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Initial concepts: tides and salinity Tide-resolving models Tidal-average models Tracers for model calibration Mixing diagrams Residence time Dual tracers
What is an estuary?
A semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage (Pritchard, 1952) Where the river meets the ocean Like a river but with tides and salinity gradients
Tidal motion
Tidal Channel (t) 2ao Head 2o ao = tidal amplitude 2ao = tidal range Tt = tidal period 2o = tidal excursion Mouth Gravitational and centrifugal acceleration (E with M & S) Ocean range ~ 0.5 m Coastal waters may have much larger ranges Tt Ocean
High
High
Low At any time: 2 high and 2 low tides; At any location: ~ 2 high and 2 low tides per day
S
13.6d
27.3d
20.5d
Sun and moon aligned (full and new moon) => spring tide; Sun and moon opposed (1st and 3rd quarters) => neap tide Because the earth revolves, period of spring-neap cycle = 365d/[(365/27.3)-1] = 29.5 days Number of full moons per year
24 h
Lunar day = 29.5 d /(29.5 1) = 24.8 hours Dominant (lunar semi-diurnal tidal) period is 12.4 h
L H L
Full Moon
New Moon
First Quarter
12.4 hr
5 0
14.7d St. Michael, Alaska (on the being sea) o o 63 29' N, 162 02' W
Mixed tide (with strong semi-diurnal component; lower latitude) Diurnal tide (higher latitude) Spring-neap cycle
24.8 hr
10
15
20
25
30
Ippen, 1969
(t ) = a cos(t )
u (t ) = Qf A
= 2/Tt
2o
+ u max cos(t + )
Pu ( x) = Vu ,high ( x) Vu ,lowh
Pu(x)
Vu(x)
Estuary
Salinity Intrusion
Ocean
Head of Tide
Mouth
20
30 S=35 psu
Equation of State
= (T ) + ( S ) + (TSS ) (T ) = 10001
( S ) = AS + BS 3 / 2 + CS 2
(Gill, 1982; ch 6)
A = 0.824493 4.0899 x10 3 T + 7.6438 x10 5 T 2 8.2467 x10 7 T 3 + 5.3875 x10 9 T B = 5.72466 x10 3 + 1.0227 x10 4 T 1.6546 x10 6 T 2 C = 4.8314 x10 4 1 3 (TSS ) = TSS 1 10 x SG
-8
-6 -4
( in g/cm3)
SALINITY (% )
Example:
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-8
-6
Salt water Freshwater density difference o Ocean salinity ~ 35 psu Freshwater salinity 0 psu Temperatures 0 to 30C
o = [28-0]/1000=0.028
(0C) = [22-(-4)]/1000=0.026 (30C)
SALINITY (% )
Figure by MIT OCW.
Estuary classification
10 S=0 20 30 S=35 psu
Well mixed: isohaline lines approach vertical (Delaware R) Partially mixed: isohaline lines slant Vertically stratified (salt wedge): isohaline lines approach horizontal (Mississippi R.) Desire to classify to know what type of model/analysis to use; several options available; none is perfect
PF Ed = t d Q f Tt Fd =
g ( o / )h
u o = maximum tidal velocity; h = estuary depth; o / = salt water fresh water density difference
u t 3
1
~ Ed
Example later
E d ~ R 1 ~
ut
3 2
u f ud
Hanson-Rattray (1966)
10
10
2 1
P=
Semi-empirical Predicts
-2
3.3 x
-1
10
-1
Fm = 10
Fm = 10 P = 3. 3
-1
salinity stratification
10
-2
Fm = 10
Fm = 1
-3
Fm = 10
S -1 S0 10
-3
S S o = ( S b S s ) S
-4
-3
-2
10
3. 3
10
Increases w/ P, decreases w/ Fm
10
10
-4
10-2
Velocity stratification average surf vel / u s /u f =tidal tidal and depth aver vel
3. 3
10-3
10
us uf
10
10
uf uf ; Fm = P= ud ut
Decreases w/ Fm
c c 1 c q L (c L c ) AE ( t ) + ri + re + u (t ) = L + A t x A x x
Major difference between river and well-mixed estuary are 1) u is time-varying, 2) EL is constrained by reversing tide. Look at 2) first
Previous example, B = 100 m, H = 5 m, u = 1 m/s Tvm = 750 s, Ttm = 34000 s, Tt/2= 22000 s (6.2 h)
B t=0 Tc=Ttm
u* B 2 EL ~ ET
2
0.5Tt
B t=0 Ttm
Dispersion governed by Ttm, E L ~ wide channel
u* B ET
2 2
0.5Tt
l ~ ET Tc
t=0 Tc = 0.5Tt
2 2 2 2
An actual simulation
1.0
Harleman, 1971
0.5
0.0 -2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
Continuous injection at x = 0; output after 30, 400 tidal periods (high slack) and 30.5 and 400.5 tidal cycles (low slack)
x / 2 o
Tidal-average models
Perhaps we dont care to resolve intratidal time-dependence Strong non-uniformities prevent resolution of intra-tidal variability Long term calculations more efficient with tidal-average time step However, averaging obscures physics
u = u + u
c = c + c
Insert into GE and tidal-average
c c c 1 + r + r AE +u = i e L t x A x x
Tidal average Tidal average velocity disp coef
Asymmetric ebb (a) & flood (b) Tidal averaging => mean velocity (c) Trans mixing + trans velocity gradients => dispersion!
Similar drivers
Flood
Net
EL ~ (2o)2/Tt
General result
A B C
Comments
For conservative tracer, c(x)
If you must pollute, do it downstream (more discussion later) Several specific solutions in notes
One example
Rectangular channel; no through flow
0= d dc E L kc dx dc
E L ~ ( 2 o ) 2 / Tt = x 2
2 dc 2d c kc 0 = 2x + x 2 dx dx
& m q" = A
xd
Solution
q x 1 2 2 x 1 2+ 2 c + ( x, x d ) c L = 1 2 2 1 2 2 x d L xd
x > xd
= 1 + 4k /
x < xd
q " x 1 2+ 2 x 1 2+ 2 c _( x, x d ) c L = 2+ 2 1 2 2 x1 L xd d
Details
Boston Harbor
1700m 1700m
400
Qo = 1.4 m3/s; To = 6C
0
Existing Channel
Modified Channel
Results of analysis
3 2.5
Temperature (C)
Existing
2 1.5 1 0.5
Mod Chan
MC + Disch
xd
0 0
400 m
500
1500
2000
Existing: Ti (x=600) ~ 0.8C; Modified: Ti ~ 2.4C Moving intake 400 m downstream (x=600) yields Ti ~ 0.8C Moving discharge 300 m downstream (x=900) also yields Ti ~ 0.8C
Pf = Qf Tt Pctp Tt & =m
& Tt m ctp = P
P = total tidal prism f = freshness =(So-Sn)/So
Pn f n = Qf Tt Pn cn & =m Tt & Tt m cn = Pn
fn = freshness =(So-Sn)/So mass injected continuously upstream of section n (behaves like freshwater)
Comments
Modified Tidal Prism Method has been modified and re-modified many times Ad-hoc assumption => not always agreement with data Non-conservative contaminates reduced in concentration by
r 1 (1 r )e kTt r = 2a / h
Cheater
Cheater
3.0 4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
3.0 4.0
C&D
2.0
74.6
18.8
0.0
2.0
74.6
18.8
0.0
6 2 4 8
10
14
22 26 24
PRESSURE (db)
2.0
6.0 4.0
10.0
14.0 16.0
18.0 20.0
22.0 24.0
26.0 28.0
20 12 16
8.0
12.0
12.0 140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
12.0 140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
October 1986
2.0 74.6 DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3
C&D 8 16
April 1987
0.0 2.0 74.6 DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3
C&D 12 16 2 4 14 6 10 20 8 28.0 18 24 22 26
18.8
18.8
0.0
Cheater
3.0 4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
2 4 6 10
12
20
24 26
4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
18 14
22
12.0 140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
12.0 140.0
Cheater
3.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
November 1987
April 1988
Head
2.0 74.6
18.8
0.0
Mouth (ocean)
Cheater
3.0 4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
2 4 6 10
12
20
24 26
18 14
22
November 1987
~ h (m)
EL = uf S
12.0 140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
(Q f / A) S
Qf = 260 m3/s;
g
3
Qf W
ut
Yes!
Box models
Qf Qf Q12 c1 c2 Qf Q23 c3 Qf Q34 c4
Q f + f 2 Q1, 2 = f 1 (Q1, 2 + Q f ) f1 (Q1, 2 + Q f ) + f 3 Q2,3 = f 2 (Q1, 2 + Q2,3 + Q f ) f 2 (Q2,3 + Q f ) + f 4 Q2,3 = f 3 (Q2,3 + Q3, 4 + Q f )
n equations in n unknowns; boxes dictated by geometry
Use measured salinity distribution S(x) resulting from river discharge Qf entering at head (x=0) to infer concentration distribution c(x) of mass entering continuously at downstream location xd.
Qf 0 S/So xd
x L
S/So
0 0 xd L
Qf 0 S/So, f xd
f = (So-Sx)/So Freshness: ND concentration of fresh water
x L
S/So
0 0 xd L
Qf 0 xd
x L
Hypothetical flow rate necessary to transport freshness downstream by advection only (no tidal dispersion)
Qeff f = Q f = Q f f E L A
Qeff = Q f E L A df f dx
df dx
Qeff really accounts for both advection and dispersion
Qf 0 S/So, f
Qeff = Qf/f
x xd Qeff/Qf L Qeff/Qf 4
S/So 2
0 0 xd L
Qf 0 xd
x L
Qeff f = Q f
& Qeff c = m
& cx m = fx Qf
So S x cx = S o m & Q f
Concentration at xd
So Sd cd = S o
m & Q f
Qf 0 S/So, f
So S x cx = S o
x xd
m & Q f
0 0 xd L
Qf 0 xd
x L
cx S x = cd S d
& Sx So Sd m cx = So Q f Sd
cd
Qf 0 xd Qeff/Qf c 1 f S/So
x L Qeff/Qf 4
& Sx S/So, f c = S o S d m x So Q f Sd
0 0 xd L
So S x cx = S o
m & Q f
c x = a bS x
& m = c max S a= Qf
0 0 So
& = Q f c max m
0 0 So
N-S diagram for Massachusetts Bay, Kelly (1993) Used to identify coastal water vs offshore waters
Non-conservative behavior c
cmax x
0 0 So
Non-conservative behavior c
cmax x 0 0 So S +
Non-conservative behavior c
cmax x 0 0 So
Note that conservative mixing curve is only linear if conditions are steady and there is a single source
0 0 So
1+2
0 0 So
Transient Conditions
200
X
100
Fall
Nitrate (M)
Solid lines are predictions for conservative tracer & salinity at 4 times (not linear because river flow varies in space and time) Symbols are data for nitrate & salinity Why the discrepancy in fall, spring?
Salinity (% )
16
32
Residence times
Why? Compare with k-1
tres >> k-1 => reactions are important tres << k-1 => reaction not important
t res =
cdV
0
& m
M & m
& m
Types of Tracers
Advantages and Disadvantages of each
& m
Deliberate tracer (e.g., dye) Tracer of opportunity (e.g. trace metals from WWTP) Freshwater inflow (freshwater fraction approach; residence time sometimes called flushing time)
V
t res =
fdV
0
Qf
10 Days
Zn
2000 Cu 1500 Cr
2 Days
500 PCB 0
0 Hg 20 cV t res = & m (2.5 x10 6 kg / m 3 )(6.3 x10 2 m 3 ) = = 3.4d 5 (1.7 x10 kg / yr ) /(365d / yr )
160
180
Comments
Ignore re-entries (by convention) If multiple sources, tres is average time weighted by mass inflow rate Assumes steady-state, but fix-ups applicable to transient loading Residence time reflects injection location; not property of water body unless well mixed, in which case:
c( x, y, z ) = c = const
t res cV = & m
t res =
cdV
0
& m
M & m
x c
tres
> tres
> tres
x c
& m
1 1
m*
f*
0
Rate of injection
t
dm * f * (t ) = dt
0
Mass leaving rate
f * (t )dt = 1
0
t res =
0
1st moment of f*
t res =
f (t )tdt M (t )dt
0
Mo
Mo
Thus two more operational definitions of residence time: 1st temporal moment of f(t) and 0th temporal moment of M(t)
18
ft
Northern Ave.
Broadway
Dye 100
Meters 0 500
t res =
TIME (Hours after injection)
M (t )dt
0
Mo
2.7 day
tres
Comments
f(t) can be obtained from time rate of change of M(t); or from measurements of mass leaving (at mouth) Residence times for continuous and instantaneous releases are equivalent f(t) of f*(t) conveniently used to assess first order mass loss.
F = f * (t )e kt dt
0
WE 4-6 Residence time of bacteria in CSO effluent in Fort Point Channel (Adams et al., 1995)
40 35 Mass loss from FPC (%/10hrs) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.5 2 50 100 Time (h) 150 1 0.25 1.6 1.4
f*(t) 1990
Residence time distributions f(t) determined from distributions of m(t). Indicator bacteria disappear (die or settle) at rates of 0.25 to 2 d-1 What fraction of bacteria would disappear for 1990 conditions?
F = f * (t )e kt dt
0
Fraction (of viable bacteria) that leave Fraction that are removed within channel
1 F
k=2.0 d-1 => F=0.15 (85% removed); k=0.25 d-1=> F=0.55 (45% removed)
t1 =
M (t )dt
0
Mo
t2 =
f (t )tdt
0
Mo
t3 =
cdV
0
& m
Amount of tracer (e.g., dye) required? Effort to dispense? Number of surveys and their spatial extent? Total duration of study?
Dual Tracers
Used to empirically distinguish fate from transport: introduce two tracers (one conservative; one reactive) instantaneously. Applies to any time of water body, but consider well mixed tidal channel
dM c = k f M c dt dM nc = k f M nc kM nc dt
Mass of conservative tracer declines due to tidal flushing Mass of NC tracer declines due to tidal flushing and decay
M nc
= Mc
M nc
e kt Mc o
Best-fitted line
Fluorescent pigment particles (yellow DayGlo paint) were injected with dye. Pigment particles settle as well as flush. R = (Mp/Mpo)/(Md/Mdo) k = ksettle = 0.25 d-1 k = ws/h ws = kh = (0.25d-1)(6m) =1.5 m d-1 More in Chapter 9
0.6
k3 = 0.25 d-1
0.4
0.2
20
40
60
80
Time (hr)
Figure by MIT OCW.