppressed bythe I905, when anEnglish in Seoul, Another wasE. T. Bethell, in theI905-I0 period. journalist mercilessly on their activities in his Korea on toes their Daily critically whokept by reporting thejapanese to appealto Britain from gotridofhimby diplomatic News, I904 to I908. The Japanese which wasaccomplished court his"anti-Japanese consular bytheBritish silence campaign," in Seoul.33 theultranationalist annexationists were Yettheir leaven was not. Thesewere silenced,but was notto become in theworst, ifJapan's "defense" frontier needed imperialistic sorely oftheword. sense theatavistic,
Review,November I962. Nishida Nagatoshi 'E1U , comp. Heimin IO," PacificHistorical F g-,, Osaka and Kim has also studied the I905-IO period in S6gensha J shimbun on Koreasee broadercontext, Rule in Korea(I905"Japanese Tokyo,I953, 2 vols. For articles io): A Case Study," Proceedings of the American II, II9-I2I, 349-35I. especially 33 On Bethellsee C. Y. Eugene Kim,"A Prob- Philosophical Society, February I5, I962. ofthePressin Korea,I906leminJapan'sControl
32

MN: XXI, 3-4

This content downloaded from 198.37.17.90 on Tue, 8 Oct 2013 05:08:43 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions