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For Helicopter Pilots

Aviation Weather

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Table of Contents
1
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12

The Basics
The Atmosphere The Atmosphere extends further above the Equator than the Poles Subdivision of the Atmosphere Composition of the Atmosphere Humidity Air Density The Sun, Our Source Of Energy Orbiting Around The Sun Effects Our Temperature Heating From Solar Radiation Is Greater In The Tropics Warm air rises, Cool air sinks Terrestrial Radiation Rotation of the earth on its axis

Page

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 14 14 14 14 15 16 17 17

2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Temperature and Heat


Different surfaces heat differently Cloud cover and its effect on surface heating and cooling Transfer of heat energy The Sea breeze The land breeze Katabatic Wind The Anabatic Wind Temperature is a measure of heat energy Temperature Inversions

3
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure can be measured by using: Pressure Gradients International Standard Atmosphere

4
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22

Wind
What is wind? How wind is defined Veering and Backing What causes a wind to blow? The Pressure Gradient Force Coriolis Force The Geostrophic Wind From High to Low Look Out Below. Gradient wind blows around curved isobars Surface winds Diurnal Variation of the Surface Wind Localised friction effects Flight in turbulence Windshear Wind associated with Mountains Wind in the Tropics Microbursts The Tropopause and wind Jet Streams Polar Front Jets Other Jet Streams Clear Air turbulence

5
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9
5.9.1 5.9.2 5.9.3

Clouds
Cloud Three States of Water Latent Heat Humidity Relative Humidity Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer Dew Point Adiabatic Processes Stable Air
Dry Saturated Absolute Stability

Page

5.10
5.10.1 5.10.2 5.10.3

Unstable Air.
Dry Saturated Absolute Instability

5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17


5.17.1

Cloud formed by convection due to heating Cloud formed by orographic uplift Foehn wind Cloud formed by Turbulence and mixing Cloud formed by widespread ascent Precipitation associated with cloud Thunderstorms
Three Conditions Necessary For A Thunderstorm To Develop

5.18.
5.18.1 5.18.2 5.18.3

Life Cycle Of A Thunderstorm


The Cumulus Stage Mature Stage Dissipating Stage

5.19

Dangers From A Thunderstorm

18 18 19 19 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 33

6
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
6.5.1

Air Masses and Fronts


Air Masses And Frontal Weather Origin Of An Air Mass Track Of An Air Mass Convergence And Divergence Types Of Air Masses That Affect Ireland and the British Isles
Typical Characteristics of Air Masses affecting Ireland and the British Isles

6.6
6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3

The Warm Front


The Warm Front As Seen By An Observer On The Ground The General Characteristics Of A Warm Front The Warm Front As Seen By A Pilot

6.7
6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3

The Cold Front


The General Characteristics Of A Cold Front The Passage Of A Cold Front As Seen By An Observer On The Ground The Cold Front As Seen By A Pilot

6.8
6.8.1

The Occluded Front


The characteristics of an Occluded Front

6.9
6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3

Depressions - Areas Of Low Pressure


The Three-Dimensional Pattern Of Airflow Near A Depression Weather Associated With A Depression Troughs Of Low Pressure

6.10 6.11 6.12


6.12.1 6.12.2 6.12.3

The Wave Or Frontal Depression The Tropical Revolving Storm Anticyclones Areas Of High Pressure
The three-dimensional flow of air associated with an Anticyclone Weather Associated With A High Ridge Of High Pressure

6.13

A Col.

ii

7
7.1
7.1.1

Icing
The Formation Of Ice
Icing Can Be Hazardous To Aviation

Page

7.2 7.3 7.4


7.4.1

Supercooled water drops Icing In Cloud Hoar Frost


Synoptic situations which favour the formation of hoar frost

7.5
7.5.1 7.5.2

Rime And Glazed Or Clear Ice


Rime Ice Clear Ice

7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12

Cloudy Or Mixed Ice Intake or Impact Ice Fuel Icing Carburettor Icing Points To Remeber Icing of the pitot-static system Ambient Conditions Conducive To The Formation Of Induction System Icing

34 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 37 37 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45

8
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15

Visiblity
Visibility Slant Visibility Runway Visual Range Eye Observations By Day Fog, mist and haze Radiation Fog Advection Fog Eye Observations By Night Upslope fog Sea Fog Smoke Pollution Frontal Fog Dust and sand Precipitation And Visibility Precipitation And Visual Perception

9
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7
9.7.1

Weather Sources & Information


Aeronautical meteorological offices Aerodrome meteorological offices Meteorological services at aerodromes Availability of periodic weather forecasts Weather Information for Flight Planning Special observations Reports and forecasts for departure
En-route, destination and alternate(s)

9.8
9.8.1 9.8.2 9.8.3 9.8.4 9.8.5

Weather Forecasts and Reports


Special Forecasts Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) METARs Trends (or Landing Forecasts) VHF In-Flight weather Reports

9.9 9.10 9.11


9.11.1 9.11.2 9.11.3

Cloud Bases CAVOK Changing Weather in Forecasts


Temporary Change (TEMPO) Lasting Changes Probability

9.12

Availability Of Ground Reports For Surface Conditions

iii

9.13
9.13.1 9.13.2 9.13.3 9.13.4 9.13.4.1

In Flight Meteorological Information


ATlS VOLMET Special Aerodrome Reports (SPEC) SIGMET Meteorological Abbreviations Used In Sigmets, Special Forecasts Etc

Page

9.14
9.14.1 9.14.2 9.14.3

Weather Charts
Station Circle Significant Weather Chart Upper Wind Chart

9.15 9.16 9.17

Example of METARs and Short TAFs METAR decoder TAF decoder

45 45 46 46 46 46 47 47 48 49 50 51 52 54 61

Glossary of Terms Index

iv

1. The Basics
1.1 The Atmosphere.

The Earth is a solid object, which a mixture of gases surrounds. The force of gravity holds these gases to the earth. We know this mixture of gases as AIR, and the space that it occupies around the earth as the Atmosphere. There is a mark vertical movement of air in the Troposphere. Warm air rising and cool air descending, on both large and small scales. Nearly all the water vapour in the atmosphere is contained in the Troposphere. Cloud formation rarely extends beyond the Tropopause. However occasionally large cumulonimbus clouds with strong and fast vertical development may push into the Stratosphere.

1.2 The Atmosphere Extends Further Above The Equator Than The Poles.
The earth spins about its axis, carrying the atmosphere with it and tending to throw the air to the outside. Consequently, the atmosphere extends further into space above the equator than the poles.

1.3 Subdivision of the Atmosphere


The atmosphere is divided vertically into four regions: Troposphere; Stratosphere; Mesosphere, and the; Thermosphere. Light aircraft fly in the Troposphere. High altitude jets cruise in the Stratosphere. The boundary between the two regions is known as the Tropopause. The Tropopause occurs at a height of approximately 20 000ft over the poles and at approximately 60 000ft over the tropics. In the "average" International Standard Atmosphere the Tropopause is assumed to occur at 36090ft. Most of our "weather" occurs in the Troposphere. Significant differences exist between the Stratosphere and the Troposphere: In the Troposphere temperature decreases with height (@ 1.98oC per 1000ft, up to 36 090ft) were it is constant at -56.5oC in the Stratosphere.

Fig 1.1

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1.4

Composition of the Atmosphere.

The atmosphere, or 'AIR' is a mixture of gases that carries water vapour. Nitrogen is the largest component, other components are; Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Other Gases 1% Water Vapour . . . . . . . . . Total 100% By Volume.

Oxygen is needed to support life and combustion and water vapour to produce weather. All air contains some water vapour. It is the water vapour that condenses out to form clouds, from these we get precipitation (rain, hail, snow, etc.) which is so vital to life on Earth. Maritime Air (air over an ocean) will absorb moisture from the body of water and overall will contain more water vapour than Continental Air (air over a continent) particularly if the continent consists mostly of deserts.

Fig 1.2

1.7

The Sun, Our Source Of Energy

1.5

Humidity.

Water molecules are very light molecules and their presence in large numbers in 'AIR' lowers its density, which affects the aerodynamic performance and the power production from the engine of an aircraft. Performance on a damp day will be poorer than on a dry day. Carburettor icing is more likely on a day that has high relative humidity, this is cause by the air expanding as it cools while mixing with vapourising fuel. The water vapour condenses out and sticks to the carburettor casing as ice.

The Sun radiates electromagnetic energy and we experience this energy as light and heat. These wavelengths (short wave) of solar radiation are such that a large percentage penetrates the Earth's atmosphere and is absorbed by the Earth's surface. This causes the temperature of the Earth's surface to rise. The ground in turn heats any part of the atmosphere that is in contact with or very close to it, this causes any parcel of air that is warmer than the surrounding air to rise.

1.8 Orbiting Around The Sun Effects Our Temperature.


The Earth's axis is tilted, and as it orbits around the Sun the earth receives differing amounts of solar radiation, this causes our four seasons. The solar radiation received at a place in Summer is more intense due to the surface being presented at a less oblique angle.

1.6

Air Density.

Air Density Decreases With Altitude. The force of gravity exists between each individual air molecule and the Earth. This causes the air molecules to draw closer together, particularly near the Earths surface where they become very crowded. If we look at a cubic metre of air at the surface, it will have twice the molecules than a cubic metre of air at 40 000ft. The Density (or mass per unit volume) of air at sea level is 1225 grammes per cubic metre. Why Is Air Density So Important To Pilots?

The required lift force can be generated at a lower true air speed. More engine power is available. Breathing is easier and more oxygen is taken into the lungs.

Fig 1.3

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1.9 Heating From Solar Radiation Is Greater In The Tropics.


Think of a torch beam shining on a wall. This produces more intense light on the perpendicular surface than an oblique surface. Now consider the tropical regions as the wall and the Sun as the torch, it is being struck from nearly directly overhead all year round by solar radiation this causes the heating effect to be quite intense. In contrast, the Suns rays strike the polar regions at an oblique angle, and during winter (Northern Summer shown) may not even strike the polar regions at all.

The hot and less dense air rising over the tropics will create a low pressure at the Earth's surface known as the Equatorial Trough, into which other surface air will move (known as Convergence.). Cool and dense air subsiding in the polar region creates a high pressure area at the Earth's surface in the very high latitudes and this surface air will spread outward (known as divergence).

1.11

Terrestrial Radiation.

Heat energy in the surface of the earth is re-radiated into the atmosphere. Its wave length is longer (long wave) than the solar radiation (short wave) and it is more readily absorbed into the atmosphere, especially by water vapour and carbon dioxide. It is this absorption of heat from the Earth that is the main process that causes weather. In brief:

Solar radiation penetrates the atmosphere and heats the earths surface; The Earth re-radiates this energy and heats the lower levels of the atmosphere.

1.12

Rotation of the earth on its axis.

Fig 1.4

1.10

Warm air rises, Cool air sinks.

The heating of the Earth's surface at the tropics causes the air in contact with it to become warm. This causes the air to expand, becoming less dense as it does, and it starts to rise. As it raises it spreads out in the upper regions of the atmosphere and new air will move in across the earths surface to replace the air that has risen. The cooler air in the polar regions sinks down, creating a large scale vertical circulation pattern in the Troposphere. This process is called the general circulation pattern and consists of three main cells; The polar cell, The mid latitude cell, and The tropical cell.

The Earth rotates once every 24 four hours. This causes the apparent motion of the Sun across the sky, resulting in what we term day and night. Solar heating of the Earths surface occurs only during the day, terrestrial re-radiation of the heat energy however occurs continually through the day and night. This means that the Earths surface heats up by day, reaching its maximum temperature around midafternoon. The surface cools by night reaching its minimum temperature at sunrise. This continual heating and cooling is called diurnal variation of temperature. The extreme form of this heating and cooling pattern happens over areas that are mostly deserts. A more moderate form takes place over oceans.

Fig 1.5

Fig 1.6

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I really need to fix my airconditioner

2. Temperature and Heat


2.1 Different surfaces heat differently.
The temperature and the way different surfaces heat depend upon several things. 1. The specific heat of a surface. Water requires more heat energy than land to raise its temperature by 10oC. Land will heat more quickly by day and cool faster by night. Compared with a large body of water the land nearby will be warmer by day and cooler by night. Water is said to have a higher specific heat than land. Reflectivity of a surface. When solar radiation is reflected from a surface, it cannot be absorbed. Areas covered by snow or water will have a high reflectivity and will not be heated as much as an area of land, such as a ploughed field or dense jungle. Conductivity of a surface. Currents in the ocean transfer heat through the motion of the water, heating it to a greater depth than a land surface.

2.2 Cloud cover and its effect on surface heating and cooling.
Cloud cover prevents solar radiation penetrating the Earth's surface, which results in reduced heating of the Earth and lower temperatures. Air in contact with the surface is subjected too much less heating. At night cloud cover will prevent heat from escaping into the upper atmosphere and cause the atmosphere below the cloud to have a higher temperature.

2.3

Transfer of heat energy.

2.

Heat energy can be redistributed in a body or transferred to another body by several means: 1. Radiation. All bodies transmit energy as electromagnetic radiation. The higher the temperature of the body, the shorter the wave length. The Sun emits short wave radiation and the Earth long waves. Absorption. Any body in the path of radiation will absorb some of its energy. The amount depends upon the nature of the body and the radiation. Densely forested areas will absorb more solar radiation than snow-covered mountains.

3.

2.

Fig 2.1

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3.

Conduction. Heat energy may pass within one body or from one body to another body in contact with it. Metals are good conductors of heat. Wood and air are not good conductors of heat. A parcel of air heated at the Earths surface by conduction will not transfer this heat energy to a neighboring parcel of air. This is a very significant factor in the production of weather systems.

The general vertical circulation pattern of air flow that occurs on a large scale around the Earth also happens on a much smaller scale in localised areas.

2.4

The Sea breeze.

The process known as a Sea Breeze occurs on sunny days when the land is heated more quickly than the sea causing the air over the land mass to become warm, expand and lose density. This warmed air will then start to rise (convection). The cooler air from the sea will move in to replace the warm air that has risen (advection). The vertical extent of a sea breeze is approximately 1000 to 2000 feet. Sea breezes may affect operations of airfields near the coast. This would be as windshear, or turbulence as the aircraft passes over one body of air to another. Cooler air moving in over warm land may cause fog or mist, reducing visibility.

Fig 2.2 4. Convection. A body in motion carries its heat energy with it. A parcel of air heated at the Earth's surface will expand, become less dense and rise. As it rises it will carry its heat energy higher into the atmosphere.

Fig 2.5

2.5

The land breeze.

Fig 2.3 5. Advection. As the air heated by convection rises cooler air will move in to replace it, this occurs in a horizontal plane. The body of air will bring, with it, its own heat and moisture.

At night the land cools more quickly than the sea causing the air above it to cool and subside. The air over the sea is warmer and will rise. The effect of a land breeze could hold sea fog offshore during the night, but as the land warms during daylight a sea breeze could develop and bring the fog inshore, causing visibility problems.

Fig 2.4

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Fig 2.6

2.6

Katabatic Wind.

During night time the Earth loses much heat through terrestrial radiation and cools down. This is particularly noticeable on clear, cloudless nights. The air in contact with the ground loses heat to it by conduction, and cools down, becomes more dense and sinks. In mountainous regions the cool air will flow down the side of the mountain and into valleys, creating a Katabatic wind. These winds can reach speeds of 30 knots down the slopes of mountains. They will die out as the solar radiation warms the surface and it starts to re-radiate the energy.

heat energy. The temperature at which no molecular agitation occurs is called absolute zero and is measured using a scale called Kelvin: 0oKelvin = -273oCelsius. Temperature is measured using different scales around the world. There are several scales of temperature measurement is use around the world. The scale most commonly used in aviation is the CELSIUS scale. This divides the temperature that water boils and freezes at 100 units. Using the Celsius scale water boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC. Some countries still use the FAHRENHEIT scale, where water boils at 212oF and freezes at 32oF.

Fig 2.7

Fig 2.9 There is a requirement for the pilot to be able to convert from one scale to the other. The easiest and most convenient way is to use the temperature conversion scale on the flight computer. There are mathematical formulae that the pilot should commit to memory; 1. Celsius to Fahrenheit.
o

2.7

The Anabatic Wind.

Heating of a mountain slope during the day causes the air mass in contact with it to warm, decreasing its density and causing it to rise along the mountain slope. The force of gravity opposes the flow up the hill, making the Anabatic Wind weaker than the night time Katabatic Wind.

F = 9/5 x oC + 32

2.

Fahrenheit to Celsius.
o

C = 5/9 x ( oF - 32 )

2.9

Temperature Inversions.

Fig 2.8

2.8 Temperature is a measure of heat energy.


As a body of matter absorbs heat energy, its molecules become agitated. This agitation is measured as temperature, which is used to measure

The general pattern of temperature distribution in the atmosphere is that temperature decreases with height. The rate at which this decrease takes place is approximately 2oC per 1000 feet climbed in a stationary air mass. On clear nights when the Earth loses a great deal of heat by terrestrial radiation and cools down, the air in contact with its surface also cools by conduction. This cooler air sinks and does not mix with the air at higher levels. This leads to the air at the surface being cooler than the air above, creating a temperature inversion. The inversion may exist for only tens of feet or maybe hundreds of feet. There are by products of a temperature inversion important to a pilot. Windshear or a ground fog.

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3. Atmospheric Pressure
3.1 Atmospheric Pressure.
2. The molecules making up the air move at very high speeds and in random directions. They bounce off any surface that they encounter, and the force they exert on that surface we call Atmospheric Pressure. There are fewer air molecules at higher altitude and less weight of molecules pressing down from above. Therefore, atmospheric pressure decreases with height. An aircraft flying at 25 000 feet or a town in the mountains at 5000 feet will experience a lower pressure than at sea level. Aneroid Barometer. A flexible metal chamber that is partially evacuated is compressed by the atmospheric pressure. This method is used in aircraft altimeters, where changes in atmospheric pressure are measured and converted to read changes in the altitude.

Fig 3.2 Fig 3.1 At sea level on a standard day the atmospheric pressure is 1013.2 hPa. Until recently the unit of measurement for the atmospheric pressure was the millibar, this has changed to the hectoPascal, there is no difference between the two units. As height is gained above sea level in the lower levels of the atmosphere, the pressure drops at a rate of approximately 1hPa per 30 feet of height gained. The altimeter in an aircraft is calibrated to show this pressure drop in feet above sea level or feet above ground, depending on the pressure datum being used.

3.2 Atmospheric pressure measured by using:


1.

can

be

Mercury Barometer. Atmospheric pressure at sea level support a column of 26 inches of mercury by pushing it into a partial vacuum; or an

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Fig 3.5 monitor the subscale setting on the altimeter. If the aircraft is travelling from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure and the altimeter is not reset for the new pressure the altimeter will over read. The aircraft will be descending although the altimeter still reads the correct height. The reverse applies when flying from low pressure to high pressure areas.

Fig 3.3 The atmospheric pressure at a particular place is continually changing, these changes maybe; 1. 2. Irregular; due to the passage of pressure systems, intensifying or weakening. Regular; due to diurnal temperature variation caused by the heating and cooling effects of the Sun. These are known as semi-diurnal variations of pressure.

3.3

Pressure Gradients.
Fig 3.6

Readings are taken at many locations and converted to sea level values for comparison purposes. The places that are experiencing the same calculated sea level pressures are then joined on a map with lines. These lines are called isobars. These lines form patterns on weather charts that are very meaningful. Some will define areas of low pressure. Some will define areas of high pressure. Others will be straight. Variation of pressure over a horizontal distance is

3.4 International Standard Atmosphere.


A datum is needed to measure the actual atmosphere against. This datum is called the International Standard Atmosphere, and has been devised using specific values against which everything relating to the atmosphere is measured. The International Standard Atmosphere is based on the following mean sea level values: i. ii. iii. Pressure = 1013.2 hPa; Temperature = +15oC; Density 1225 gm / cubic metre; Lapse rate = 1.98oC per 1000 feet up to 36 090 feet (Tropopause) where temperature remains at -56.5oC; Pressure falls at approximately 1 hPa per 30 feet.

Fig 3.4 called the Pressure Gradient. This occurs at right angles to the isobars. Closely packed isobars will give a rapid change in pressure, the pressure gradient is said to be steep or strong then. Loosely packed or widely spread isobars will give a flat or weak pressure gradient. The natural tendency is for air to travel from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure, the steeper the pressure gradient the stronger the flow of air. However, the flow is not directly from high to low but somewhat modified due to the Earth's rotation. When flying from one area or region, the pilot should

iv.

v.

In reality the actual atmosphere differs from ISA in many ways. Sea level pressure varies from day to day, even hour to hour. Temperature fluctuates between wide extremes at all levels. The variation vertically and horizontally of ambient pressure affects the operation of the altimeter.

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4. Wind
4.1 What is wind? 4.3 Veering and Backing.
The term wind refers to the flow of air over the Earths surface. This flow is practically all horizontal with only about 1/1000th being vertical. The vertical flow is important however to pilots as it is this flow that creates cumuliform clouds and thunderstorms. The vertical flow in can be of such strength that it can destroy aircraft. When referring to wind in aviation we are referring to the horizontal flow of air. When a wind direction changes it is said to have veered or backed. These terms relate to a clockwise or counter clockwise change in direction. If wind changes in a clockwise direction (090/10 to 120/10) it is said to have veered. Wind that has changed in a counter clockwise direction is said to have backed (270/10 to 200/10).

4.2

How wind is defined.

There are two components of wind, its strength and direction. i. Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is blowing. This is expressed in degrees measured clockwise from North. Strength, which is expressed in knots (kt). Fig 4.2

ii.

The two, direction and strength, together describe the wind velocity. This is usually written in the form 300/30, i.e., wind from 300o at 30 knots. A meteorologist relates wind direction to True North, so all winds that appear on forecasts are in os (T). Runways are aligned in their magnetic direction. Winds are very important to aircraft when taking off and landing, so winds given to the pilot from the tower will be expressed in degrees magnetic.

4.4

What causes a wind to blow?

A change in velocity (speed or direction or both) is called acceleration. Acceleration is caused by a force (or forces) acting on an object. The net or resultant force acting on an object is the combined effect of all the forces acting on that object. If all the forces acting on an object, balance each other so that the resultant force equals zero then the object will not accelerate. It will continue to move at the same speed or remain stationary. A steady wind velocity is called a balanced flow. The forces that cause wind to blow are; i. ii. The pressure gradient force; The Coriolis force.

Fig 4.1

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4.5

The Pressure Gradient Force.

The force that is usually responsible for getting a parcel of air moving is the pressure gradient force. This force acts by moving air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. On meteorology charts the places of equal pressure are joined by isobars. The pressure gradient force acts at right angles to these lines of equal pressure moving the air from the high to the low pressure. The stronger the pressure gradient (the greater the pressure difference over a given distance) the greater the force will be, the stronger the wind will blow. If the Pressure Gradient force was the only force acting on a parcel of air, it would continue to accelerate toward the low pressure. Getting faster and faster and eventually the high and low pressure areas would disappear because of the transfer of air.

parcel of air would again appear to have turn right, having moved from B to B2 west of A1. The faster the airflow the greater the Coriolis effect, no air flow means no Coriolis effect. The Coriolis effect is greater in higher latitudes toward the poles, where changes in latitude cause more significant changes in speed at which each point is moving toward the East. In the Northern hemisphere the Coriolis effect deflects the wind to the right and the reverse occurs in the Southern hemisphere.

Fig 4.3

Fig 4.4

4.6

Coriolis Force

This we know is not so, so another force must exist. The other force working here is the Coriolis Force cause by the rotation of the Earth. It is this force that prevents the air from rushing from the high straight into the low pressure area. The Coriolis Force is not a real force but an apparent force that acts on a parcel of air moving over the rotating Earth. Imagine a parcel of air that is stationary over the point A on the Equator. It is in fact moving with point A as the Earth rotates on its axis from west to east. Now suppose that a pressure gradient exists with a high pressure at A and a low pressure at, directly North of A. The parcel of air starts moving toward B, but still with its motion toward the east due to the Earth's rotation. The further North one goes the less is the easterly motion of the Earth and so the earth will lag behind the easterly motion of the parcel of air. Point B will have moved to B1, but the parcel of air will have moved to A2. The parcel of will have appeared to turned right. This effect is due to Coriolis Force. If the parcel was being accelerated Southerly from a high pressure in the north toward a low pressure near the Equator, the Earths rotation would appear to get away from the parcel of air as it travels south. The

Fig 4.5

Coriolis force acts to the right in the Northern hemisphere.

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4.7

The Geostrophic Wind.

Two forces act on a moving airstream; i. Pressure gradient; ii. Coriolis force. The pressure gradient force gets air moving and the Coriolis effect turns it right. This curving of the airflow over the Earth's surface will continue until the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force. Resulting in a wind flow that is steady and blowing in a direction parallel to the isobars, this balanced flow is called the Geostrophic Wind. The Geostrophic wind flows in a direction parallel to the isobars with the low pressure on the left, and at a strength directly proportional to the spacing of the isobars (proportional to the pressure gradient). The closer the isobars the stronger the wind.

Fig 4.6

4.8

From High to Low Look Out Below.

If an aircraft is experiencing starboard drift when flying, in the Northern hemisphere, the wind is from the left and therefore, according to Buys Ballotss Law, the aircraft is flying toward an area of low pressure. Low pressure often has poor weather associated with it, such as low cloud, rain and poor visibility. Unless the pilot resets the altimeter to the lower QNH the altimeter is going to over read, not good. When the aircraft experiences left drift this means that it is heading into an area of higher pressure (applying Buys Ballotss Law), higher pressure often suggests more stable air and generally better weather (although fog may occur). If the pilot does not reset the altimeter to the higher regional QNH the altimeter is going to under read.

4.9 Gradient wind blows around curved isobars.


Isobars are usually curved, for a wind to flow parallel to these isobars it must be accelerated, in the sense that its direction is being changed. In order for the air to curve into the turn it must have a force acting on it to pull it into the turn. For a wind that is blowing around a LOW (counter clockwise) in the Northern hemisphere, the net force results from the Pressure Gradient being greater than the Coriolis force, thereby pulling the air flow into the LOW. For a wind blowing around a HIGH (clockwise) in the Northern hemisphere, the net results from the Coriolis force being greater than the Pressure Gradient. Since the Coriolis force increases with wind speed, it follows that the wind around a HIGH will be faster than those around a LOW with the same isobaric spacing.

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Fig 4.8

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In the Northern Hemisphere the result is a wind flowing parallel to the isobars, clockwise around a high (anticyclonic motion) and counter clockwise (cyclonic motion) around a low. Balanced wind flow around curved isobars is called the Gradient wind.

4.10

Surface winds.

Surface wind is the horizontal movement of air close to the ground. It is measure by placing wind indicators or wind socks at 30ft above the surface in flat open spaces. Surface winds are important to pilots as they directly affect takeoffs and landings. Wind near the surface is usually less in strength than winds at higher levels. The Gradient wind that flows parallel to the isobars at higher levels is slowed by the friction that exists between the lower level air and the surface of the Earth. Coriolis effect is decreased due to the slower wind speed, and the wind will back as a result. The rougher the surface the greater the wind will slow. Flat areas, like, deserts or oceans will affect the wind less than hilly or city areas with many obstructions. A reduced wind speed results in a reduced Coriolis force (since it depends upon speed). Therefore the Pressure Gradient force will have more of an effect in the lower levels, causing the wind to flow toward the area of Low pressure and out toward the area of High pressure. Instead of flowing parallel to the isobars. The surface wind tends to back compared to the Gradient wind. Over oceans the surface wind may slow by one-third of the gradient wind and back by 100. Over land the surface wind may slow by twothirds and back by 300. Frictional forces due to the Earths surface decreases rapidly with height and are negligible above 2000 feet above the ground level (agl). The turbulence created by rough surfaces also fades out at approximately the same level.

Fig 4.9

Fig 4.10

4.12

Localised friction effects.

4.11 Diurnal Variation of the Surface Wind.


Heating of the lower level air during the day will promote vertical movement of this air. This causes mixing of the various level layers of air and the effect of the Gradient wind will be brought closer the ground. The surface wind by the day will resemble the Gradient wind more closely than by night. The day surface wind will be seen as a stronger wind that has veered as compared to the night surface wind. At night the mixing of the layers is reduced. The Gradient wind will continue to blow at altitude, but its effect will not be mixed with the air flow at the surface to such an extent as during the day. The night wind at surface level will drop in strength and the Coriolis effect will weaken. Compared with the day wind the night wind will drop in strength and back in direction.

The surface wind will bear no resemblance to the Gradient wind at 2000 feet agl and above if it has to blow over and around obstacles such as hills, trees, buildings, etc. The wind will form turbulent eddies. The size and strength will depend upon both the size of the obstacle and the wind strength.

Fig 4.11

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4.13

Flight in turbulence.

To a small degree some turbulence is always present in the atmosphere and as pilots, one quickly becomes used to its effect. Moderate to severe turbulence, however, is uncomfortable and can be dangerous to the aircraft and its occupants. Severe turbulence can cause condition that may over stress the aircraft. Vertical gusts will increase the angle of attack on a rotor blade, causing an increase in the Lift generated for that particular airspeed. If the angle of attack is increased beyond the critical angle, the rotor blade will stall. Load factor (or g-force) is a measure of the stress on an aircraft and each category of aircraft is built to take only a certain Load Factor. It is important that these Load Factors are not exceeded. One means of achieving this is to fly the aircraft at "turbulence penetration speed" which is much slower than the normal cruise speed.

Avoiding turbulence is better, and to some extent this is possible: i. ii. iii. iv. Do not fly if moderate to severe turbulence is forecast. Avoid flying underneath, in or near thunderstorms. Avoid flying under large cumulus cloud. Large up drafts produce them. Do not fly in the lee of hills when strong winds are blowing, they tumble over ridges and create turbulence that your aircraft will not be able to out perform. Do not fly low over rough ground when strong winds are blowing.

v.

4.14

Windshear.

Windshear is the variation of wind speed and/or direction from place to place. Windshear is generally present to some extent when an aircraft is approaching the ground for landing, because of the different speed and direction of the surface wind compared with the Gradient wind aloft. Low level windshear can be quite marked at night or in early morning when there is little mixing of the lower layers, for instance when an inversion exists. Windshear can be expected when a Sea Breeze or a Land Breeze is blowing, or near a Thunderstorm. Cumulonimbus clouds have enormous updrafts associated with them. The effects of these can be felt up to 10 to 20 NM away from the actual cloud. Windshear and turbulence associated with a Thunderstorm can destroy aircrafts.

Fig 4.12 When turbulence is encountered: i. ii. iii. iv. Slow, reduce air speed. Manipulate the controls to maintain a steady altitude. Avoid flying close to hills or objects that will create more turbulence. If turbulence is strong land as soon as possible. Walker 2000

Fig 4.13

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4.15

Wind associated with Mountains.

i.

Wind that flows over mountains and down the lee side can dangerous to aviation, not only because of the turbulence, but because the aircraft must climb into it to maintain the altitude. Wherever possible maintain several thousand feet clearance when flying over mountainous regions during strong winds. Other winds that can be dangerous are, Katabatic winds that flow down cool mountain slopes at night and early morning, Valley winds. Valley winds can change direction by as much as 180o to flow down a valley. The valley acts as a venturi, and increases the speed at which the wind flows. Large mountains or mountain ranges cause an effect on wind that may extend well above ground level, resulting in Mountain Waves (Standing waves) possibly with associated lenticular clouds. The up-currents and down-currents associated with mountain waves can be quite strong and may extend for 30 to 40 NM downwind of the mountains. Rotor areas may form beneath the crests of the nearer lee waves, and are often characterised by Roll Cloud. There may be severe turbulence in the rotor zone.

Streamlines to indicate wind direction, which will be out-drafts from high pressure, and in-drafts to low pressure. Isotachs, which are dotted lines joining places of equal wind strength.

ii.

Fig 4.15

4.17

Microbursts.

Fig 4.14

These are sudden local downdraughts from the base of a thunderstorm; they hit the ground and spread out. They are of particular concern when taking off or landing. The speed out of the cloud is approximately 70 - 80 knots vertically down, this then spreads out in all directions at a speed of approximately 60 knots horizontally. Let us consider the take off case. The pilot initiates the climb and is suddenly subjected to a strong head wind; the aircraft's indicated airspeed increases, the pilot slows the aircraft. The head wind suddenly changes to a downdraught and the airspeed is now low, also the aircraft is in a column of descending air, the rate of climb could be zero. The aircraft now experiences a tail wind. This could quite easily take the aircraft below the stall speed and it crashes. A similar outcome could be the result of approaching to land through a microburst.

4.16

Wind in the Tropics.

In tropical areas, Pressure Gradients are generally weak and so will not cause the air to flow at high speeds. Local effects, such as Land and Sea Breezes, may have a stronger influence than the Pressure Gradient. The Coriolis force that causes the air to flow parallel to the isobars is very weak in the tropics since the distance from the Earths axis remains constant. The Pressure Gradient force, though relatively weak, will dominate and the air will flow more from the high pressure areas to the low pressure areas than parallel to the isobars. Instead of using isobars (which join areas of equal pressure) on tropical charts, it is more common to use:

4.18

The Tropopause and wind

Why is would a be pilot interested in the tropopause? Temperature and wind vary greatly in the vicinity of the tropopause affecting efficiency, comfort, and safety of flight. Maximum winds generally occur at levels near the tropopause. These strong winds create narrow zones of wind shear which often generate hazardous turbulence. Pre-flight knowledge of temperature, wind, and wind shear is important to flight planning. The tropopause is a thin layer forming the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. Height of the tropopause varies from about 65,000 feet over the Equator to 20,000 feet or lower over the poles. The

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tropopause is not continuous but generally descends step-wise from the Equator to the poles. These steps occur as "breaks." An abrupt change in temperature lapse rate characterises the tropopause. Note that the temperature above the tropical tropopause increases with height and over the polar tropopause, temperature remains almost constant with height.

streams in the troposphere have a general westerly direction and speeds well above 100 kt are common. In the region of east Asia and Japan speeds can be up to 300 kt. There are two main locations for tropospheric jet streams. These are the subtropical jets and the polar front jets. In both cases the jet streams form in the warm air below the tropical tropopause.

Fig 4.16

4.19

Jet Streams

4.20

Polar Front Jets

When thermal effects are very strong jet streams can form. These can be likened to a hollow flat tube through which air passes at high speed. One open end of the tube being an entry and the other an exit for the passing air. The World Meteorology Organisation defines a jet stream thus: A strong narrow current concentrated along a quasi-horizontal axis in the upper troposphere or stratosphere characterised by strong vertical and lateral wind shears and featuring one or more velocity maxima. The windspeed must be greater than 60 kt. Typical dimensions for a jet are 1500 nm long, 200 nm wide and 12,000 ft deep. The general shape together with typical isotach values in a cross section diagram are shown in Fig 4.16. The isotachs show that there are very strong windshears on the cold or polar side of the jet and above the jet core too. In these areas therefore and particularly on the cold side there is strong clear air turbulence. Jet

At the polar front there is the meeting between polar and tropical air and therefore a strong north/south thermal gradient. This produces a westerly jet stream in both hemispheres in accord with Buys Ballot's Law. The polar front is frequently separated into different segments and contained within polar front depressions. A cross section of a polar front low is at Fig 17. The basic skeleton of this cross section is shown at Fig 18 and it will be noted that there is a distinct increase in the mean temperature of a column of air in the warm sector compared with the two columns in the polar maritime air ahead of the warm front and behind the cold front respectively. The resulting strong thermal components cause jet streams to form in the warm air below the tropical tropopause. It will further be apparent that the jet is more likely, or, likely to give a stronger wind, in association with the cold front because of the shorter horizontal distance between the warm and cold columns.

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not as permanent as the subtropical jets. They are more numerous and tend to be stronger in the winter months. The reasons are that there are more fronts in winter and also during this season there are greater mean temperature differences between the continents and the oceans.

The plan diagram of a polar front low at Fig 19 shows that the two separate jets are in fact one jet stream lying roughly parallel to the frontal surfaces. The portion of the jet in association with the warm front is some 400 nm ahead of the surface warm front position and is parallel to the front. This results in a general northwesterly jet. The jet behind the cold front surface position by some 200 nm, is again parallel to the front and usually from a generally southwesterly direction. The isopleths of thickness are indicated to show the thermal winds. Care should be taken when viewing this plan diagram which can give the impression that the jets are in the cold air. This is not the case as the slope of the fronts allows the plan position to be transposed to the warm air at height. With passage of a polar front low from the west, the surface winds veer from southerly through to northwesterly in the northern hemisphere. The upper winds however back with passage of a polar front low from the west, changing from northwesterly through westerly to southwesterly behind the cold front. This can be appreciated from Fig 4.19. Polar front jets move with lows and are therefore

Fig 4.19

4.21

Other Jet Streams

Besides the main jet stream locations, there are upper level winds well in excess of 60 kt in association with increasing wind strength with increase of height, when mountain waves are formed and these can spread into the stratosphere. The zonal easterly winds in low latitudes can sometimes produce tropospheric easterly jets in the summer hemisphere, although these tend to be fragmented in location. In the stratosphere the easterly winds become jets with speeds of 75 to 100 kn. These are positioned in both hemispheres but are more pronounced in the summer hemisphere.

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4.22

Clear Air Turbulence

Clear air turbulence is turbulence out of cloud which does not include the turbulence in the friction layer. Hence this is turbulence at all heights above a few thousand feet. At the higher levels, CAT can cause loss of control, stalling and airframe damage when it is severe. CAT is common in association with jet streams, for around the boundaries of a jet, vertically and horizontally, there are strong windshears in terms of wind speed. The turbulence is more severe on top of the jet and more particularly on the cold or polar side. It is also more severe with stronger winds, with jets which are curved and with those which occur above and to the lee of mountain ranges. In this latter instance the vertical movements caused by mountains can speed up the jets and also enhance the shear in speed.

Frontal jets can produce more severe turbulence than the subtropical type because they move with the movement of the front. This movement is roughly at right angles to the direction of wind flow. The diagram Fig 4.20 shows the different features of the turbulence in association with jet streams and fronts. Sharp directional windshears with upper level troughs and sometimes with upper ridges can cause turbulence. In these instances flight along the trough or ridge line should be avoided if possible. The areas of CAT are shown in Fig 4.21. The same figure also shows turbulence in association with CB cloud. The instability lifting inside the cloud causes air from the sides to enter the uplift area thereby causing turbulence all around the cloud. There is often CAT above a CB cloud. This more frequently occurs where the cloud tops have been restricted due to the dryness of the air above. Therefore the lifting is still present although the water droplets at the cloud top have evaporated. It has been mentioned earlier in this chapter that clear air turbulence must occur with mountain waves if the air is dry and there is thus no cloud. A similar situation applies with rotor streaming. Additionally there will be CAT in association with the upper level jet stream which occurs with mountain waves. Where CAT occurs at high level (nominally above FL 150) and is not associated with cumuliform cloud or thunderstorms it is reported as TURB. To reduce CAT effects it is recommended that aircraft are flown at the 'rough' air speed for the aircraft type and if possible that areas where the terrain drops abruptly be avoided. For the CAT associated with jet streams, with a direct 'head-on' or 'tail-on' jet a change of flight level or heading can be efficacious. For a cross track jet a change of flight level only is worthwhile.

Fig 4.20

Fig 4.20

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5. Clouds
5.1 Cloud.
A cloud is the discernible assemblage of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals in the free air. Classification of cloud types and individual clouds is not straightforward. Clouds take on various forms, many of which continuously change. It is important to have an understanding of cloud classification as meteorological forecasts and reports use this system to give a picture of the weather for the Pilot. Clouds are defined by four main groups: 1. 2. 3. 4. Cirriform (fibrous) Cumuliform (heaped) Stratiform (layered) Nimbus (rain bearing) shading, composed of very small elements in the form of grain or ripples, joined together or separate, and more or less regularly arranged. These clouds are often referred to as mackerel sky. 3. Cirrostratus (Cs): Cirrus indicates high and stratus indicates sheets. Transparent veil of fibrous or smooth appearance, totally or partly covering the sky and generally producing a halo effect around the Sun or the Moon.

Middle Level Cloud. These clouds have a base above approximately 6500ft. 4. Altocumulus (Ac): Alto means middle level and cumulus means heaped or lumpy. A layer of cloud composed of flattened globular masses or rolls. They are arranged in groups or lines or waves which may be joined to form a continuous layer or appear in broken patches and are shaded either white or grey. Forms a Corona around the Sun or Moon. Vertical development of Ac may be sufficient to produce precipitation in the form of Virga or slight showers. Altostratus (As): Alto means middle level and stratus means layer. Greyish or bluish cloud sheet of fibrous or uniform appearance totally or partly covering the sky and having parts thin enough to reveal the Sun through vaguely, possibly as though through ground glass.

Clouds are further divided according to the level of their bases above mean sea level, resulting in ten basic types. High Level Cloud. These clouds have a base above 20 000ft and look fine and spidery. They are in a very cold region, and are composed of ice crystals rather than water particles. 1. Cirrus (Ci): Detached cloud in the form of white delicate filaments. White patches or narrow bands. These clouds have a fibrous or silky appearance. They have little moisture or turbulence and move across the sky with little change of shape or form. Cirrocumulus (Cc): Cirrus indicates high and cumulus indicates heaped or lumpy. Thin, white patch, sheet or layer of cloud with no

5.

2.

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Low Level Cloud. These clouds have a base below approximately 6500ft. 6. Nimbostratus (Ns): Nimbo means rain bearing and stratus means layer. Sometimes confused with As but is darker grey and has a lack of a distinct lower surface. Dark grey cloud layer generally covering the whole sky and thick enough throughout to block the Sun or Moon. The base is diffuse due to more or less continuously falling rain or snow. Stratocumulus (Sc.): Stratus means layered and cumulus means heaped. Grey or whitish patch or sheet of cloud which has dark parts composed of rounded masses or rolls which may be joined or show breaks between the thicker areas. Associated weather if any, is very light rain, drizzle or snow. Stratus (St.): Stratus means layer. Grey cloud layer with fairly uniform base. May give precipitation in the form of drizzle. When the Sun is visible through the cloud its outline is clearly discernible. Cumulus (Cu): Cumulus means heaped. Detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines. Developing vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers, of which the upper part often resembles a cauliflower. The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while the base is relatively dark as sunlight may not reach it. Precipitation in the form of snow or rain may occur with large Cumulus. Cumulonimbus (Cb): Cumulo means heaped and nimbus means rain bearing. Heavy and dense cloud with considerable vertical extent in the form of a mountain or huge tower. At least part of the upper portion is usually fibrous or striated, often appearing as an anvil or vast plume. The base appears dark and stormy. Low ragged cloud clouds are frequently observed below the base and generally other varieties of low cloud such as, Cu, Sc are joined to or in close proximity to the Cb. Lightning, thunder and hail are characteristic of this type of cloud, while associated weather with this type of cloud may be moderate to heavy showers of rain, snow or hail.

Castellanus, a number of small cumuliform clouds sharing a common base and indicating the growth of middle level clouds in an unstable atmosphere. Lenticularis, lens-shaped clouds formed in standing waves over mountains caused by strong winds aloft and often associated with cumuliform cloud. Noting the type of precipitation will help in determining a particular type of cloud. Showers that start and stop suddenly followed by clear skies only occur with convective clouds such as Cumulus and Cumulonimbus. precipitation which usually starts and finishes gradually over a long period is associated with stratiform cloud. Drizzle from Stratus and Stratocumulus, heavy continuous rain or snow from Nimbostratus and rain from Altostratus. Cloud is formed from the water vapour contained in the atmosphere. This water vapour is taken up into the atmosphere by evaporation from oceans and other bodies where water is present.

7.

8.

9.

5.2

Three States of Water.

Water can exist in three states, gas (vapour), liquid (water) and solid (ice). Water as a vapour (gas) is not visible, but when this vapour condenses out (liquid) it forms water droplets which we see as cloud, fog, mist, rain or dew. When water exists in its solid form (ice) we see it as snow, hail, frost and ice.

10.

Above are the ten main cloud classifications, there are certain variations that may be mentioned. Stratus fractus and cumulus fractus observed as shreds or fragments below nimbostratus or altostratus.

Fig 5.1

5.3

Latent Heat.

Any change of state involves a heat transaction with no change in temperature. The amount of heat energy required to raise one gram of water one degree

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centigrade is one calorie. If 10 calories of heat energy are applied to one gram of ice at -10oC the temperature of the ice would rise to 0oC. A further 80 calories of heat energy are now required to change the state of one gram of water from its solid to its liquid form without changing the temperature. Having changed the state of the water from its solid to its liquid form, a further 100 calories are required to raise the temperature to 100oC. To change the state of one gram of water from liquid to vapour form, without changing the temperature, will now require a further 540 calories if heat energy. The heat energy required to change the state of the water from a solid to a liquid, and then from a liquid to a gas, without change of temperature, is known as latent heat. This energy is store in the water and is released as the water vapour changes back to liquid and then to ice.

5.6

Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer.

5.4

Humidity.

The amount of water vapour present in the air is called humidity, but the actual amount is not as important as whether the air can support that water vapour or not.

A wet and dry bulb system is used to determine the surface air temperature, relative humidity and the dew point. The wet bulb temperature is not the dew point temperature, except when the air is saturated. The dry bulb thermometer measures the temperature of the free air. A wet bulb thermometer is a normal thermometer, the bulb of which is wrapped in a single layer of muslin. It is kept continuously moist by distilled water through a short wick. Any evaporation is shown by a lower wet bulb temperature, due to the extraction of latent heat of evaporation, from the bulb. The drier the air, the greater the evaporation, and the larger the amount of heat removed. A large difference between dry and wet bulb temperatures therefore indicates dry air, or low relative humidity. Identical temperatures indicate no evaporation and therefore saturated air or 100% relative humidity. Wet bulb temperature may be defined as the lowest temperature to which air may be cooled by the evaporation of water.

5.5

Relative Humidity.

When a parcel of air is supporting as much water vapour as it can, it is said to be saturated, and has a relative humidity of 100%. If it is supporting less water vapour than its full capacity it is said to be unsaturated, and its relative humidity will be less than 100%. Air that is supporting only 50% of its capacity is said to have a relative humidity of 50%. There are many ranges of relative humidity from 0% to 100%. In cloud and fog it is 100%, over a desert it may be 20%. Relative Humidity is defined as the ratio of water vapour actually in a parcel of air relative to what it can hold at a particular temperature and pressure.

Fig 5.3

5.7

Dew Point.

Temperature largely determines the maximum amount of water vapour air can hold. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air.

Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated by the water vapour already present in the air. Aviation weather reports normally include the air temperature and dew point temperature. Dew point when related to air temperature reveals qualitatively how close the air is to saturation. The difference between air temperature and dew point temperature is called the spread. As spread becomes less, relative humidity increases, and it is 100% when temperature and dew point are the same. Surface temperature-dew point spread is important for determining fog, but has little bearing on precipitation. To support precipitation, air must be saturated through thick layers aloft. Sometimes the spread at ground level may be quite large, but at higher altitudes the air is saturated and clouds form. Some rain may reach the ground or it may evaporate as it falls into the dryer air.

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Relative humidity depends on both temperature and water vapour. In this figure, water vapour is constant but temperature varies. On the left, relative humidity is 50%, the warmer air could hold twice as much water vapour than is actually present. As the air cools, centre and right, relative humidity increases. As the air cools to the dew point, its capacity to hold water is reduced to the amount actually present. Relative humidity is 100% and the air is saturated.

(DALR). Cooler air can support less water vapour, so, as a parcel of air rises and cools, its relative humidity will increase. At the height where its temperature is reduced to the dew point (100% relative humidity) water will start to condense out and form cloud. Above this height the now saturated air will continue to cool as it rises, but, because latent heat is now givenoff as the water vapour condenses into the lower energy state, the cooling will not be as great. The rate at which saturated air cools as it rises is known as the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) and may be assumed to have a value of approximately half the DALR, i.e., 1.5oC/1000 ft. The rate of temperature change in the surrounding atmosphere is called the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) and its relationship to the DALR and SALR is a main factor in determining the levels of the bases and tops of clouds that form. The ISA assumes an ELR of 2oC / 1000ft.

5.9

Stable Air.

Stable air is air which when displaced vertically will tend to return to its original level. Fig 5.6 Note at 100% humidity. Temperature and dew point are the same. When the air cooled to saturation, it cooled to the dew point. 5.9.1 Dry. Consider the following simplified tephigram (Fig 5.7). Dry air is lifted manually to 5000 ft. It will cool at the DALR (3oC / 1000 ft). The parcel of air will therefore cool from +15oC to 0oC in this example. The ELR (2oC / 1000 ft), the actual temperature of the surrounding air is to the right of the DALR, this shows a temperature of +5oC at 5000 ft. The parcel of air is cooler and more dense than its surrounding air and will sink back to its original level when the lifting force is removed. This air is STABLE.

5.8

Adiabatic Processes.

An adiabatic process is one in which heat is neither added nor removed from the system. The expansion and compression of gases are adiabatic processes where, although heat is neither added nor removed, the temperature of the system may change, e.g., placing your finger over a bicycle pump will illustrate that compressing air increases its temperature. Conversely, air that is compressed and stored at room temperature will feel cool if released to the atmosphere and allowed to expand. Reducing pressure will lower the temperature. A very common adiabatic process that involves the expansion of a gas and its cooling is when a parcel of air rises in the atmosphere. This can be initiated by the heating of a parcel of air, causing it to expand and become less dense than the surrounding air, hence it will rise. A parcel of air can also be forced aloft as it blows over a mountain range. The change of temperature which occurs solely because of change of pressure is known as adiabatic heating or cooling as appropriate. When considering adiabatic lapse rates it is assumed that no heat energy will flow between the parcel of air and the surrounding environment. Unsaturated air will cool adiabatically at about 3oC / 1000 ft as it rises. This is known as the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

5.9.2 Saturated. The parcel of air (Fig 5.8) is saturated throughout the ascent to 5000 ft and has cooled at the SALR (1.5oC/1000 ft) from +10oC at mean sea level to 2.5oC at 5000 ft. The ELR, is to the right of the SALR. The temperature of the surrounding air is greater than the parcel. The parcel of air is cooler and more dense than its surrounding air and will sink back to its original level when the lifting force is removed. This air is STABLE.

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5.10.2 Saturated. Fig 5.11 shows saturated air. The ELR line lies to the left of the SALR line. The air will remain saturated throughout its ascent within the lifting layer. At the upper limit of the lifting layer (5000 ft) the air is warmer and less dense than the surrounding air and it will continue to rise seeking air of the same equally low density.

5.9.3 Absolute Stability. Fig 5.9 shows the ELR lying to the right of both the DALR and the SALR lines. This means that the atmosphere is stable regardless of whether or not the parcel of air is dry or saturated when lifted. The parcel of air will be cooler and more dense at the top of the lifting force and will sink.

5.10.3 Absolute Instability. Fig 5.12 shows absolute instability. The ELR line lies to the left of both the DALR and SALR lines. The air will continue to rise regardless of whether it is dry, saturated or starts dry and becomes saturated during its ascent within the lifting layer.

5.10

Unstable Air.

Unstable air is air which when displaced vertically will continue to ascend until it reaches air with an equally low density. 5.10.1 Dry. Fig 5.10 shows dry unstable air. The ELR line lies to the left of the DALR line. The air will remain dry throughout its ascent within the lifting layer. At the upper limit of the lifting layer (5000 ft) the air is warmer and less dense than the surrounding air and it will continue to rise seeking air of the same equally low density.

The type of cloud which forms depends upon the Atmospheric Environment. The nature and extent of any cloud which forms depends upon the nature of the surrounding atmosphere through which it is ascending. As long as the parcel of air is warmer than its surroundings, it will continue to rise. An atmosphere in which a parcel of air, when given vertical motion, continues to move away from its original level is called Unstable. Cumiliform clouds may form in such an atmospheric situation, the more moisture in the air, the higher its dew point temperature. If the surrounding air is warmer than the parcel of air it will stop rising as its density is greater than its surroundings. An atmosphere in which air tends to remain at the one level is called Stable.

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5.11 Cloud formed by convection due to heating.


Suppose that a parcel of air overlying a large ploughed field heats up to +17oC whereas the air in the surrounding area is only 12oC. The heated parcel of air will start to rise, due to lower density, and cool at the DALR of 3oC/1000 ft. If the ELR happens to be 1oC/1000 ft, then the local area air through which the heated parcel is rising will cool at 1oC/1000 ft. The moisture content of the parcel of air is such that it will reach dew point when it cools to 11oC. By 2000 ft agl the rising parcel of air will have reached saturation and

the water vapour will start to condense out and form cloud. At 2000 ft agl the local area air will have cooled to 10oC, the parcel of rising air is still warmer 11oC (less dense) and will continue to rise. As the air continues to rise above the level at which cloud first started to form, latent heat will be given-off as more and more vapour condenses into liquid water. The rising air now cools at the reduced SALR of 1.5oC/1000 ft. Cooling at the new rate, the parcel of air will have cooled to the same temperature 8oC as the surrounding air at 4000 ft agl and will stop rising. This produces a Cumulus cloud with base at 2000 ft and tops of 4000 ft.

Fig 5.13 Sometimes when an air stream flows over a mountain range and there is a stable layer of air above standing waves occur. This is a wavy pattern as the air flow settles back into more steady flow and, if the air is moist, lenticular clouds may form in the crest of the lee waves, and rotor clouds may form at a low level. The level at which the cloud base forms depends upon the moisture content of the parcel of air and its dew point temperature. The cloud base may be below the mountain tops or well above depending upon the situation. Once having started to form the cloud may sit low over the mountain as stratiform cloud (if the air is stable) or as (if the air is unstable)the cloud will be cumiliform and may rise to high levels.

5.12

Cloud formed by orographic uplift.

Air flowing over mountains rises and cools adiabatically. If it cools below its dew point temperature, water vapour will condense out and clouds will form. Descending on the other side the air warms adiabatically, once the air temperature exceeds the dew point temperature the water vapour will no longer condense out. The liquid water drops now start to vapourise, and the cloud will cease to exist below this level. A cloud that forms as a cap over the top of a mountain is known as lenticular cloud. It will remain more or less stationary whilst the air flows through it.

Fig 5.14

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5.13

Foehn wind.

If air rising up a mountain slope is moist enough to have a dewpoint temperature and is cooled to it before reaching the summit of the mountain, cloud will form on the windward side, the air will now cool at the SALR. If precipitaion occurs, moisture will be lost.

This will raise the dewpoint temperature causing the cloud base to be higher on the lee side of the mountain. As the air descends on the lee side it will warm at the DALR which is at a greater rate than the air cooling in the cloud. This results in a warmer, drier wind on the lee side of the mountain known as a Foehn Wind.

Foehn Wind

Fig 5.15

5.14 Cloud formed by Turbulence and mixing.


As air flows over the Earths surface friction causes eddies to set up which causes mixing in the lower levels. A very strong wind and rough surface will give strong eddy currents a much deeper mixing layer. The air in the rising currents will cool and if the turbulence extends to a sufficient height and cooling to the airs dew point may occur. Water vapour will condense out into water droplets and clouds will form. The descending air currents in the turbulent layer will warm, if it warms above the dew point temperature the liquid water droplets will return to vapour and the cloud will not exist below this level. With turbulent mixing, stratiform cloud may form over very large areas, possibly with an undulating base. It may be continuous Stratus or broken Stratocumulus.

5.15 Cloud ascent.

formed

by

widespread

When two large air masses of differing temperature meet, the warmer and less dense air will flow over or be undercut by the cooler more dense air. As the warmer air mass is forced aloft it will cool and if the dewpoint is reached cloud will form. The boundery layer between the two air masses is called the Front (see 6 Air Masses and Fronts).

5.16

Precipitation associated with cloud.

Precipitation is falling water that reaches the ground. This includes; Rain consisting of liquid water drops; Drizzle consisting of fine water drops; Snow consisting of branched and star shaped ice crystals; Hail consisting of small balls of ice;

Freezing rain or drizzle which freezes on contact with a cold surface (may be the ground or an aircraft in flight). Continuous rain or snow is often associated with Nimbostratus and Altostratus clouds. Intermittent rain or snow with Altostratus or Stratocumulus. Rain or snow showers are associated with cumuliform clouds, such as, Cumulonimbus, Cumulus and Altocumulus, extremely heavy showers and/or hail coming from

Fig 5.16

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Cumulonimbus. Fine drizzle or snow is associated with Stratus or Stratocumulus. It is possible to identify cloud types by their precipitation. Showery precipitation generally falls from cumuliform clouds and non-showery precipitation from stratiform clouds, mainly Altostratus and Nimbostratus. Rain that falls from the base of a cloud but evaporates before reaching the ground is called Virga.

5.17

Thunderstorms.
Fig 5.17

Thunderstorms are a very severe weather hazard to aviation, they generate spectacular weather which is usually accompanied with, lightning, thunder, heavy rain showers, hail, squalls and possibly tornadoes. Thunderstorms are associated with Cumulonimbus clouds and there may be several thunderstorm cells in the one cloud. 5.17.1 Three Conditions Necessary For A Thunderstorm To Develop. Deep instability in the atmosphere, once air starts to rise it will continue rising. A steep lapse rate with warm air in the lower level and cold air in the upper levels. A moisture content. A trigger action to start the air rising; a front forcing air aloft; a mountain forcing air aloft; strong heating action of the air in contact with the Earth; heating of the lower layers of a polar air mass as it moves to lower latitudes.

5.18.2 Mature Stage. The water droplets will become too large and heavy for the updrafts to support and will start to fall. As they fall in great numbers, they will drag air inside the cloud down with them causing down drafts. The first lightning flashes and rain from the bottom of the cloud usually occur at this stage. The descending air will warm adiabatically, but the cold water drops will slow down the rate at which it warms. Resulting in very cool down drafts compared to the updrafts. Heavy rain and/or hail will fall from the base of the cloud, being heaviest in the first five minutes.

5.18. Life Cycle Of A Thunderstorm.


5.18.1 The Cumulus Stage. Moist air heated from below begins to rise, as it rises it cools at the DALR to its dewpoint temperature. Water vapour will condense out as liquid drops and cloud forms. The air continues to rise releasing latent but now cools at the SALR. In the early stage of development of a Thunderstorm, there are strong updrafts over an area of one or two miles in diameter with no significant down drafts. Air being drawn into the cloud at all levels causes the updrafts to become even stronger with height. The updrafts frequently occur at a rate that an aircraft cannot out perform. Temperature inside the cloud is higher than the surrounding air causing the cloud to continue to build higher and higher. The strong warm updrafts carry water droplets higher and higher to levels often well above the freezing level. They may freeze or continue as super cooled water droplets. The water droplets will coalesce to form bigger drops. This Cumulus stage lasts approximately 10 to 20 minutes.

Fig 5.18

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The top of the cloud may reach the Tropopause and in temperate latitudes may reach 20 000 ft and in the tropics as high as 50 000 ft. The top may spread out into an anvil shape, caused by the upper winds. The updrafts and down drafts are of such a magnitude (more than 5000 ft per minute) that they can out perform a jet aircraft and cause structural damage. The rapidly changing direction of the air flow can cause an aircraft wing to stall. When the cold down drafts flows out from the bottom of the cloud they change direction and flow along the ground horizontally. This produces a strong windshear. The out flowing cold air will undercut the inflowing warm air, which causes a mini cold front. A gusty wind and sudden drop in air temperature may precede the storm. A roll cloud may form slightly ahead of the base of the cloud where the cold down drafts and the warm updrafts pass. The mature stage lasts typically 20 to 40 minutes. 5.18.3 Dissipating Stage. The cold down drafts gradually causes the warm updrafts to weaken and the supply of warm moist air to the upper levels is reduced. The cold down drafts continues and spread out over the whole cloud which starts to collapse from the top. Eventually the temperature of the cloud will warm to reach that of its surroundings and the cloud will collapse into a stratiform cloud.

are equipped with weather radar to enable pilots to do this. The VFR pilot must use their eyes and common sense.

5.19

Dangers From A Thunderstorm


Severe windshear (causes flight path deviations, handling problems, loss of airspeed and possibly structural damage); Severe turbulence (causing loss of control and possibly structural damage); Severe icing; Hail damage (airframe and cockpit windows); Poor visibility; Lightning strikes (causing damage to electrical equipment and/or airframes); Static (causing interference to radios and radio navigation equipment).

Fig 5.19 Thunderstorms are HAZARDOUS to aviation. The danger from a Thunderstorm does not exist just in or under the cloud, but for some distance around it. Thunderstorms should be avoided by at least 10nm and in severe situations 20nm or more. Large aircraft

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When you said watch the front I thought you meant the weather.

6. Air Masses and Fronts


6.1 Air Masses And Frontal Weather. 6.4 Convergence And Divergence.
An air mass is a large parcel of air with consistent properties (such as temperature and moisture content) throughout. Air masses are usually classed by origin, its path over the Earths surface and whether it is diverging or converging. An air mass influenced by the divergence of air flowing out of a HIGH pressure system at the Earths surface will slowly sink (known as subsidence) and become warmer, drier and more stable. An air mass influenced by convergence as air flows into a LOW pressure system at the surface will be forced to rise slowly, becoming cooler, moister and less stable.

6.2

Origin Of An Air Mass.

Maritime air flowing over oceans will absorb moisture and tend to become saturated, in its lower levels. Continental air flowing over a land mass will remain relatively dry since little water is available for evaporation.

6.3

Track Of An Air Mass.

Polar air flowing towards the lower latitudes will be warmed from below and become unstable. Tropical air flowing to the higher latitudes will be cooled from below and become more stable.

Fig 6.1

Fig 6.2

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6.5

Types Of Air Masses That Affect Ireland and the British Isles.

Frontal Weather Air Masses have different characteristics, depending upon their origin and the type of surface over which they have been passing. Because of these differences there is usually a distinct division between adjacent air masses. These divisions are known as 'Fronts', and there are two basic types:- Cold Fronts and Warm Fronts. 'Frontal Activity' describes the interaction between the air masses, as one mass replaces the other.

Fig 6.3 6.5.1 Typical Characteristics of Air Masses affecting Ireland and the British Isles. Summer
Warm & Humid. Fog or low ST & perhaps drizzle, may persist to SW & over sea but break to lee of hills & inland by day, giving moderate visibility. S to SW, can be strong with risk of gales Hot, dry & hazy. Often clear skies. Risk of fog or ST on S coast. Perhaps high level CB & Thunder if mixed with moist Tm from Biscay. Mostly S to SE, usually light, occaisionally moderate Warm or very warm except near E coast where some ST or fog may occur. Rather hazy but mostly clear skies inland. Mostly between NNE and SE Cold & Unstable; CU, perhaps CB; showers. Often clear skies to S of high ground. May be frost in places. Exceptionally good visibility. Mainly NNW to NNE Cool & unstable; moderate humidity. CU, CB over sea & NW facing coasts; forming inland by day. Showery, some hail & thunder. Good visibility; bumoy flying. Servere icing & turbulence in CB. WSW to N, often blustery and strong. Cold; unstable, sea temperatures giving CU, CB & showers (snow over hills & in North). Few showers well inland. Overnight frost, and perhaps fog if light winds. Very cold. Vigorous instability of limited depth. Sleet, snow or hail showers in the North & on E Coast. Clear inland. Servere frost, perhaps all day. Very cold. Wintry showers from CU/SC near E coast if sea track long enough. Risk of freezing PPN if mild Westerlies aloft. Frost, perhaps severe, may last all day. Mild, dry & hazy. Some ST. Not common in winter.

Air Mass Tropical Maritime (Tm) Winds Tropical Continental Tc Winds Polar Continental Pc Winds Artic Maritime (Am) Winds Polar Maritime (Pm) Winds Returning Polar Maritime (rPm)

Winter
Mild, moist & stable. Poor visiblity, extensive fog, ST & drizzle; a few breaks to E & N of hills. Strong winds lift fog to ST.

Winds Note: Wind directions are those most likely with the stated airmass. the type of airmass cannot be infered soley from the wind direction.

Mild in winter, cool in summer. PM tracking south of Irish lattitude over the Atlantic becoming unstable, then tracking north over cooler sea, becoming stable at low levels. Stability variable depending on length of track. Some fog or ST, especially in the SW, but SC inland with risk of CU, CB, showers or even thunder developing. Snow is rare. Visibility moderate by day but variable at night. Mostly between S and W.

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6.6

The Warm Front

If two air masses meet so that the warmer air replaces the cooler air at the surface, a Warm Front is said to exist. The boundary at the Earth's surface between the two air masses is represented on a weather chart as a line with semi-circles pointed in the direction of movement. The slope formed in a Warm Front as the warm air slides up over the cold air is fairly shallow and so the cloud that forms in the usually quite stable rising warm air is likely to be stratiform. In a Warm Front the frontal air at altitude is actually well ahead of the line as depicted on the weather chart. The Cirrus could be some 600 nm ahead of the surface front, and rain could be falling up to approximately 200 nm ahead of it. The slope of the warm front is typically 1 in 150, much flatter than a cold front, and has been exaggerated in the diagram.

6.6.1 The Warm Front As Seen By An Observer On The Ground As a Warm Front gradually passes, an observer on the ground may first see high Cirrus cloud, which will slowly be followed by a lowering base of Cirrostratus, Altostratus and Nimbostratus. Virga may be falling from the Altostratus. The rain from the Nimbostratus may be continuous until the Warm Front passes and may cause fog. Also, the visibility may be poor. The atmospheric pressure usually will fall continuously as the Warm Front approaches and, as it passes, either stop falling or fall at a slower rate. The air temperature will rise as the warm air moves in over the surface. Warm air holds more moisture than cold air, and the Dewpoint Temperature in the warm air will be higher. In the Northern Hemisphere, the wind direction will veer as the Warm Front passes. Behind the Warm Front, and after it passes, there is likely to be Stratus. Visibility may still be poor. Weather associated with a Warm Front may extend over several hundred miles.

Fig 6.4

6.6.2 The General Characteristics Of A Warm Front: In front Pressure Wind Temp Dew point Humidity Cloud Weather Visibility
steady fall backing + increasing steady/slow rise rise in PPN rise in PPN CI, CS, AS, NS, ST Continuous PPN good except in PPN

At the passage
fall stops veer + decrease rise rise rise further if not saturated ST PPN stops poor mist or fog

at the rear
little change/slow fall steady direction little change steady little change ST, SC some CI dry / slight PPN moderate, fog may persist.

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6.6.3 The Warm Front As Seen By A Pilot. What a Pilot sees and the in which order a Pilot sees it, will depend upon the direction of flight. The Pilot may see a gradually lowering cloud base if he/she is in the cold sector underneath the warm air and flying towards the Warm Front, steady rain may be falling. If the airplane is at sub-zero temperatures, the rain may freeze and form ice on the wings. Decreasing their aerodynamic qualities. The cloud may be as low as ground level (i.e. hill fog) and sometimes the lower layers of stratiform cloud conceal Cumulonimbus and Thunderstorm activity. Visibility may be poor. There will be a change in the wind either side of the front, this change of wind may require a change of heading to maintain track.

of a Cold Front is unstable and so the cloud that is formed is cumiliform in nature. Severe weather hazardous to aviation, such as thunderstorm activity, squall lines, severe turbulence and windshear, may accompany the passage of a Cold Front.

6.7

The Cold Front.

If a cooler air mass undercuts a mass of warm air and displaces it at the surface, a Cold Front is said to occur. The slope between the two air masses in a Cold Front is generally quite steep (typically 1 in 50) and the frontal weather may occupy a band of only 30 to 50 nautical miles. The boundary between the two air masses at the surface is shown on weather charts as a line with barbs pointing in the direction of travel of the front. The Cold Front moves quite rapidly, with the cooler frontal air at altitude lagging behind that at the surface. The air that is forced to rise with the passage

Fig 6.5

6.7.1 The General Characteristics Of A Cold Front: In front At the passage Pressure Wind
fall backing + increasing becoming squally often a sudden rise sudden veer, perhaps squall

at the rear
rise continues backing a little after squall, then steady or veering in later squalls little change, variable in showers little change rapid drop as PPN stops variable in showers Lifting rapidly; AS, AC for a while, further CUor CB later clearing with PPN

Temp Dew point

steady, dropping in pre-frontal rain little change

sudden fall

sudden fall high in PPN

R/Humidity may rise in PPN Cloud


ST or SC, AC, AS, CB

ragged low ST, NS, embedded CB

Weather Visibility

usually some PPN, possibly thunder moderate, poor perhaps fog

heavy PPN perhaps thunder and hail temp poor, improving

good except in shower

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6.7.2 The Passage Of A Cold Front As Seen By An Observer On The Ground. The atmospheric pressure will fall as a Cold Front approaches. The change in weather with its passage may be quite pronounced. A sudden drop in temperature, change in wind direction (veering in the Northern Hemisphere) as the front passes. The colder air will hold less moisture than warm air, so the dewpoint temperature after the Cold Front has passed will be lower. Once the Cold Front has passed, the pressure may rise rapidly. 6.7.3 The Cold Front As Seen By A Pilot An approaching Cold Front may require the Pilot to divert to avoid weather. There may be thunderstorm activity, violent winds (both horizontal and vertical) from Cumulonimbus clouds squall lines, windshear, heavy showers of rain or hail, and severe turbulence. Icing could be a problem. Visibility away from the showers and the cloud will be good. Pilot should avoid the strong weather activity that accompanies Cold Fronts.

is depicted by a line with alternating barbs and semicircles pointing in the direction of motion of the front. The cloud that is associated with an Occluded Front will depend upon what cloud is associated with the individual Cold and Warm Fronts. It is not unusual to have cumiliform cloud (Cu, Cb) from the Cold Front as well as stratiform cloud from the Warm Front. Sometimes the stratiform cloud can conceal thunderstorm activity. Severe weather can occur in the early stages of an Occlusion as unstable air is forced upwards, this period is usually short. Flight through an Occluded Front may involve encountering intense weather, as both a Cold Front and a Warm Front are involved with a warm air mass being squeezed up between them. The wind direction will be different either side of the front.

6.8

The Occluded Front.

Cold Fronts usually travel much faster than Warm Fronts. What often happens is that a Cold Front will overtake a Warm Front, creating an 'Occlusion' (or Occluded Front). This may happen in the final stages of a frontal depression. Three air masses are involved, their vertical passage, one to the other, will depend upon their relative temperatures. The Occluded Front

Fig 6.6

6.8.1 The characteristics of an Occluded Front.


The characteristics of an occlusion are less well defined than those of warm and cold fronts. They take on one of three possible characteristics. 2) 2) 3) A cold occlusion, that is where the air behind the front is colder than the air ahead of the front. The front then takes on more of the characteristics of a cold front (fig 1). Warm occlusion that is where the air behind the front is less cold than that ahead of the front. The front then takes on more of the characteristics of a warm front (fig 2). When temperature contrasts are less marked, the front appears more as a trough. Walker 2000

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6.9 Depressions Pressure.

Areas

Of

Low

A Depression or LOW is a region of low pressure at the surface, the pressure gradually rising as you move away from its centre. A LOW is depicted on a weather chart by a series of concentric isobars joining places of equal sea level pressure, with the lowest pressure in the centre. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds circulate anticlockwise around a LOW. Flying towards a LOW, an aeroplane will experience right (starboard) drift. Depressions generally are more intense than HIGHs, being spread over a smaller area and with a stronger Pressure Gradient (change of pressure with distance). The more intense the Depression, the 'deeper' it is said to be. LOWs move faster across the face of the Earth than HIGHs and do not last as long. Because the pressure at the surface in the centre of a Depression is lower than in the surrounding areas, there will be an inflow of air, known as 'Convergence'. The air above the Depression will rise and flow outwards. 6.9.1 The Three-Dimensional Pattern Of Airflow Near A Depression Is: convergence (inflow) in the lower layers; rising air above; divergence (outflow) in the upper layers.

Low Pressure is called a 'Trough'. Air will flow into it (convergence) and rise. If the air is unstable, weather similar to that in a Depression or a Cold Front will occur, e.g. cumiliform cloud, possibly with cumulonimbus and thunderstorm activity. The Trough may in fact be associated with a front. Less prominent Troughs, possibly more U-shaped than V-shaped, will generally have less severe weather.

Fig 6.10

6.10

The Wave Or Frontal Depression

The boundary between two air masses moving side by side is often distorted by the warm air mass bulging into the cold air mass, with the bulge moving along like a wave. This is known as a 'Frontal Wave'. The leading edge of the bulge of warm air is a Warm Front and its rear edge is a Cold Front. The pressure near the tip of the wave falls sharply and so a Depression forms, along with a Warm Front, a Cold Front, and possibly an Occlusion. It is usual for the Cold Front to move faster across the surface than the Warm Front.

Fig 6.11

6.11

The Tropical Revolving Storm

Fig 6.9 A Depression at the surface may be caused by the divergence aloft removing air faster than it can be replaced by convergence at the surface. 6.9.2 Weather Associated With A Depression. In a depression, the rising air is cooling and cloud will form. Instability in the rising air may lead to large vertical development of cumiliform cloud accompanied by rain showers. Visibility, except in the showers, will be good. The vertical motion wilI tend to carry away all the particles suspended in the air. 6.9.3 Troughs Of Low Pressure. V-shaped extensions of the isobars from a region of

Tropical revolving storms can be violent and destructive. They occur over warm tropical oceans at about 10-20/ latitude during certain periods of the year. Occasionally, weak troughs in these areas develop into intense depressions. Air converges in the lower levels and flows into the depression and then rises, the warm, moist air forming large Cumulus and Cumulonimbus clouds. The very deep depression may be only quite small (200-300 nm in diameter) compared to the typical depression in temperate latitudes, but its central pressure can be extremely

Fig 6.12

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low. Winds can exceed 100 kt, with heavy showers and thunderstorm activity becoming increasingly frequent as the centre of the storm approaches. The 'Eye' of a Tropical Revolving Storm is often only 10 nm in diameter, with light winds and broken cloud. It is occupied by very warm subsiding air, one reason for the extremely low pressure. Once the eye has passed, a very strong wind in the opposite direction occurs. In the Northern Hemisphere, pronounced starboard (right) drift due to a strong wind from the left will mean that the eye of the storm is ahead. Tropical Revolving Storms are known as Cyclones in the Indian and Pacific Ocean areas, as Hurricanes in the Caribbean, and Typhoons in the China Sea area. These intense weather systems are best avoided by all aircraft.

The high pressure area at the surface originates when the convergence in the upper layers adds air faster than the divergence in the lower layers removes it. 6.12.2 Weather Associated With A High. The subsiding air in a High pressure system will warm as it descends and cloud will disperse as the dewpoint temperature is exceeded and the relative humidity decreases. Subsiding air is very stable. It is possible the subsiding air may warm sufficiently to create an inversion. The upper air warming to a temperature higher than the lower air. Causing stratiform cloud to form (Stratocumulus, Stratus) and/or trapping smoke, haze and dust beneath it. When this happens in the Irish winter, it leads to gloomy days with poor visibility. In summer, heating by the Sun will disperse the cloud, leading to a fine but hazy day. If the sky remains clear at night, greater cooling of the Earth's surface by radiation heat loss may lead to the formation of Fog. If the High Pressure is situated entirely over land, the weather may be dry and cloudless. Any air flowing in from the sea will cause extensive stratiform cloud in the lower levels to occur. 6.12.3 Ridge Of High Pressure. Isobars which extend out from a HIGH in a U-shape indicate a ridge of High Pressure. Weather conditions associated with a Ridge are similar to the weather found with Anticyclones.

6.12 Anticyclones Pressure.

Areas

Of

High

Anticyclones, or HIGH, is an area of high pressure at the surface surrounded by roughly concentric isobars. HIGHs are greater in extent than LOWs, but with a weaker Pressure Gradient. They are slower moving, but more persistent and last longer In the Northern Hemisphere. The wind circulates clockwise around the centre of a HIGH. Flying towards a HIGH an aircraft will experience Left (Port) drift. 6.12.1 The three-dimensional flow associated with an Anticyclone is: of air

outflow of air from the high pressure area in the lower layers (i.e. divergence); slow subsidence of air over a wide area from above; inflow of air in the upper layers (i.e. convergence). Fig 6.14

6.13

A Col.

An area of almost constant pressure that exists between two HIGHs and two LOWs is called a 'Col'. Light winds are often associated with Cols. Fog a possibility in winter and high temperatures in summer leading to showers or thunderstorms.

Fig 6.13 Fig 6.15

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Weather men! I ask you, does it look cold enough to freeze?

7. Icing
7.1 The Formation Of Ice. 7.2 Supercooled water drops.
If the temperature is less than 0oC, ice may form, either: Liquid water drops can exist in the atmosphere at temperatures well below the normal freezing point of water (0oC), possibly at -20oC or even lower. They is known as 'supercooled water droplets'.

directly from water vapour (sublimation, causing hoar frost); from water droplets freezing (causing rime ice and/or clear ice).


7.1.1 Icing Can Be Hazardous To Aviation. Ice accretion on an airplane or within the engine induction system can significantly reduce flight safety by causing:

Supercooled water droplets will freeze on contact with a surface: the skin of an aeroplane; rotor blades.

adverse aerodynamic effects - ice accretion on the airframe can modify the airflow pattern around aerofoils (wings, propeller blades, etc.), leading to a serious loss of Lift and an increase in Drag; loss of engine power, or even complete stoppage, if ice blocks the air intake (in subzero temperatures) or carburetor ice forms (in moist air up to +250C); degradation in radio communications (if ice forms on the aerials). weight increase and a change in the position of the Centre of Gravity of the aircraft, as well as unbalancing of the various control surfaces and the propeller, perhaps causing severe vibration and/or control difficulties; blocking of the pitot tube and/or static vent, producing errors in the pressure instruments (Airspeed, Altimeter, Vertical Speed Indicator).

7.3

Icing In Cloud:

A cross section of a cloud reveals four distinct layers; A). Below the 0oC isotherm the cloud consists of condensed water droplets at temperatures above freezing, and no airframe icing will occur. B). Between the 0oC and -10oC isotherm the cloud consists of high concentrates of supercooled water droplets giving a high rate of ice accretion. C). Between the -10oC and -40oC isotherms the cloud will consist of a mixture of supercooled water droplets and ice crystals, the proportion of ice crystals increasing with height. The lower the temperature the smaller the icing problem. D). Above the -40oC isotherm the cloud will consist entirely of ice crystals and no airframe icing problem exists.

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The worst levels at which to penetrate cumuliform cloud is where the temperature is between 0oC and 10oC. It is this level that the greatest amount of supercooled water droplets exist, it is also at this level that the greatest flow back will occur giving a high proportion of translucent rime ice on the top surfaces.

approximately 1oC above dewpoint. It is at this temperature that the air becomes saturated with respect to ice (frost point). An aircraft which has been flying at high altitudes and makes a rapid descent will produce hoar frost during the descent. This is because the aircraft arrives in much warmer air at the lower level, the airframe may still be cold enough to chill the air flowing over the airframe to its frost point. Hoar frost thus formed will soon melt as the airframe warms to the ambient temperature.

7.5

Rime And Glazed Or Clear Ice.

Fig 7.1

Supercooled water droplets exist at temperatures as low as -40oC but are most abundant at temperatures of between 0oC to -10oC. Supercooled water droplets exist because of an absence of ice nuclei. An aircraft flying through a concentration of supercooled water droplets will act as a large and totally adequate nucleus. The formation of ice is inevitable providing that the airframe is itself at a sub zero temperature. Due to the release of latent heat a supercooled water droplet at a temperature of -5oC striking the leading edge will behave as follows. 5/80ths of the droplet will freeze on impact. The heat energy released will raise the temperature of the remaining 75/80ths to 0oC. This water will flow back over the wing losing heat to the aircraft skin and freezing as it flows back. This process gives two distinct types of airframe ice. 7.5.1 Rime Ice. The portion of the supercooled water droplet which freezes on impact does so more or less instantaneously and in so doing traps pockets of air. It will be whitish in appearance, honeycombed and brittle. Because of the trapped air Rime ice is lighter in weight than Clear ice. Its irregular shape and rough surface make it effective in decreasing aerodynamic efficiency of airfoils thus reducing lift and increasing drag.

7.4

Hoar Frost.

Hoar frost is a white semi-crystalline coating of ice which often appears on the ground and on aircraft when they are left out in the open during long winter nights, when skies remain predominantly clear of cloud and the temperature drops below 0oC. 7.4.1 Synoptic situations which favour the formation of hoar frost are; Anticyclone; Ridge (high pressure); Col. All of which tend to give the necessary light winds, dry air and clear skies. The surface air temperature will drop rapidly, if the air is sufficiently dry the dewpoint will be at a temperature below 0oC. In this case sublimation occurs when the air temperature is

Fig 7.2

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7.5.2 Clear Ice. The water which flows back over the top edge freezes without trapping any air and is consequently clear and very adherent. It is this clear ice which poses the greatest risk to aircraft safety since it is heavy, adherent and remote from any de-icing systems which may be fitted to the leading edges. Remaining 75/80 th of water droplet flows back over the aerofoil skin losing heat to the surface, forming Clear or Glazed ice. The surface of Clear Ice is smooth with undulations and lumps. Clear Ice can alter the aerodynamic shape of aerofoils dramatically and reduce or destroy their effectiveness. Along with the increased weight this creates a hazard to safety. Clear Ice is very tenacious, but, if it does break off, it could be in large chunks capable of doing damage.

are usually composed of ice crystals, and the risk of airframe icing is therefore only slight.

7.7

Intake or Impact Ice

Ice which builds up on air intakes, filters and on carburettor heat or alternate air valves etc. is known as Intake or Impact ice. Impact ice can accumulate in snow, sleet, sub-zero temperature cloud or in rain when the temperature of the rain or the aircraft is below 0oC. This type of icing affects fuel injection systems as well as carburettor systems. Impact ice on the intake of a piston or jet engine will; on a piston engine: restrict the airflow into the piston engine which affects performance. if ice breaks away and enters the intake it can damage leading stage compressor blades.

7.6

Cloudy Or Mixed Ice.

on a jet engine:

It is common for the drops of water in falling rain to be of many sizes, if ice forms, it will be a mixture of Clear Ice (from large drops) and Rime Ice (from small drops), resulting in cloudy or mixed ice. Stratiform cloud usually consists entirely or predominantly of liquid water drops down to about -15oC, with the risk of airframe icing. If significant icing is a possibility, it may be advisable to fly at a lower level where the temperature is above 0oC, or at a higher level where the temperature is less than -15oC. In certain conditions, such as stratiform cloud associated with an active front or with orographic uplift, the risk of icing is increased at temperatures lower than usual; continuous upward motion of air generally means a greater retention of liquid water in the cloud. Raindrops and drizzle from any sort of cloud will freeze if they meet an aircraft whose surface is below 00C, with a severe risk of clear ice forming the bigger the water droplets are. A Pilot needs to be cautious when flying in rain at freezing temperatures. This could occur for instance with an aeroplane flying in the cool sector underlying the warmer air of a Warm Front from which rain could be falling. Cirrus clouds

Fuel will not freeze during temperatures of normal use, however it will wax at low temperatures associated with high altitude flight in unheated tanks. Any water present in the fuel will freeze at 00C. Blocking fuel filters and eventually leading to engine failure. Impact icing occurs when flying through snow or sleet, or in cloud in which super-cooled water droplets are present. It can occur, but is less frequent, when flying through super-cooled rain or to an aircraft which has a surface temperature below 0oC when flying through rain which is above freezing temperature. The ambient temperature at which impact ice may be expected to build up most rapidly is about -4oC in conditions in which visible ice is forming on other parts of the aircraft.

7.8

Fuel Icing

Fuel Icing is the result of water, held in suspension in the fuel, precipitating and freezing in the induction piping, especially in the elbows formed by bends.

Fig 7.3

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7.9

Carburettor Icing.

The most common type of induction system icing is carburettor icing which is caused by the sudden temperature drop due to fuel vaporisation and reduction in pressure at the carburettor venturi. The temperature reduction may be as much as 20o -30o C and results in moisture in the induction air forming ice. The ice gradually builds up, constricting the venturi and, by upsetting the fuel/air ratio causes a progressive decrease in engine power. Engines which have a conventional float type carburettor are more prone to this type of icing than are those which have a pressure jet carburettor, i.e. the Stromberg type of carburettor. Engines with a fuel injection system are not, of course, subject to carburettor icing. Unlike other forms of icing, carburettor icing may be experienced when flying in clear air at temperatures as high as +300C. There are two causes associated with carburettor icing; 1). As fuel is introduced into the airflow at the fuel jets, evaporation will occur. The latent heat of evaporation is drawn from the fuel-air mix and the body of the carburettor. As air passes the throttle valve it accelerates, the pressure drops and the air cools adiabatically.

Europe should always assume a high relative humidity, particularly when: (a) the surface and low level visibility is poor, especially in the early morning and later evening and particularly when near a large area of water; the ground is wet (even with dew) and the wind is light; just below the cloud base or between cloud banks or layers; in precipitation, especially if it is persistent; in cloud or fog - these consist of water droplets and therefore the relative humidity should be assumed to be 100% in clear air where cloud or fog has just dispersed.

(b) (c) (d) (e)

(f)

7.10. Points To Remember.


Icing may occur with air temperatures as high as +30oC. Icing problems are most likely to be severe at temperatures in the region +13oC Icing does not present a problem at free air temperatures below -10oC. Icing may occur within the carburetor whenever the relative humidity is greater than 30%. Icing is likely to be most severe at low throttle settings. All airplanes whose engines have carburetors are fitted with a Carburetor Heat Control that can direct hot air from around the engine to be taken into the carburetor, instead of the ambient air. Being hot, it should be able to melt the ice and prevent further ice from forming. The correct method of using the Carburetor Heat control for your aircraft will be found in the Pilot's Operating Handbook. Remember that carburetor ice can form on a warm day in moist air! It is better to prevent ice building up than to attempt to melt it. Induction system icing forms insidiously. Be aware of the possibility of the formation of induction system icing and be prepared to take appropriate preventive measures in time.

2).

This cooling effect will be most pronouced when the engine is running at low R.P.M. and the throttle valve restricts a large portion of the airflow orifice. As a result of the above ice will build up within the carburettor restricting airflow. Possibly blocking fuel jets and freezing moving parts such as the throttle valve. The total cooling effect may result in a temperature drop of as much as 30oC. During this temperature drop, air which is unsaturated may cool through its dew point and condesation will occur. Further cooling will then result in a deposit of ice. Carburettor icing is normally removed/prevented by selecting an alternative air supply which has been preheated by the exhaust gases in a suitable muffler system. Feul injection systems are often used instead of carburettors in modern piston engines. Icing is very unlikely with fuel injection, since the fuel is injected into the airflow at points adjacent to the engine block. The air is therefore preheated before the fuel is introduced. Testing has shown that, because of the greater volatility and possible greater water content, carburettor and fuel icing is more likely to occur with MOGAS than with AVGAS. Specific warnings of induction system icing are not included in standard weather forecasts for aviation. Pilots must use their knowledge and experience to estimate the likelihood of its occurrence from the weather information available. When information on the dewpoint is not available, pilots in Ireland and

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When flying in conditions conducive to the formation of carburettor icing the HOT position should be selected periodically and certainly at the first location of a reduction in RPM/manifold pressure/airspeed or height. Some aircraft/engine combinations are more susceptible than others. Use of MOGAS increases the possibility of carburettor icing. If ice has been allowed to form it will take some time to melt and the engine may run roughly while this is happening - PERSIST!

7.11

Icing of the pitot-static system.

This can affect the readings of the pressure-operated Flight Instruments i.e. the Air Speed Indicator, the Altimeter, and the VSI.

7.12 Ambient Conditions Conducive To The Formation Of Induction System Icing.


The chart below shows the wide range of ambient conditions conducive to the formation of induction system icing for a typical light aircraft piston engine. Particular note should be taken of the much greater risk of serious icing with descent power. The closer the temperature and dewpoint readings the greater the relative humidity.

Fig 7.4

WARNING!
Ice of any type on the airframe or rotor blades, or in the carburettor and induction system, deserves the Pilot's immediate attention and removal. Rotor blades which are contaminated by ice prior to take-off will increase the amount of power required for take-off, because of the reduced aerodynamic shape of the blade - a dangerous situation! An ice-laden aircraft may even be incapable of flight. Ice or frost on the leading edge and upper forward area of the blades (where the majority of the Lift is generated) is especially dangerous. Helicopters are not fitted with airframe de-icers (removal) or anti-icers (preventative), so Pilots of these aircraft should avoid flying in icing conditions:- i.e. in rain or moist air at any time the aircraft is likely to be at sub-zero temperatures. If a pitot heater is fitted, use it to avoid ice forming over the pitot tube and depriving you of airspeed information.

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I dont know what all the fuss is about being able to see the ground.

8. Visibility
8.1 Visibility 8.2 Slant Visibility.
To the non instrument-rated Pilot flight visibility is one of the most important aspects of weather. We need a natural horizon as a guide to the attitude of the aircraft in both pitch and bank, as well as having sufficient slant visibility to see the ground for navigational purposes. Meteorological visibility is the greatest horizontal distance at which a specified object of known characteristics can be seen and recognised in normal daylight by an observer with normal eyesight. It is a measure of how transparent the atmosphere is to the human eye. The most important visibility to the visual pilot is that from the aeroplane to the ground, i.e. slant or oblique visibility. This may be quite different to the horizontal visibility for example, when a layer of particles is suspended in the air, such as stratus, fog, or smog that is held beneath a temperature inversion. A common situation is when a ground fog occurs. To an observer on the ground, horizontal visibility might be reduced to just a few hundred metres, yet vertical visibility might be unlim-ited with a blue sky quite visible above. Flying overhead the aerodrome, the runway might be clearly visible and the horizon visibility ahead unlimited, yet, once positioned on final approach, the runway might be impossible to see. This is because his line of sight must now penetrate a much greater thickness of fog.

Fig 8.1

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8.3

Runway Visual Range.

The distance a pilot can see along a particular runway at touchdown or take-off will not necessarily be the same as the meteorological visibility. For this reason a separate assessment of the runway visual range (RVR) is made at airfields when the meteorological visibility is 1500 metres or less. This ia an operational factor and is the concern of Air Traffic Services.

form after sunrise as the early morning sun causes the first stirring of the air. Further heating will usually disperse the fog from the ground upwards, but the time of clearancewill depend greatly on the depth of the fog layer, in winter, radiation fog may even persist all day.

8.4

Eye Observations By Day.

For the assessment of surface visibility a number of easily identifiable objects are chosen and their bearings and distances noted. Suitable objects include distant hills, buildings or parts of buildings relatively near to hand. Assuming the visibility is the same in all directions the furthest identifiable object visible defines the visibility. If visibility is not uniform the value in the poorest direction is in most cases the one recorded. The observer is concerned only with the opacity of the air, not any other factors which may influence the distance he can see.

8.5

Fog, mist and haze.


Fig 8.2

By international agreement the term fog is used to describe visibility less than 1000 metres, but the word is more generally restricted to cases where the obscurity is caused by water droplets in a surface layer of the atmosphere. The condensation process that causes Mist/Fog is usually associated with cooling of the air by an underlying cold surface (causing Radiation Fog or Advection Fog) or by the interaction of two air masses (Frontal Fog). In Fog, the relative humidity is 100%; in Mist, the relative humidity is slightly less. The term hill fog is used to describe the cases where cloud envelopes high ground. When visibility is significantly restricted but not to less than 1000 meteres the condition is termed mist if water droplets are the cause and haze if caused by solid particles. In doutful cases, mist is reported if the relative humdity is greater than 95%, otherwisehaze.

8.7

Advection Fog.

Advection fog occurs when a mass of warm, moist air moves over a cold surface. Its temperature is reduced below the dew point of the air mass and fog forms. It is most common in coastal areas. The only sure way of dispersing advection fog is by replacing the moist air by drier air. However advection fog over land is sometimes dispersed if as a result of solar heating the land is warmed to a temperature higher than the dew point of the air mass

8.6

Radiation Fog.

Cooling of the ground at night can lead to fog. Given moist air and little or no cloud so that radiation cooling of the surface is maximised, radiation fog is likely. Provided there is slight turbulence to spread the cooling through a layer of air. In a flat calm there is no turbulence, but a wind of 1 knot may suffice. If the wind is stronger than approximately 5 knots, the depth of the turbulent layer is such that the heat loss at the surface is distributed through to great a layer of air for there to be enough cooling to cause condensation. Once formed, cooling of the top of the fog may lead to some growth upwards, so that by the end of a long winter night the fog layer may be several hundred feet deep. Clearance of radiation fog is usually achieved by solar heating. Minimum temperatures occur shortly after dawn and fog may not only thicken but actually

Fig 8.3

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8.8

Eye Observations By Night.

8.12

Frontal Fog.

Visibility reported at night is that value which would be given by day in the same conditions of transparency of the atmosphere. Lights of known intensity are observed and an allowance made for that intensity. The range at which the light can be seen is thus converted into equivalent daytime visibility.

This type of fog forms from the interaction of two air masses in one of two ways: or as cloud that extends down to the surface during the passage of the front (mainly over hills, called hill fog).;

8.9

Upslope fog.

This is caused when moist air is forced to ascend over rising ground and is cooled adiabatically below its dew point so that condensation occurs below the summit of the hill. Upslope fog is most common in warm airstreams but is liable to occur after sunrise when radiation fog formed overnight in valleys begins to lift and disperse. At airfields on higher ground after a clear night fog can form quite suddenly in this way 1 to 2 hours after sunrise.

as air becomes saturated by the evaporation from rain that has fallen.

These conditions may develop in the cold air ahead of a warm front (or occluded front), the pre-frontal fog possibly being very widespread.

8.10. Sea Fog.


Sea fog is advection fog, it may be caused by; tropical maritime air moving towards the pole over a colder ocean or meeting a colder air mass; or by; an airflow off a warm land surface moving over a cooler sea, which can occur in the Irish summer, affecting areodromes in coastal areas.

8.11

Smoke Pollution.
Fig 8.5

Smoke is a factor to be taken into account when visibility down wind of industrial areas or housing estates is to be considered. Smoke will not accumulate when the wind is strong enough to remove it quickly as it is generated, or when the air is unstable so that it is carried upwards and diffused through a considerable layer of the atmosphere. However when the wind is light and a temperature inversion forms near the surface then the smoke is not carried away quickly enough horizontally and is trapped in a layer beneath the inversion. In these circumstances visibility may fall below fog limits in smoke haze.

8.13

Dust and sand.

Fig 8.4

In arid or desert areas dust and sand are frequently raised by the wind and sometimes cause serious reduction in visibility. Transient effects which reduce visibility locally for very short periods are known as rising dust or sand. More serious effects occur when the pressure gradient is steep and sustained, as ahead of a trough. Sand and dust may then be raised many thousands of feet into the atmosphere and carried hundreds or even thousands of miles. Apart from the serious effect on visibility the particles can be injested into the engines and effect performance. Cumulonimbus clouds will often cause dust or sand storms, due to the outflow from beneath the cloud and this may appear as a wall of yellow dust. This dust will also be carried upwards by convection and may be deposited eventually in rain over an area thousands of miles away. Over some desert areas there is a semipermanent dust haze with a top between 12000 to 20000 feet. The wind strength required to raise dust or sand depends on the particle size and the nature of the surface. After rain the surface aquires a crust and the particles are not easily disturb. Normally a wind speed of 15-20 knots is sufficient to raise enough particles for visibility to be affected.

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8.14

Precipitation And Visibility.

Visibility is affected by precipitation but the extent to which this occurs varies considerably according to type and intensity. A showery airstream is normally one in which the visibility is very good, a slight or even moderate rain shower can reduce visibility but not very seriously. A heavy rain shower can reduce visibility very rapidly and possibly sufficiently to affect airfield operations. Snow is even more drastic in its effects. Drizzle which is composed of very small water droplets has a much greater effect on visibility than rain has and is usually associated with an airstream in which the general level of visibility is poor, so the combined effects often produce visibility not much above and at times even below the fog limits.

8.15 Precipitation Perception.

And

Visual

Precipitation not only effects visibility but also a pilots perception of distance, which is clearly important when landing. Rain drops in the line of sight diffuse the beams from airfield lights making them appear dimmer and therefore further away than they really are. Water drops on the windshield cause scattering of the lights so that they seem larger in size and therefore nearer. A sheet of water on the windshield causes refraction which combined with the refraction due to the windshield itself can lead the pilot to believe he is above or below the glide slope or to one side of the centre line.

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9. Weather Sources & Information


9.1 Aeronautical offices. meteorological 9.5 Weather Information for Flight Planning.
The meteorological service can supply the pilot with various types of information on the current weather and forecast weather for the route to be flown: this information comes in several formats. Most major aerodromes have forecasts produced. called TAFs, indicating the expected weather at the aerodrome for a given time period, usually 9 hours ahead. Reports of the actual weather at the aerodrome are also available, called METARs. These are taken on the hour and half past the hour. These are located at the Air Traffic Control Centres and at some of the larger civil aerodromes. Their responsibility is for the collection of the meteorological observations and the dissemination, world wide, of charts, forecasts and SIGMETs for their area and the aerodromes within it. For obvious reasons they are open 24 hours per day.

9.2

Aerodrome meteorological offices.

These are the meteorological offices based at aerodromes, they supply information received from the aeronautical meteorological offices to pilots. These offices may have a forecasting facility. Unlike the aeronautical offices, these may be open only at times that suit the operating hours of the aerodrome.

9.6

Special observations.

9.3 Meteorological aerodromes.

services

at

At aerodromes with a resident meteorological office pilot's can walk in and analyse the various charts and forecasts. Generally forecasters are not available for direct consultation, but at larger aerodromes they may be. The large majority of small general aviation aerodromes have no meteorological office and rely on a faxed copy of the significant weather chart and local METARs and TAFs.

Special observations are taken if the weather changes dramatically between standard observations. Various meteorological charts, are available showing typically the surface weather and the winds aloft expected for the forecast period. The meteorological office requires prior notice to prepare a folder of weather information for a planned flight: typically this is 4 hours for a flight of 500 nm or more and 2 hours for less.

9.7 Reports departure.

and

forecasts

for

9.4 Availability of periodic weather forecasts.


Weather forecasts are issued periodically, depending upon the type of forecast. TAFs are issued every 3 hours whereas significant weather charts are issued every 6 hours.

The departure aerodrome is likely to have both a METAR and a TAF covering the expected time of departure. The METAR can not only be used to see the current weather but to judge whether the forecast appears correct. If departing from an aerodrome without any reporting facilities it is probable there will be an aerodrome fairly local that will have reporting facilities. These METARs and TAFs will indicate to the pilot the prevailing weather. 9.7.1 En-route, destination and alternate(s). Similar to the departure aerodrome, the destination and alternates are likely to have METARs and TAFs. The en-route phase of the flight can be assessed from both significant weather charts, and for low level flights, TAFs of aerodromes along the route.

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9.8

Weather Forecasts and Reports

9.8.1 Special Forecasts For departure from aerodromes where the weather information is inadequate or unavailable, the pilot can request a forecast office to prepare a Special Forecast specifically for his flight. This takes time and so at least 2 hours notice is required (4 hours if the route distance exceeds 500 nm). Special Forecasts are issued via facsimile, AFTN or telex; however, if your departure aerodrome is not so equipped, you can phone the forecast office for a dictation. Special Forecasts can also include Aerodrome Forecasts for the departure, destination and up to three alternates. NOTE As Special Forecasts only cover that portion of the route outside the area of coverage of Irish Area Forecasts, an appropriate Irish Area Forecast must also be obtained. For further information consult AlP. 9.8.2 Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) Aerodrome Forecasts, known as TAFs, are text messages which follow the international (ICAO) format for aerodromes where observations are taken. TAFs describe the forecast prevailing conditions at an aerodrome and usually cover periods of 9 to 24 hours. The validity periods of many 24-hour TAFs do not start until 8 hours after the nominal time of origin and the forecast details only cover the last 18 hours. The 9-hour TAFs are updated and re-issued every 3 hours; TAFs valid for 12-24 hours are updated and reissued every 6 hours. Amendments are issued as and when necessary. They may be preceded on a print-out by the term TAF or, when on a list of one or more aerodromes, by FC or FT (forecast). The TAF decode is included at the end of this booklet The four-figure ICAO location identifiers for Ireland aerodromes are listed in AlP, Pooley's Flight Guide or Fly in Ireland. 9.8.3 METARs Metars are routine aerodrome reports. Routine weather observations are taken at many aerodromes on the hour and half-hour and issued on a routine basis, usually preceded by the abbreviations METAR or SA (surface actual). A code almost identical to that used for TAFs is used, with some variations: the time of observation is specified in a METAR as a four-figure group of hours and minutes past the hour (whereas TAFs have a four-figure group, the first two representing the hour of commencement of the validity period, and the final two the hour at which it ends);

two temperatures are given: e.g. 09/07, where 09 is the actual temperature and 07 is the dewpoint temperature the difference between them acting as a guide to the possibility of mist/fog that will occur should the temperature and the dewpoint become the same.

9.8.4 Trends (or Landing Forecasts) Trend forecasts are sometimes added to the end of MFTARs to forecast the weather changes expected to occur in the two hours immediately after the time of the observation. If no significant change is expected, the observation will be followed by the trend statement: NOSIG. Other more involved Trend Forecasts will often be preceded by BECMG (becoming) or TEMPO (temporary periods less than 60 minutes), with the time that the change is expected preceded by FM (from). TL (until) or AT (at). 9.8.5 VHF In-Flight weather Reports weather information may be obtained at any time by radio from the flight Information Service (FIS) or Air Traffic Control (ATC), \who will also initiate a broadcast of any hazardous or significant \weather that may be relevant to aircraft in the area (e.g. severe turbulence)thunder-storms activity, icing conditions, fog, etc.). As mentioned previously, weather reports and trends for selected aerodromes are broadcast continuously on discrete VHF frequencies. This service is called VOLMET. The VOLMET broadcast for each aerodrome is updated each hour and half-hour and includes: Actual weather, which includes; landing forecast; SIGMET (significant weather, if any); and the forecast trend for the two hours following the time of the report.

Information is also obtainable from the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) a tape-recorded message of the current aerodrome information and is broadcast on appropriate VOR or discrete VHF frequencies to off-load the ATC VHF communications frequencies. Some aerodromes have both an arrivals and departure ATIS. One variation on the ATIS is that the wind direction is given in degrees magnetic to allow the pilot to relate it to the runway direction (which is in oM) more easily. This also applies to winds passed to the pilot by the tower.

9.9

Cloud Bases

The cloud base in a TAF (Aerodrome Forecast) or a Trend Forecast (both of which refer to a particular aerodrome), is given above aerodrome level (aal); whereas Area Forecasts give the cloud base above mean sea level (amsl), i.e. as altitudes. TAFs and Trend Forecasts, then, provide the pilot with an immediate appreciation of the cloud ceiling at a

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particular aerodrome; 'aal' is, in fact, the height above the highest point in the landing area. Over large areas of countryside, however, with mountains, valleys, plateau and coastlines, a constant reference for cloud height is needed; of course the only satisfactory one is mean sea level (msl). To determine the expected level of the cloud base above the ground from the information in an Area or Regional Forecast you need to know the ground elevation. This can be determined from a suitable aeronautical chart.

TEMPO Temporary variation lasting less than 60 minutes or, if recurring, lasting in total less than half the TREND period; that is, changes take place sufficiently infrequently for the prevailing conditions to remain those forecast for the period. NOTE TEMPO can relate to improvements as well as deteriorations in wind visibility weather or cloud. 9.11.2 Lasting Changes Whereas TEMPO is used to indicate a temporary variation from lasting changes in the prevailing weather, when changes in the prevailing weather are forecast, the term BECMG (becoming) is used preceding ail expected permanent change in the weather conditions. In an Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). BECMG; will be followed by a four-figure time group; in a Trend Forecast that is appended to an aerodrome report (METAR). BECMG may be followed by a four-figure time group in hours and minutes preceded by one of the abbreviations: FM (from),TL (until) or AT (at). Once the BECMG changes are completed, there is new prevailing weather. Once TEMPO events are finished, however, the original prevailing weather re-asserts itself. 9.11.3 Probability Sometimes the forecaster is uncertain of whether conditions will occur and, if he or she assesses the probability of them occurring as 50% or less, the message may be prefaced with a PROB (probability) percentage.

9.10

CAVOK

The term CAVOK is used frequently and you should know its definition. CAVOK means that the following conditions occur simultaneously: Visibility 10 km or more; no cloud below 5,000 ft above aerodrome level (aal) or below the highest minimum sector altitude, whichever is the higher, and no cumulonimbus; no significant weather phenomena at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome. CAUTION Do not fall into the trap (as some VFR pilots have), of thinking that CAVOK means sky clear CAVOK does not necessarily mean blue skies. With CAVOK you could have complete loud coverage above 5,000 ft, and any non-IMC or non-instrumentrated pilot cruising along at, say. FL90 might have trouble getting down through this cloud. Also, a complication with the term CAVOK, which can affect non-IMC and non-instrument-rated pilots, is that the criteria regarding changes in cloud amount and base for amending the TAF apply only when there are significant changes below 1,500 ft aal. This could mean that a forecast containing CAVOK may not be amended until the cloud base falls below 1,500 ft. Perhaps the safest interpretation of CAVOK, even though it specifically refers to no cloud below 5,000 ft aal, is to assume that it really means that the cloud base should not fall below 1,500 ft for the period of the forecast.

9.12 Availability Of Ground Reports For Surface Conditions.


At tower controlled aerodromes and some aerodromes with an advisory service the following are reported: Current surface winds. Windshear, either from detection equipment or when reported by other aircraft. Visibility, when below VFR minimums, either that observed by the tower or from detection equipment, RVR. In the case of a tower controlled aerodrome these are usually official observations, in the case of an advisory service they are usually unofficial.

9.11

Changing Weather in Forecasts

9.11.1 Temporary Change (TEMPO) While the cumulonimbus cloud associated with a thunderstorm may exist for hours, its passage through the immediate vicinity of an aerodrome may take only a brief period - less than 60 minutes, or an even shorter time. During these temporary periods the weather in the vicinity of the aerodrome might be quite different when compared with the background of the prevailing weather. In such a situation, the Aerodrome and Landing Forecasts would state the general conditions existing at the aerodrome (i.e. the prevailing conditions), and any temporary changes to the conditions would be indicated by the term TEMPO.

9.13 In Flight Meteorological Information


9.13.1 ATlS. At major airports a recorded message is available listing the airport's weather and other information affecting aircraft about to depart or arrive. This broadcast is referred to as an ATIS, there may be one for departures and a separate one for arrivals.

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9.13.2 VOLMET. Meteorological information is available to aircraft in flight on either HF or VHF transmissions; the VHF broadcasts are referred to as VOLMET's. These include plain language reports of the actual weather at local international airports, the information is given in this order; Time of observation Name of airfield Surface wind Ground visibility Weather RVR if visibility is below 1500 metres Cloud QNH QFE Surface temperature (oC) Dew-point (oC) Special warnings 9.13.3 Special Aerodrome Reports (SPEC) Whenever there are modifications to Routine Reports (e.g. onset or clearing of freezing rain, moderate or heavy snow, hail, thunder-storms, significant changes in cloud base and/or visibility, etc.) a Special Report is issued to the appropriate Air Traffic Service. 9.13.4 SIGMET. These are reports to all aircraft of meteorological phenomena that may affect the safety of flight, they include: Active thunderstorms. Severe turbulence. Severe airframe icing. Tropical revolving storms. Severe line squalls. Heavy hail. Marked mountain waves. Volcanic ash. These SIGMET'S are broadcast by ATC on the frequencies appropriate for the areas affected: they are also available when the pilot is obtaining his preflight brief. 9.13.4.1 Meteorological Abbreviations Used In Sigmets, Special Forecasts Etc AAL ACT ADJ ACL AIREP AMSL BLO BLW BTL BTN above aerodrome level active adjacent above ground level Air Report above mean sea level below clouds below (other than layers) between layers between (other than layers)

C CBR CC CIT CLA CLD CNS CUF CW DECR DEG DENEB DIF DP DTRT DUC EXP EXTD FA FBL FCST FLUC FM FOQNH FPM FR FT FU GEN GND HGT HPA HURCN lAO ICE IMPR IMT INC INCR INTSF INTST IR JTST KM (H) KT LAN LSQ LTD LV

degrees Celsius cloud base recorder (ceilometer) counter clockwise near or over large towns clear ice cloud continuous (for cloud vertically) cumuliform clockwise decrease degrees fog dispersal operations diffuse dewpoint deteriorate or deteriorating dense upper cloud expect or expected or expecting extend or extending area forecast (ARPOR) light (ice etc) forecast fluctuating or fluctuation or fluctuated from forecast Region QNH feet per minute route forecast (ROPOR) feet upper wind and temperature forecast (WINTEM) generally ground height or height above hectopascals hurricane in and out of clouds icing improve or improving immediate or immediately in cloud increase intensify or intensifying intensity ice on runway jetstream kilometres (per hour) knots inland or overland line squall limited light and variable (wind)

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M MAR MAX MB MNM MOD MON MOV MPS MS MSL MT MTW MX NC NM NSC OBS OBSC OPA OTP PS PSN PROV QFA RAG RWY SEV SFC SFLOC SIGWX SLW SPOT STF STNR T TC TCU TDO TIL TIP TURB TYPH UA VAL VER VERVIS VIS VSP WKN

metres at or over sea maximum millibars minimum moderate above or over mountains move or moving or movement metres per second minus mean sea level mountain mountain waves mixed clear and rime ice no change or not changing nautical miles no significant cloud observed or observation obscure or obscured or obscuring rime ice on top plus position provisional meteorological forecast ragged runway severe surface synoptic report of the location of sources of atmospherics significant weather slow spot wind stratiform stationary temperature tropical cyclone towering cumulus tornado until (time) until past (place) Bturbulence Htyphoon Air Report (AIREP) in valleys vertical vertical visibility visibility vertical speed weaken or weakening

WRNG WS WTSPT WX XS

warning SIGMET or windshear waterspout weather atmospherics

9.14

Weather Charts

9.14.1 Station Circle The synoptic chart is a chart used by meteorologists to produce the significant weather charts issued to pilots for self briefings. The synoptic chart is a map with all the reporting stations marked on it, each reporting station's weather is marked in code around that station, called Station Circles. This chart shows actual weather conditions, the meteorologist then uses his skill and experience to produce the significant weather charts which are a forecast of what is expected to happen.

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9.14.2 Significant Weather Chart There are three categories of significant weather chart; Low level Medium Level High Level

These charts are forcasts of the weather most likely to occur for a period of nine hours ahead and are revised every six hours.

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9.14.3 Upper Wind Chart There are several charts issued showing strength and direction at various altitudes. the common is the spot wind and temperature indicating upper winds and temperature for locations.

wind most chart spot

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9.15 Example of METARs and Short TAFs The following is an example of the code used for transmitting weather information which is

used by pilots when flight planning. This information is decoded using the two decode charts on pages 51 and 52.

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9.16 METAR decoder

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51

9.17 TAF decoder

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Glossary

Glossary of Terms
A
absolute instability-A State of a layer within the atmo-sphere in which the vertical distribution of temperature is such that an air parcel, if given an upward or down-ward push, will move away from its initial level without further outside force being applied. adiabatic process-The process by which fixed relation-ships are maintained during changes in temperature, volume, and pressure in a body of air without heat being added or removed from the body. advection-The horizontal transport of air or atmospheric properties. In meteorology, sometimes referred to as the horizontal component of convection. advection fog-Fog resulting from the transport of warm, humid air over a cold surface. air density-The mass density of the air in terms of weight per unit volume. air mass-In meteorology, an extensive body of air within which the conditions of temperature and moisture in a horizontal plane are essentially uniform. altimeter-An instrument which determines the altitude of an object with respect to a fixed level. altimeter setting-The value to which the scale of a pressure altimeter is set so as to read true altitude at field elevation. altitude-Height expressed in units of distance above a reference plane, usually above mean sea level or above ground. aneroid barometer- A barometer which operates on the principle of having changing atmospheric pressure bend a metallic surface which, in turn, moves a pointer across a scale graduated in units of pressure. anticyclone-An area of high atmospheric pressure which has a closed circulation that is anticyclonic, i.e., as viewed from above, the circulation is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemi-sphere, undefined at the Equator. atmosphere-The mass of air surrounding the Earth. atmospheric pressure (also called barometric pressure)-The pressure exerted by the atmosphere as a consequence of gravitational attraction exerted upon the "column" of air lying directly above the point in question.

B
backing-Shifting of the wind in a counterclockwise direction with respect to either space or time; opposite of veering. Commonly used by meteorologists to refer to a cyclonic shift (counterclockwise in the Northern Hemi-sphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere). barometer-An instrument for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere; the two principle types are mercurial and aneroid. barometric tendency-The change of barometric pressure within a specified period of time. In aviation weather ob-servations, routinely determined periodically, usually for a 3-hour period. Beaufort scale-A scale of wind speeds. blizzard-A severe weather condition characterized by low temperatures and strong winds bearing a great amount of snow, either falling or picked up from the ground. Buys Ballot's law-If an observer in the Northern Hemi-sphere stands with his back to the wind, lower pressure is to his left.

C
calm-The absence of wind or of apparent motion of the air. cap cloud-A standing or station-ary cap like cloud crowning a mountain Summit. Celsius temperature scale (abbreviated C)-A tempera-ture scale with zero degrees as the melting point of pure ice and 100 degrees as the boiling point of pure water at standard sea level atmospheric pressure. Centigrade temperature scale-Same as Celsius tempera-ture scale. change of state- the transformation of water from one form, i.e., solid (ice), liquid, or gaseous (water vapor), to any other form. There are six possible transformations designated by the five terms following (1) condensation-The change of water vapor to liquid water. (2) evaporation-The change of liquid water to water vapor. (3) freezing-The change of liquid water to ice. (4) melting-The change of ice to liquid water. (5) sublimation-The change of (a) ice to water vapor or (b) water vapor to ice. See latent heat.

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clear air turbulence (abbreviated CAT)-Turbulence encountered in air where no clouds are present; more popularly applied to high level turbulence associated with wind shear. clear ice- the formation of a layer or mass of ice which is relatively transparent because of its homogeneous structure and small number and size of air spaces cloud bank-Generally, a fairly well-defined mass of cloud observed at a distance; it Covers an appreciable portion of the horizon sky, but does not extend overhead. cloudburst- any sudden and heavy fall of rain, almost always of the shower type. condensation level-The height at which a rising parcel or layer of air would become saturated if lifted adiabatically. conduction-The transfer of heat by molecular action through a substance or from one substance in Contact with another; transfer is always from warmer to colder temperature. convection- atmospheric motions that are predominantly vertical, resulting in vertical transport and mixing of atmospheric properties Coriolis force-A deflective force resulting from earth's ro-tation; it acts to the right of wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

drizzle-A form of precipitation. Very small water drops that appear to float with the air currents while failing in an irregular path (unlike rain, which falls in a comparatively straight path). dry adiabatic lapse rate-The rate of decrease of temperature with height when unsaturated air is lifted adia-batically

F
Fahrenheit temperature scale (abbreviated F)-A tem-perature scale with 32 degrees as the melting point of pure ice and 212 degrees as the boiling point of pure water Foehn-A warm, dry downslope wind; the warmness and dryness being due to adiabatic compression upon de-scent; fog- Visibility below 1000 metres, surfaced based cloud, cloud is formed by water droplets or ice crystals. freezing level-A level in the atmosphere at which the temperature is 0oC (32oF). front-The boundary between two different air masses. frost- Ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation when temperature and dew point are below freezing.

G
glaze-A coating of ice, generally clear and smooth, formed by freezing of supercooled water on a surface. gust-A sudden brief increase in wind; gusts are reported when the variation in wind speed between peaks and lulls is at least 10 knots.

D
density- The ratio of the mass of any substance to the volume it occupies-weight per unit volume. depression- an area of low pressure; a low or trough. dew-Water condensed onto grass and other objects near the ground, the temperatures of which have fallen below the initial dew point temperature of the surface air, but is still above freezing. dew point (or dew-point temperature)-The temperature to which a sample of air must be cooled to attain saturation with respect to water. diurnal- a cycle completed within a 24-hour period, and which recurs every 24 hours. divergence-The condition that exists when the distribu-tion of winds within a given area is such that there is a net horizontal flow of air outward from the region.

H
hail-A form of precipitation composed of balls or irregular lumps of ice, always produced by convective clouds which are nearly always cumulonimbus. haze- fine dust or salt particles dispersed through a portion of the atmosphere; particles are so small they cannot be felt or individually seen with the naked eye (as compared with the larger particles of dust), but diminish the visibility; distinguished from fog by its bluish or yellowish tinge. high-An area of high barometric pressure, with its attendant system of winds; an anticyclone. hoar frost-See frost.

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humidity-Water vapor content of the air; may be expressed as specific humidity, relative humidity, or mixing ratio. hurricane-A tropical cyclone in the Western Hemisphere with winds in excess of 65 knots or 120 km/h.

L
land breeze-A coastal breeze blowing from land to sea, caused by temperature difference when the sea surface is warmer than the adjacent land. lapse rate-The rate of decrease of temperature with height. latent heat-The amount of heat absorbed (converted to kinetic energy) during the processes of change of liquid water to water vapor, ice to water vapor, or ice to liquid water; or the amount released during the reverse pro-cesses. low-An area of low barometric pressure, with its attend-ant system of winds. Also called a barometric depression or cyclone.

I
ice crystals-A type of precipitation composed of unbranched crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates; usually having a very slight downward motion, may fall from a cloudless sky. ice fog-A type of fog composed of minute suspended par-ticles of ice; occurs at very low temperatures and may cause halo phenomena. ice pellets-Small, transparent or translucent, round or irregularly shaped pellets of ice. They may be (1) hard grains that rebound on striking a hard surface or (2) pellets of snow encased in ice. insolation-Incoming solar radiation falling upon the earth and its atmosphere. inversion-An increase in temperature with height isobar-A line of equal or constant barometric pressure. isoshear-A line of equal wind shear. isotach-A line of equal or constant wind speed. isotherm-A line of equal or constant temperature.

M
mean sea level-The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of tide; used as reference for elevations mercurial barometer-A barometer in which pressure is de-termined by balancing air pressure against the weight of a column of mercury in an evacuated glass tube. mist-A popular expression for drizzle or heavy fog. mountain wave-A standing wave or lee wave to the lee of a mountain barrier.

0
occluded front -A composite of two fronts as a cold front overtakes a warm front or quasi-stationary front. Orographic- pertaining to, or caused by mountains as in orographic clouds, orographic lift, or orographic precipitation.

J
jet stream-A quasi-horizontal stream of winds 60 knots or more concentrated within a narrow band embedded in the westerlies in the high troposphere.

K
katabatic wind-Any wind blowing downslope. Kelvin temperature scale (abbreviated K)-A temperature scale with zero degrees equal to the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases, i.e, absolute zero (0oK = -273oC); the Kelvin degree is identical to the Celsius degree; hence at standard sea level pressure, the melting point is 273oK and the boiling point 373oK. knot-A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour.

P
parcel-A small volume of air, small enough to contain uniform distribution of its meteorological properties, and large enough to remain relatively self-contained precipitation-Any or all forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere and reach the surface.

R
radiation-The emission of energy by a medium and trans-ferred, either through free space or another medium, in the form of electromagnetic waves. radiation fog-Fog characteristically resulting when radia-tion cooling of the earth's surface lowers the air tem-perature near the ground to or below its initial dew point on calm, clear nights.

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rain-A form of precipitation; drops are larger than drizzle and fall in relatively straight, although not necessarily vertical, paths as compared to drizzle which falls in ir-regular paths. relative humidity-The ratio of the existing amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature to the maxi-mum amount that could exist at that temperature; usually expressed in percent. ridge -an elon-gated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure; rime ice-The formation of a white or milky and opaque granular deposit of ice formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled water droplets as they im-pinge upon an exposed aircraft. rotor cloud-A turbulent cloud formation found in the lee of some large mountain barriers, runway visibility- visibility along an identified runway determined from a specified point on the runway; may be determined by a transmissometer or by an observer. runway visual range-An instrumentally derived horizontal distance a pilot should see down the runway from the approach end; based on either the sighting of high intensity runway lights or on the visual contrast of other objects, whichever yields the greatest visual range.

smoke-A restriction to visibility resulting from combustion. snow-Precipitation composed of white or translucent ice crystals, chiefly in complex branched hexagonal form. solar radiation-The total electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. source region-An extensive area of the earth's surface characterized by relatively uniform surface conditions where large masses of air remain- long enough to take on characteristic temperature and moisture properties im-parted by that surface. squall-A sudden increase in wind speed by at least 15 knots to a peak of 20 knots or more and lasting for at least one minute. squall line-Any nonfrontal line or narrow band of active thunderstorms stability-A state of the atmosphere in which the vertical distribution of temperature is such that a parcel will resist displacement from its initial level. standard atmosphere-A hypothetical atmosphere based on climatological averages comprised of numerous phys-ical constants of which the most important are: (1) A surface temperature of 15oC and a surface pressure of 1013.2 Hectopascals at sea level; A lapse rate in the troposphere of 1.98oC per 1000 feet (approximately 2oC per 1000 feet); A tropopause of 36,090 feet) with a temperature of -56.5oC; and A density of 1225 grams per metre cubed

S
saturated adiabatic lapse rate-The rate of decrease of temperature with height as saturated air is lifted with no gain or loss of heat from outside sources; saturation- when actual water vapor present is the maximum possible at existing temperature. sea breeze-A coastal breeze blowing from sea to land, caused by the temperature difference when the land sur-face is warmer than the sea surface. sea fog-A type of advection fog formed when air that has been lying over a warm surface is transported over a colder water surface. sea level pressure-The atmospheric pressure at mean sea level, either directly measured by stations at sea level or em-pirically determined from the station pressure and tem-perature by stations not at sea level; used as a common reference for analyses of surface pressure patterns. slant visibility-For an airborne observer, the distance at which he can see and distinguish objects on the ground. smog-A mixture of smoke and fog. (2) (3) (4)

supercooled water-Liquid water at temperatures colder than freezing. synoptic chart-A chart, such as the familiar weather map, which depicts the distribution of meteorological condi-tions over an area at a given time.

T
thunderstorm-In general, a local storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, and always accompanied by lightning and thunder. tropopause-The transition zone between the troposphere and stratosphere, usually characterized by an abrupt change of lapse rate.

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troposphere-That portion of the atmosphere from the earth's surface to the tropopause; that is, the lowest 10 to 20 kilometers of the atmosphere. The troposphere is characterized by decreasing temperature with height, and by appreciable water vapor. Trough- an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure true wind direction-The direction, with respect to true north, from which the wind is blowing. turbulence- any irregular or disturbed flow in the atmosphere. twilight-The intervals of incomplete following sunset and preceding sunrise. darkness

U
updraft-A localized upward current of air. upslope fog-Fog formed when air flows upward over ris-ing terrain and is, consequently, adiabatically cooled to or below its initial dew point.

V
veering-Shifting of the wind in a clockwise direction with respect to either space or time; virga-Water or ice particles falling from a cloud, usually in wisps or streaks, and evaporating before reaching the ground. visibility-The greatest distance one can see and identify prominent objects.

W
warm sector -The area covered by warm air at the surface and bounded by the warm front and cold front of a wave cyclone. water vapor-Water in the invisible gaseous form. wind direction-The direction from which wind is blowing. wind speed-Rate of wind movement in distance per unit time. wind velocity-A vector term to include both wind direc-tion and wind speed. wind shear-The rate of change of wind velocity (direction and/or speed) per unit distance; conventionally expressed as vertical or horizontal wind shear.

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Index
A
Adiabatic Process, 18 Adiabatic Processes 21 Adiabatic Rate of Cooling 18,19 Advection 5 Advection Fog 36,37,40 Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) 44 Aerodrome meteorological offices 43 Aeronautical meteorological offices 43 Air Density 2 Air Mass 27 Air Traffic Control (ATC) 44 Altimeter 7,8,11,30,34 Altitude 1,2,7,12,13,14,25,26,32,41 Altocumulus 15,18,21,24 Altocumulus Castellanus 19 Altostratus 15,16,18,21,22,24,26,29 Anabatic Wind 6 Aneroid 7 Aneroid Barometer 7 Anticyclone 29,31,32 Artic Maritime (Am) 28 ATIS 44 Atmosphere. 1,2,3,4,5,8,12,16,18,19,22,30,35,37 Atmospheric Pressure 7,8,26,27 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) 44

Cloud formed by orographic uplift 24 Cloud formed by Turbulence 24 Cloud formed by widespread ascent 24 Clouds 18 Cloudy Ice 36 Col 33,35 Cold Front 30 Composition of the Atmosphere. 2 Condensation 41,42 Convection 5,24,43 Convergence 27 Coriolis Force 9-12,14 Cumuliform 9,17,18,24,35 Cumulonimbus 1,13,19,24,25,30,31,32,42,45 Cumulus 13,18,19,23,25,32 Cyclones 33

D
Density 2,6,8,22 Depressions 32 Dew 19,37 Dew Point 20,23,24,29,30,37,40,41 Diurnal Temperature 8 Diurnal Variation 12 Divergence. 27 Down draft 25,26 Drizzle 19,24,28,36,42 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) 18-22 Dry Bulb 20 Dust 33,42

B
Backing Barometer BECMG 9 7 44

E
Environmental Lapse Rate 21 Evaporation 19,20,27,37,41 Eye Observations By Day 40 Eye Observations By Night 41

C
Carburetor Icing 2,32,33,34,36,37 CAVOK 45 Ceiling 40 Celsius (Centigrade), 6 Change of State 16 Characteristics Of A Cold Front 30 Characteristics Of A Occluded Front 31 Characteristics Of A Warm Front 29 Cirriform 18 Cirrocumulus 18 Cirrostratus 18,29 Cirrus 18,29,36 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) 35 Clear Ice 44 Cloud Bases 23 Cloud formed by convection 23

F
Fahrenheit 6 flight Information Service (FIS) 44 Flight Planning 14,43 Foehn wind 24 Fog 5,6,11,16,17,26,29,33,35,36,37,38,40 forecasts for departure 43 Formation Of Ice 34 Formation Of Induction System Icing 38 Frontal Depression 32 Frontal Fog 41 Frontal Weather 27 Frost 19,34,35,38 Fuel Icing 36

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G
Geostrophic Wind Gradient wind 11 Ground Reports 11 45

Microbursts 14 mist 40 Mixed Ice 36 Mixed Ice. 36 Mountain Wave

14,17

H
Hail 2,19,24,25,26,31 Haze 33,40,41,42 High Pressure 3,8,10,12,14,24,29,31 Hoar Frost 35 Humidity 20

N
Nimbostratus NOSIG 19,24,25,29 44

O I
Ice 2,19,34-38 Icing In Cloud 34 Icing pitot-static system 38 Impact icing 36 In Flight Meteorological Information Intake Icing 36 International Standard Atmosphere Inversion 6,13,33,39,41 Isobar 8,10-12,14 Isotachs 14 Occluded Front. Origin Of An Air Mass Other Jet Streams 31 27 17

45 8

P
Periodic weather forecasts 43 Polar Continental Pc 28 Polar Front Jets 16 Polar Maritime (Pm) 28 Precipitation 2,15-18,21,22,24,38,42 Precipitation And Visibility 42 Precipitation And Visual Perception 42 Precipitation associated with cloud 24 Pressure Gradient Force 10 Pressure Gradients 8 Probability 45

J
Jet Streams 15

K
Katabatic Wind 6

R
Radiation Fog 40 Relative Humidity 20 Reports for departure 43 Returning Polar Maritime (rPm) Ridge Of High Pressure 32 Rime Ice 35 Roll cloud 14,25 Rotation of the earth 3 Rotor 13,14,23,34,38 Runway Visual Range 40

L
Land breeze 44 Landing Forecasts 44 Latent Heat 19 Lenticular 14,23 Lightning 19,25 Localised friction 12 Low Pressure 3,8,10-12,14,28

28

S M
mean sea level 45 Mercurial 7 METAR 44 Meteorological services at aerodromes 43 Sand. 42 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) 18-22 Sea breeze 5 Sea Fog 41 SIGMET 44 Slant Visibility 39

61

Smoke Pollution 41 Solar Radiation 3 Special Forecasts 44 Special observations 43 Stable Air 21 Standard 1,8 Standing Waves 14,19,23 Stratiform 18,19,23-26,29-31,33,36 Stratocumulus 19,24,33 Stratus 18,19,24,29,33,39 Subdivision of the Atmosphere 1 Supercooled water drops 34 Surface Conditions 45 Surface winds 12

U
Unstable Air Upslope fog 22 41

V
Veering Visibility VOLMET 9 39 44

W
Warm Front 29 Wave Depression 32 Weather Forecasts 44 Weather Information for Flight Planning 43 Weather Reports 44 Wet Bulb 20 Windshear 13

T
TAF 44 Temperature Inversions 6 Temperature is a measure 6 TEMPO 44 Temporary Change (TEMPO) 45 Terrestrial Radiation 3 The Sun 2 Three States of Water 19 Thunderstorms 25 Thunderstorms. 9,13,22,23,29,42 Track Of An Air Mass 27 Transfer of heat energy 4 Trend Forecasts 44 Trends 44 Tropical Continental Tc 28 Tropical Maritime (Tm) 28 Tropical Revolving Storm 32 Troughs Of Low Pressure. 32 Types Of Air Masses That Affect Ireland 28

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