Introduction Electric signals consist of two components: a time-varying component called AC (alternating Current), and steady component called

DC (Direct Current). Therefore the total electric signal can be generally represented as: V(t) = VAC(t) + VDC (1.1)

VDC is time-average voltage of the signal, therefore it has constant amplitude. However, because of time-varying characteristics of AC, it needs more parameters to describe it. The parameters that describe the AC component are: the voltage amplitude, Vmax, peak-to-peak voltage, Vpp, root mean square (rms) voltage, Vrms, period, T, and frequency, . Parameters that describe the AC component have interesting mathematical relationship between one another. For example, the AC component can be represented as a sinusoidally-varying voltage: VAC(t) = Vmaxsin(2t) (1.2)

Figure 1.1: Parameters of a sinusoidally varying voltage signal represented by the equation of VAC shown by equation 1.2

Vmax and Vpp are parameters of AC component that defines the amplitude of the signal as can be seen above in figure 1.1 and are related by the expression Vpp = 2Vmax Temporal parameters period and frequency are inversely related: T = 1/ (1.4) (1.3)

Vrms is the mean of the square of the instantaneous AC voltage during one period, then taking the square root of the result:
2 Vrms = 0 1

(1.5)

By combining equation 1.2 and 1.5, rms value of a sinusoidal signal can be represented as: Vrms =
2

(1.6)

The main purpose of this experiment is to gain experience with time-varying voltages by measuring signals of different frequencies using a Digital Multi-Meter (DMM) and an analog oscilloscope. Another purpose is to identify and possibly correct the inherent limitations of the instruments due to their design, which reduces the accuracy of measurement of some waveform. An important question to ask: what are the capabilities of the DMM and oscilloscope in measuring different voltage sources. What values do they measure accurately? What values do they measure inaccurately?

Methods: Equipment provided: One 1.5V battery One function generator One dual-trace, analog oscilloscope One digital multi-meter (DMM) Connecting BNC cables One BNC T

Procedure: 1. Connect the oscilloscope and DMM in parallel 2. Turn on the oscilloscope. Check the var knobs are in the cal position. To find the zero reference of the oscilloscope, switch the input coupling to GND (if line is curved when the input coupling is on GND, make sure trace rotation is properly screwed). Using X, Y position knobs, make sure the line is centered on the screen. To measure the signal, the input signal must be connected with the coupling switch in AC position 3. Turn on the function generator and use the selector knobs to dial in the waveform that is needed to be measured. 4. Using function generator, set the frequency to 1 kHz 5. On the oscilloscope, adjust the Volt/Division and the Time/Division so that one waveform is displayed on the screen. 6. Observe the oscilloscope when the input coupling switch is in AC and in DC position. Observe if there is difference between two value and record it on the table 7. Turn on the DMM and select the AC. Record the value of voltage measurement simultaneously with the oscilloscope. 8. Repeat step 3 to 7 for 1) Square wave 20 kHz, 2) Sine wave 1 Hz and 3) Sine wave 2 MHz 9. To measure the 1.5 volt DC signal, disconnect the function generator and replace it with the battery and set the DMM to measure DC voltage

Results and Discussion As seen in table 1.1, our data shows that the voltage source had an amplitude of 1 V, so Vpp=2 V and Vrms=0.707 V. Based on these true values we calculated % errors from the oscilloscope and DMM readings of AC source voltage. Our function generator was set to exact frequencies, and the oscilloscope displayed accurate results for the periods and voltages of the 1 kHz and 20 kHz square signals ; accurate meaning within less than a tick mark of one division, accounting for only a possible 2% error. The 2 MHz reading was slightly less accurate, with a 3.5% error for Vpp. However, the oscilloscope had problems with the 1 Hz wave, as explained in the discussion questions. In AC coupling mode, the oscilloscope uses a high pass filter, which contains a capacitor. The capacitor purpose is to block the DC component and to only allow AC to pass through. However, the capacitive reactance also blocks any low frequency part of the signal.

c =

signal.

When the frequency f is small, the reactance Xc is high and thus filters out this

Therefore, the oscilloscope gave inaccurate voltage readings (Vpp = 280 mV) for the 1 Hz sine wave signal. The period measurement also had an error of 10%.

As for the DMM, it gave readings of Vrms within 5% of the actual value. The exceptions to this were the 1 Hz and 2 MHz signals, which gave completely wrong result (this is explained later). In our results table we noted the DMM displayed voltages varying from 1.174 V to 1.593 V for 2 MHz, so we recorded the average of these values. As for the 1 Hz, the voltages randomly fluctuated between 0.25 V and 1.40 V. We didnt calculate Vpp or Vmax for these faulty results.

Questions Vrms=117 V ; Irms=15 A Vmax= Vrms*2 = 165 V Vpp= Vmax*2= 331 V Pmax=Imax*Vmax= 2 Vrms*2 Irms=3510 W

A square or triangular wave with the same Vpp would also have the same maximum power output. The difference is that the square wave power output is constant, while the triangular and sinusoidal maximum power is instantaneous (at the peaks). An added DC voltage component would increase the maximum power output by an amount : VDC*Imax However the average power outputs for each wave type are different, since the voltage and current vary according to different functions.

The function of the volt/division and time/division knob is to control the display on the oscilloscope, allowing us to zoom in and out. The divisions on the screen graph are fixed, therefore the voltage and time per division must be changed in order to fit waves of different amplitudes (y-values) and frequencies (x-values). The volt/division knob is adjusted accordingly so the screen includes the peak to peak voltage range. Likewise, the time/division knob is adjusted accordingly so the screen includes a full period of the wave. For example, the graph has 10 divisions along the x and y axis. A sine wave of 1 kHz has a measured Vpp of 4 divisions, and a period of 10 divisions. To calculate these values we refer to the values adjusted on the knobs: Vpp= 4 .
0.5 .

Adjusting the knobs allows us to fully fit the wave on the screen and to measure its properties (with our eyes) with higher resolution. If the knobs are adjusted too low, Vpp and T cannot even be seen on the screen. If the knobs are too high a value, the measurands will appear tiny on the screen and will be measured with much less accuracy due to the resolution limits of our eyes. It was observed that when the setting of oscilloscope was changed from DC to AC at 1 Hz, the amplitude of the curve decreased greatly (from 1.9 V to 140 mV). Since DC coupling displays the true signal, and AC coupling filters the signal to remove the DC component, it was clear that the filter cuts off some of the signal. This characteristic of the filter probably exists all the time but becomes more apparent at a low frequency, causing significant error of 93%. Therefore it can be said that the value of the signal is more accurate as DC at 1 Hz. It was also observed that at 1 Hz, the value that was shown on the DMM fluctuated significantly. This occurs because the DMM is a digital instrument that uses an analog-to digital converter. Since DMM contains AC coupling filter, after some of the signals gets cut off, the value becomes very small and goes out of the range of DMM. Because the signal value that is received by DMM is outside the range of values it could calculate, it displays a value that is inaccurate. In our case for the 1 Hz signal, the DMM voltage reading had a 748% error.

= 2

T= 10 .

0.1 .

= 1

Discrete sampling method of the DMM does not give accurate measurements of Vrms for 1 Hz and 2 MHz signals. The sampling-rate theorem states that the sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest-frequency component of the original signal in order to reconstruct the original waveform correctly (Wheeler). For the case of 2 MHz, error occurs due to the fact DMM cannot use sampling rate that is at least twice the highest frequency of 2 MHz. While voltage changes rapidly due to its high frequency, sampling rate cannot catch up to its speed, therefore DMM measures random values because there is too much of a gap between samples.

For the case of 1 Hz, inaccurate measurement of Vrms occurs for a different reason. While sampling rate frequency is indeed higher than highest-frequency component of the original signal, total sampling time is not long enough to measure the accurate value. This means that DMM takes many sample values for small part of the signal and represents as value of the entire signal. This is why values represented by DMM fluctuates continuously over time. Value shown on DMM fluctuates due to the fact that DMM moves on to the different parts of the signal. This also explains why during the experiment, the value given by the DMM fluctuated between 4 different values.

Conclusions When dealing with a DC source as with the 1.5 V battery, a DMM is really the only device needed and is accurate to within 1%. When analysing an AC source which is more complex, both a DMM and oscilloscope are essential in providing independent readings. We observed that a DMM measures the time averaged voltage Vrms directly and with minimal error, and is useful for providing instantaneous voltage measurements of an AC source. However, when the frequency is too high or too low, the discrete sampling method breaks down and gives inaccurate readings. To measure other parameters, an oscilloscope is required. It directly measures period and Vpp very accurately if the adjustment knobs are used correctly and when the frequencies are not too low (1 Hz). We realize that both devices have their pros and cons, and one device might be more advantageous than the other depending on the experiment. Nonetheless, our results show that every measurement has an error associated with it. It comes down to how much error we are willing to accept without sacrificing the true behaviour of the system we are measuring.

Reference: Wheeler, Anthony J., and A. R. Ganji. Introduction to Engineering Experimentation. Upper Saddle River: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2004. 102-06. Print.