C H A P T E R T H R E E

D E C O R A T I V E E N S E M B L E S O F T H E L A T E R E P U B L I C , 1 0 0 3 0 B . C .

|
jL

PompeiiandHerculaneum,thetownswhereourcasestudyhousesof theLate RepubUclie,haddifferentsocialandeconomicstructures.Itisworthconsider ingsomedetailsofsocietyandeconomicsinthesetownsasbackgroundtothe possiblesocialandeconomicstatusof theirowners. ThroughPompeii's longand checkeredhistory, thecity retainedits impor tancein bothcommerce andagriculture (Map2). Locatedon a highvolcanic escarpmenta hundredfeet abovetheocean andbordered bya navigableriver (theSarno),Pompeii was a trade node between theinland cities,particularly Nola and Nocera,and thecoastal citiesand islands of theMediterranean. It was surrounded by fertile, wellmanagedfarms that producedfine wineand oil;these wereowned by manylocal aristocratsliving in Pompeii. Pompeii's greatest prosperity wasperhaps in thelate Samnite period (third andsecond centuriesB.C.),whenthecompletelyHellenizedSamnites builtfine housesand pubhc monuments. By thesecond century these were decorated in the First Style.ItissignificantthatsomeprivatehousesinPompeiiwereequaledneither in much largercontemporary Itahan citiesnor in the Hellenisticeast. Paavo Castrn notesthatin itslater (FirstStyle) phaseof ca.110B.C., theHouseof theFaun wasmuch larger than theroyal palaceat Pergamon,indicating that theownersmusthavebeen veryrich menbystandardsof theirtime.' NoteveryoneintheSamniteperiodlivedinlargehouses.Studiesoflanduse atPompeiiprovidea profileofthe kindsandsizesof housespeopleofdifferent socialclasses lived in.Twothirdsof thecity wasdevoted toprivate housing. Arnoldand ManettedeVos havedivided theexistinghouses intothreeclass categories. The domuswithperistyle category varied in size between 3,000 square meters (9,750 sq. ft.) and 450 square meters (1,463sq. ft.) and be longedto thelocal aristocracy,madeup of landownersandrich businessmen.
1. PaavoCastrn,Ordo populusque pompeianus:Polityand Societyin RomanPompeii,Acta Institut!romanifinlandiae, no.8{Rome, 1975):40.

Artisans,small businessmen, and freedmen lived in smaller houses, between 350square meters (1138 sq. ft.) and 120square meters'(390 sq. ft.).These werethecoveredatriumhousesmentionedabove.Thepoorestclasslivedeither inroomsbehind theirshopsorina mezzanineabovetheshops.^ Precisely at the time theSecond Stylefound itsearliest formulationin the HouseoftheGriffinsinRome,Pompeiisufferedapoliticalandeconomicblow. DuringtheSocialWarPompeiisidedwithItaHanallieswhofoughttogainfull Romancitizenship.Asaconsequenceof beingalliedwiththelosingside,Pom peiilost itsautonomy in80 B.C. and becamea colony.It wasperhapsSulla's nephew who renamed the city "Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum" after himself andSulla's (and thePompeians') favorite goddess, Venus:^ Vet erans and proSullan factions took over a degree of the local aristocracy's power and property, although it seems that the confiscated land was never completelyallottedtotheveterans,with muchof itrevertingtothehandsof a smallernumberof richlandowners.''This postcolonizationperiodis precisely theone in which theVilla of theMysteries received its matureSecondStyle decoration.Economicandsocialstruggleprobablyhadlittleeffectontheown ersof theVillaof Oplontis,afew kilometersfromPompeii.They constructed theSecondStylecore of theirseasideestatefrom theground upbeginning in about50B.c. Itseems, then,that althoughpolitically theSullancolonization causeda radical buttemporarychange inthe municipal lifeof Pompeii,little changed from an economicand culturalstandpoint.The thoroughgoingRo manizationof Pompeiioccurredlater,in theAugustanperiod. Lessis known aboutthe societyand economicsof Herculaneum (Map1), anditisimpossibletospeakof theaveragesizesof housesthere,sincean area onlyoneeighththesizeofPompeiihasbeenexcavated (5vs.40hectares).One can state with some certainty, however, that in general the houses at Her culaneum weresmaller.As a suburbdependent on Naples,its owneconomy wasrelativelystagnant,probably basedonfishing. The'SamniteHouse,asitsnamesuggests,recordsinitsfineFirstStyledeco rationa periodof greaterwealth atHerculaneum.By thetimeof theeruption in 79, this house's original area had been drastically reduced. The wealthy seemed to havesettled closeto whatis now theexcavated areaof the town, however, which includes partof theforum and the theater.The Villa of the Papiri, for example, contained about one hundred bronzesand an extensive
2. de Vos and de Vos, Pompei Ercolano Stabia, 333334;James E. Packer,"Middle and LowerCIass Housingin Pompeii: A PreliminarySurvey," in Neue Forschungen in Pompeji,cd. BernardAndreaeand HelmutKyrieleis (Recklinghausen,1975),141. 3. Castrn,Ordo populusque pompeianus,52. 4. Castrn,Ordo populusque pompeianus,53.

libraryof papyrusrolls.For theaffluentownersof nearbyvillas,Herculaneum wasavacationspotonthe beautifulBayof Naples.

THEFIRSTSTYLEINTHEHOUSEO F THEFAUN Because most evidence for decorativeensembles of theFirst Style in Roman ItalycomesfromthesitesburiedbyVesuviusinA.D.79,itisimportanttonote thattheFirstStyledecoration wecanstudyfromthosesiteswasalreadyquite old at the time of theeruption. Theancient Romansvalued thesevenerable decorativeensembles and often went to the trouble of restoring them when damagedratherthan redecoratinginthestylein vogueatthetime.^ Thiswastruein theHouseof theFaunatPompeii,whereownerspreserved decorationof theFirstStyleforabouttwo hundredyears (Fig.22).Excavated between1830and1832,itisanextraordinarilylargeandluxurioushouse,oc cupying3,050squaremeters,anentireinsulainthesixthregion.Itsmajordec orativescheme,of thelatesecondcenturyB.C., consistedof FirstStylepainted stuccowallsimitatingluxuriousmarblerevetment,andlavapestaandopussec tilefloors adorned with costly mosaic emblemata, worked in the opus ver miculatum technique. At the time of itsexcavation, thisdecorative program was in sufficiently good state forit to bestudied as awhole. Unfortunately, after the mosaicemblemata were removed (they arepresently in the Museo Archeologico Nazionalein Naples),the remaining walls andfloors werenot protected from theelements, and the house was mistakenly bombed by the AUies intheSecond WorldWar. Wecan makeupfor theselossestoa certain extent,thanks tothe envois,thatis,the highlyfinished architectural render ings,inchina ink,crayon,andwatercolorwashes,carriedoutshortlyafterthe house's excavation by FranoisFlorimond Boulanger (in 1839) and Alfred Normand(in184950),twopensionnairesof theEcoledesBeauxArts.^With theiraid wecangeta notionof howthehouse'ssurfacesweredecorated. Boulanger's longitudinalsection of 1839 runson an axisfrom thefauces throughtheexedra of theAlexandermosaic(no.37),showingactualstatesof thewallsof thefauces,atrium,first peristyle,exedraof theAlexandermosaic, and thesecond peristyle.Boulanger providesfurther detailsof theAlexander exedrainaneastwestsection;oneofNormand'sdrawingsdetailstheexedra's eastwall.
5. AnneLaidlaw,TheFirst Stylein Pompeii:Paintingand Architecture(Rome,1985),4246, forthepreservariono FirstStyledecorationin houses. 6. Ecolenationalesuprieuredesbeauxarts, Pompi:Travauxet envoisdes architectes fran aisauXIX" sicle,exh.cat.,NaplesandParis (Rome,1980),240245,figs.8386.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHE LATE REPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES O F THE LATEREPUBLIC

The House of the Faun's facade of tufa blocks was punctuated with six openingsfourfor shopsand twofor entrancesinto thehouse.^ In theside walkoutsidethe principalentrancetesseraeof coloredlimestonespell outthe greetingHAVE.Trianglesoflimestoneandcoloredslatepavethevestibulefloor; doorjambsandcapitalsareoftufa.Thedoorsof thefaucesopenedoutwardto preventdamagetotheFirstStylestucco decorationof theupper zone:aHttle templewithfourcolumnsthatwasoriginallysupportedbyconsoles(nowvan ished)in theshapeof sphinxesandlions. Adramaticvisualaxisfromthefaucespermittedthevisitortolookthrough the atrium and through a broad window in the tablinum into thefirst peri style. Features treasured by the owner marked this visual axis.The unusual placementofthebronzefauninthecenteroftheimpluviumgavenovelempha sistothe visualaxis, andtheexedra containingtheAlexander mosaicwasits eventualgoal.ThepathtotheAlexandermosaicwasconsiderable;over50me ters (162.5 feet) long, and the actual walking distance considerably longer, sincethevisitorinvitedtoviewthemosaicwouldhavehadtowalkaroundthe tablinumand circlehalf of thefirst peristyletoarriveatthisimportantexedra. Richdecorative motifsonfloors andwallsmarked thespacesalongthevi sualaxis.Thesillfacingtheatrium containedafinefigurai mosaicwithtragic masksinagarlandofflowers andfruit.Theatriumitselfwas unusuallysplen did,since recent hypotheseswould restore it with afictive galleryabove the high doors of the groundfloor, perhaps employing the Ionic halfcolumns foundat thetimeof theexcavationstoredin thesecondperistyle.'"TheFirst Style Samnite House in Herculaneum has this kind of loggiate atrium on a much smaller scale (PI. 1). The impluvium today retains its pavement in rhombsof coloredslate, with the bronzefaun dancingin itscenter. To com pletethepicture, wemustimagine awooden lacunaryceiling,perhapsgilded, highabove. Althoughthetablinum'swalldecorationispoorlypreserved,thecutmarble (opussectile)floorinwhitetravertine,blackslate,andgreenlimestonepresents a rich pattern of cubes in perspective.This choiceof an abstract decoration ratherthanafigurai emblemamayindicatethattheownerpreferredtothinkof thistablinum asadynamicspace ratherthan astaticone,sincebothalaeand
7. Theeastentrance isalater modification. 8. See Lise Bek, Towards Paradise on Earth: Modern Space Conceptionin Architecture: A Creation of Renaissance Humanism. Analecta romana Instituti danici, supplement 9 (Rome, 1980),fig.67. 9. NowintheMuseoArcheologicoNazionale,Naples.ErichPernice, DiehellenistischeKunst inPompeji: Pavimenteund figrlicheMosaiken(Berlin, 1938),pis.7374. 10. A. Hoffmann, "Ein Rekonstruktionsproblem der Casa del Fauno," Bericht Koldewey Gesellschaft(1978):3541;Laidlaw, FirstStyle, 32note24.

FIGURE22. Planof theHouseof theFaun,with visualaxis marked. DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC 83

the trichnia that flank the tablinum received costly emblemata vermiculata, meanttobeseenfromasingle,staticviewingposition. Thepathtothefirst peristylebehindthetabhnumisa relativelynarrowcor ridor to its left. The peristyle's FirstStyle decoration answers the columns on theoutboard sidewith engaged pilastersin itsinboard wallthe perfect decorativesystemfor a dynamicpassagewayspace, unaccentedand therefore requiringnostops alongthe way toview it.From Boulanger'srendering one can see that four columnar elements framed the opening of the Alexander exedra.Twored fluted columnsonindividual basesstoodto rightand leftof theexedra's axis, complemented by two matching pilasters wrapped around the actual opening. A mosaic threshold band with a Niloticlandscape con tinuedthisframingonthefloor. WithintheexedrawastheAlexandermosaic; unliketheotheremblematainthe house,itwasexecutedonthespot,employ ingmorethanamillion andahalf tesserae. ViewingtheAlexandermosaicinitsoriginalarchitecturalsettingmusthave beenproblematicatbest.Althoughthecolumnarframingoftheexedraandthe Niloticscene mark itoff from the rest of the peristyle, nothing prepares the viewerfor theenormous,perspectively complexpicture on theexedra'sfloor. As discussed inchapter 2,it is aparadox thatcopies of famous paintings^ executed intiny mosaictesseraeconstituted theonlyillusionism inFirstStyle ensembles.TheAlexander mosaic,because itoccupied 80percent of theexe dra'sspace, exaggerates theproblem of how a person must be positionedin ordertocomprehend theimageryon thefloor. Inordertoseeandunderstand evenanaveragesized,emblema,theviewer muststandin thecenterof theem blema'sloweredge;in thispositionthepictureis rightsideup.Inmost rooms theemblema iscentered on the room'saxis of entry.Irving Lavin hasshown thatmosaicistswereawareof thedemandstheillusionisticpictureonthefloor madeontheviewer'sposition,andthatultimatelydesignsusingindividualem blematawere abandonedinfavor of alloverdesigns."But inthe periodof the FirstandSecondStylestheRomanspreferred thespatialdisruptionandneck craningviewingof illusionisticmosaicemblemata on thefloor over theuse of picturespaintedintothefrescoed walls. From Normand's longitudinalsection of 1850 one can see that the First Styledecorationof theAlexanderexedrawasspecial,signalingtheimportance of thespace.Thesocleof theexedrawaspaintedwitharepresentationofdrap

ery,and thecentralzonehad imitationashlar masonrywithafigurai friezein stucco.'^ Therichdecorationof theHouseof theFaun,andtheAlexander mosaicin particular,raisesquestionsofpatronage.Whocommissionedtheoriginaldeco rativescheme?Todayitisbelievedthatthepresenceof anhonorificbasewitha dedicationinOseanof theaedileSatriusfoundneartabhnum35wouldassign ownershipof thehouse totheSatrii, anold Campanianfamily thatseems to havefallenintoobscurityformany yearsafterthearrivalof theSullancolony, probablydisenfranchised.They returnedtopoUtical lifeinPompeiionly inits lastperiod.'^

FIRSTSTYLEENSEMBLESINTHESAMNITEHOUSE Decorativeensemblesstill extantintheSamnite Housein Herculaneumshow howthedesignprinciplesof theFirstStylewereapphedinmodestspaces(Fig. 23).Although theSamniteHouseisaboutonesixteenth thesizeof theHouse of theFaun,^"*itsdecorative schemeisnotwithouteleganceand refinement. Located on the southwest corner of Insula V, the Samnite House got its name from the Osean inscription SPUNES LOPI, foundin room 2.Originally constructedaroundtheendofthethirdcenturyB.c.,thehouseunderwentcon siderablechangesinits longlife."Mostdramaticamongthesewasthesaleof itsperistyleandgarden;theHouseoftheLargePortalnowoccupiesthisspace, andseveral of theSamnite House'speristyle columnsappear in itsfauces. At thistime,inthelatesecond orearlyfirst century,apartition in opusincertum filledin theoriginalopeningsfrom thetablinumto theperistyle.Itwasatthis timethata loggiaof Ioniccolumnswasadded toincreasetheatrium's height, probablyto compensatefor thespacelostin thesaleof theperistyleand gar den.As in the Houseof the Faun,and in the galleriedatria in thehouses of Delosin thisperiod,'the SamniteHouse'sloggiateatriummadeitintoa kind of royal hallbut in the private domainintended to impress the visitor, whetherpeeror client(see Pi.1).Thehistoryof Romaninterior decorationis filledwithexamplesof overreaching,sometimesexaggeratedschemesintended to associate the owner with thewealth and power heor shenever had.The
12. Fordetailsonthisand otherFirstStyledecorationsintheHouseof theFaun,seeLaidlaw, First Style,172207. 13. deVosanddeVos, PompeiErcolano Stabia,164. 14. Houseof theFaun,ca.3,050 SamniteHouse,ca.190m^;but muchof theareaof the Houseofthe Faunconsistsof walledingardensratherthancoveredrooms. 15. AmedeoMaiuri, Ercolano:I nuoviscavi,19271958 (Rome,1958),1:197. 16. Philippe Bruneau, L'Ilot de la Maison des Comdiens. Exploration archologique de Delos,no.27(Paris, 1970),figs.2,29,30(Maison desComdiens);fig. 80(MaisondesTritons).

11. Irving Lavin, "The Antioch Hunting Mosaicsand TheirSources: AStudy of Composi tional Principles in the Development o Early Medieval Style," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18 (1963):187189,252254.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATE REPUBLIC

1
modernvisitorwhoissurprisedattheverticalexpansionofspaceandtherefine mentoftheSamniteHouse'sloggiareceivesamessageconsciouslyembeddedby theownerwhocommissionedthisgrandiosespaceforaverysmallhouse. TheSamnite Housegot smaller still after theearthquake of A.D. 62.The loggia,entirelyflat on thesouth side,where itis oneand thesame with the house'sperimeterwallonthestreet,wasfilled inonitswestandnorthsidesas well, to make room for asecondstory rental apartment.A second doorway piercing the onceregal facade opened to a staircase giving access to these rooms.Thewallsofroom2were repaired,anewmarbleimpluviumwasbuilt overthe originalincocciopesto,''andmost tellingforthe impressionof the house todayall of theFirstStyle decorationsave thatof thefauces wasre paintedin theFourthStyle. Todaythe facadereflects thecompromisesof theseconversions.Theadded doorway with a small window above issadly out of scale with the original grandentryway,asisthewindowbetweenthetwodoorwaysaddedinthefinal remodehng.'Abalconyaddingspacetotheupperstoryrooms,likethatofthe Housein OpusCraticium acrossthestreet, furthercuts thefacade.Traces of pigmentinthefacadeindicateatwotonecolorschemeofaredsocleextending toeye level with gold above. If theSamniteHouse's facadecommands atten tiontoday,itisbecauseof themaindoorway,majesticallyframedby piersfour meters high that form antaeand support a dentil range on their Corinthian capitals(Fig.24). Carvedof tufa,theserichlyornamentedcapitals fairlyburst withvegetalforms.Eventhesidewalkinfrontof theSamniteHouseannounces itsoriginalpatricianpretensions,pavedinpebbleswithabenchforthewaiting cUentela. Enteringthefauces,thevisitor'saxialviewof thetinytablinumisframedby carefullyorchestrated decoration (see Fig.8). Itsfloor slopes upward toward theatrium,withwhitetesseraesetintothecocciopestoinapatternof outlined fish scales."At the innerlimit of thefauces, a threshold band in a meander designwith alternatingswastikasandsquares (aswell asa stepup) announce theatrium. AccompanyingthispavementindarkredandwhiteistheFirstStyledecora tionof thefauces' walls.Theareas wherethe door'stwo battenswould have rested when open arepractically undecorated, articulatedin largewhite ver ticalpanels.Beyondtheserisethefauxmarbleblocksinthreeregisters,thetop registerconsisting of rectangularashlars skillfullystuccoed andpainted tore
17. Maiuri, Ercolano,201. 18. Thewindow's extreme heightmatches thatof thesecond doorway,suggesting that they maybe contemporary. 19. For the squamedelineate pattern, see Maria Luisa Morricone Marini, "Mosaico," En ciclopediadell'arteantica:Supplemento(Rome, 1970),s.v.

FIGURE Z3.

Planof theSamniteHouse,withmosaicsindicated.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE 24. Pierswith carvedcapitals begintheFirstStyle framingsystem of theSamniteHouse.

FIGURE25. Thelandscapepanelandtherepresentation of alacunar ceilingareSecondStyle revisionsof theSamniteHouse'sFirstStyle fauces.

semble blocks of red, green, white, and speckled marble (that is, porphyry, verde antico, alabaster, and portasanta).^" The fauxmarble blocks support dentilranges matchingtheoneovertheentryway. Above themextend landscapes, best preserved on thenorth wall (Fig.25). Paintedin theperiodof theSecondStyle,thelandscapesseemtohave beenan afterthought,sinceevenwheninpristineconditiontheywouldhave beendiffi cultto read.In thispassageway a viewercould hardlybe abletocontemplate theirspatialand symboliccomplexities.What remainssuggestsasacroidyllic landscape. On the left appears an eightcolumned temple front bordering a bodyofwaterinterruptedbyalargecolumnormonument;totherightaretwo femalefigures, a sacred tree within a fence, and another shrine. As Maiuri notes,thelandscape's palecolorscanscarcely competewith therich colorsof
20. Maiuri, Ercolano,200.

thefauxmarble.^'Furthermore,thelandscapesarethelargestfigurative panels in thehouse. Landscapeslike these appearin severalSecondStyle decorative ensemblesinthisstudy, alwaysplacedwellabove theviewer'shead.^^ Another SecondStyle substitution appears in the fauces' ceiling, an illu sionistic representation of the actual lacunary or crossbeamed ceiling that musthave originallyaccompanied thefauxmarble revetmentof thewalls.In itsfragmentary, faded conditionit failsto convincethe viewerof itsarchitec turalrole,but HketheSecondStyleceilingspreserved atOplontis(see Figs.48
21. Maiuri, Ercolano,201. 22. Examplesillustratedhere includethoseinthetympanum ofthe northalcovein cubiculum 11atOplontis(see Fig.50)andintheatriumoftheVillaof theMysteries(see Fig.29).Thistradi tioncontinuedinto theFourthStyle,forinstance inthe atriumof theHouseofthe Menander(see Fig.89).

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

and49) andin theVilla of theMysteries (seeFig. 38),itoriginally musthave lentanoteof colorandvariety totheensemble. Thethresholdbandonthefloor andtheframingpilastersandcapitalsofthe antaemark thepassagefromthefaucestotheatrium.Importantpassageways framedlikethissignaltheendofonespaceandthebeginningofanother:simi larframingsystems occuraround major doorwaysoff theatrium,likethat of thetablinumorthealae.TheyareessentialtotheillusionofFirstandSecond Styleensembles,sincebothstylesmustconvincetheviewerthatfictivearchitec turalmembers arereal.Thefictive piersat majorentrywayswould beneeded tosupportthebeamovertheopeninginactualpostandlintelconstruction.In the FirstStyle the piers represented in stucco and paintframe openingsand close or complete therows of orthostatesand ashlars making up theroom's walls." Asimple patternof whitetesseraelaid on thebias formsa grid patternon the atrium's red cementfloor. Two bandsof a meander with swastikas and squaressurround theimpluvium, endingin afine blackandwhitetessellated twostranded braid executed in much smafler tesserae.The aUgnment of sig ninumandtessellateddesignssuggeststhattheatriumfloor waslaidinthefirst century B.C., perhapswhen theatrium receivedits newelevation andloggia. These bordering bandssurround what wasoriginally a signinum impluvium (see Fig. 23) and do not line up correctly with thefirstcentury A.D. marble impluvium.^'' If the overalleffect of theatriumfloor is thatof acarpet, then the impluvium is much like a borderedemblema. Perhaps theoriginal signi numimpluvium had anelaborate design Hke therosette inthe impluviumof HouseVI,14,39inPompeii." Asin theotherroomsof thehouse,thissimplesigninumfloor onceaccom paniedFirstStyle wallsHke thoseof thefauces.Thecombination of thesered cementfloors withimitation marblewalls reflects an economiccompromise, sincea wealthypatron likethat of theHouseof theFaun couldafford topay forcutmarbleormosaicpavementsdecoratedwithemblemata.Asimilarrep ertoryof designs accompanies theFirstStyle decoration preserved under tri clinium18of theHouseof theMenander.Maiuri'sreconstructionof theSam niteHouse (Fig.26) gives asenseof thisonceimpressive ensemble."Height, geometricrigor, and thedynamics of postandlintel constructionemploying
23. Daniela Corlita Scagliarini, "Spazio edecorazione nella pittura pompeiana," Palladio 2325(19741976):47,figs. 14;Laidlaw, First Style,color reconstructionothe Houseof Sallustinfrontispiece. 24. Thisdoesnotseemtohaveconcernedthehouse'sinhabitantsbuthasapparendydisturbed modernrestorers(possiblythoseofMaiuri'steam),whofeltcompelledtofillinthegapswithfrag mentsof similarsigninum. 25. Pernice, Mosaiken,152. 26. Maiuri, Ercolano,2:pi. 18(reconstruction drawingbyR. Oliva).

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHE LATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE 2.7. Aconcentricdesign of whitetesserae in redcement (opussig ninum)formsthe focusof thetablinum'spavement.

marbleblocks, piers,and columns makethis atrium bothspatially expansive andrestrained incolorandsurface. Allof theFirstStylefeaturesworktogethertounitefaucesand atrium(and originallyall theroomsof thehouse).Theframingantae,thesupportinghori zontal blocks of socle,orthostates, andashlars, andeven thedentillated cor nicescorrespondin bothspaces.Intheatrium thisimitationarchitecture(now replaced byFourthStyle painting)supported,in turn,thehalf columnsof the loggia,visuallyunited bylatticeworkfences(plutei) betweenthem.Thepatron musthave been pleasedwith theimpressiveandfinely articulatedvertical vol

umeofspacetheFirstStyledecoratorsachievedthroughthesemeans;theycre atedaneffectpowerfuleven today. Thetablinum of thehouse,room4,isinterestingforitspavement(Fig.27), sincemostof itswall paintingislost.Tworunnersframethe centralrosetteof thisroom;one,withalozengepattern,extendsalongtheroom'swestwalland meetsa similar runnerextending alongthe room'ssouth wallat theentrance from the atrium.This second runnerexhibits cruder workmanship: the loz engesarewideranditisdifficulttodiscernthepattern of thedecorativemotifs in their centers.Assuming errorson thepart of bothancient andmodern re storers,the original pattern can be reconstructed with a regularsequence of centralmotifs. Within theseframing runners,set off by two bands of thesame meander patternusedforthefauces'threshold,appearstheroom'scenterpiece,arosette of radiatelozenges. Atiny bronzedisk setdirectly intothe cement marksthe rosette'scenter.At eachof thefourcorners betweenthe rosetteanditssquare frameisamotifconsistingof apalmetteflanked byheraldicdolphins.Thisfig urai motif executed in white tesserae closely parallels the SilhouetteStyle mosaics of Pompeii, dated toabout 3020B.C.^' If this signinum pavement with tessellated decoration is contemporary with theother pavementsin the Samnite House, then all the pavements would date tothe remodelingof the house that included theSecondStyle landscape paintings and the ceiling of thefauces. Maiuri believed thatroom 2,to theleft of thefauces,was thetriclinium,^ since an emblemalikesquare decoratedwith a meanderdesigninterrupts the allovergrid of thesigninumfloor tomark thearea wherethe diningcouches wouldhave beenplaced. Althoughin itspresent statenone of therooms of theSamnite Househas exacdy contemporaryfloor and wall decoration, existing ensembles in the faucesand atriumprovidean invaluableglimpseof rareFirstStyle decorative ensembles.Itselegantfaucesandsoaringatriummusthaveconsoledtheowner whogaveupaperistyleandgardenatsometimeinthelatesecondcenturyB.c. And the renewal of the FirstStyle decoration and all of thesigninum pave mentsin thehouse around30 B.c.must haveimproved theSamnite House's appearance.Even theextensive remodelingof the midfirst century A.D. that furtherdiminished thehouse's livingspacewas notwithout refinement,as its survivingFourthStylewall paintingsstilleloquentlyattest.
27. John R. Clarke, Roman BlackandWhite Figurai Mosaics (New York, 1979), 5862; John R. Clarke, "The Origins of BlackandWhite Figurai Mosaics in the Region Destroyed by Vesuvius," in La regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio: Studi e prospettive, Atti del Convegno Inter nazionale,1115November1979(Naples, 1982),661673. 28. Maiuri, Ercolano,205.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

SECONDSTYLEENSEMBLESINTHEVILLA OFTHEMYSTERIES,CA.60B.C. ThediscussionoftheVillaof theMysteriesinchapter1 focusedonthelayout, entrancesequence,andviews tothelandscapefromatopitsvaultedplatform. Withinthevilla individualroomsandsuitesof roomsof theSecondStylewith wellpreservedensemblesofwall,floor,andceilingdecorationalsoaddressthe viewer,oftenin novelandthoughtprovokingways. ThisSecondStyle decorationwas partof a reconstruction around60 B.C. (Fig.28).^Ontheonehandthepatronwishedtoincreasethevilla'seconomic utilitybyenlargingtheperistyleareawithslaves'quartersand winepressesso thatitfunctionedlikeafarmvilla,orvillarustica;ontheotherhandthesame owneradded toitsluxury byenlarging andredecoratingin thefinest manner theroomsaroundthe atriumandtablinum. Theatrium'sdecoration,thoughnotwellpreserved,marksthebeginningof alongtraditionoflandscapedecorationthatformsoneof theseveralthreadsof continuitythroughoutthe threehundredyearsof walldecoration surveyedin thisstudy.Twopanelsonthenorth wallretainenough detailstoidentifytheir waterysettings(Fig.29):they arescenesalongtheNile,closelyparallelingde tailsinthegreatBarberinimosaicfromPraeneste.^"Ahundredyearslatersimi larlandscapepanelsadornthesamewallpositionintheatriumoftheHouseof the Menander in Pompeii (see Fig. 89), and yet another hundred years later reducedversionsof similarlandscapesdecoratethemonochromeroomsof the Houseof Jupiter andGanymede (see Fig.210) and the Houseof the Yellow WallsatOstia Antica (seeFig.190). Foursuitesof roomspaintedintheSecondStylesurroundedtheatriumand tablinum.Twoofequalareaconsistedof acubiculumwithanadjoiningoecus, withasecond,separatecubiculumopeningtotheatrium(seeFig.28).Onlythe southwesternsuite,rooms3,4,and5,remains,itscounterpart(rooms1113) having,beenremodeled aboutsixtyyearslaterin theThirdStyle.Theparticu larlytall cubiculum16opened onto both thenorth porticovia largefolding 'tloorsand through a secondarydoor connectingto acorridor. Oppositfecu biculum16,on theothersideof theatrium,isthegrandtriclinium6, opento thesouthportico.Oppositeitseasternwall, reached bya stepdown fromthe atriumof thevilla'sbath,iscubiculum8.Thepatronwhodesiredthisdivision of theroomssurroundingtheatrium mayhavedesignated specialusesfor the
29, AmedeoMaiuri, haVilladeiMisteri, 2vols.(Rome, 1931),1:3740,99101,andPer nice, 'Mosaiken,5558,placetheearlierphaseinthe secondcenturyB.c.;Lawrence Richardson, Jr.,Pompeii: AnArchitecturaLHistory(Baltimore, 1988),171,proposesthattheVillaotheMys terieswasconstructedof apieceafter80 B.c. 30. GiorgioGullini, I mosaicidiPalestrina (Rome,1956),pi.1.

vesUbuIe

FIGURE 2.Z. Plan of theVilla of theMysteriesin theperiod of'theSecond Style,ca.60B.C.

foursuites.Alan Littlehas suggestedthat cubiculum16may havefunctioned likethetablinum,usedbytHepaterfamiliasforreceivingtheclientela.Rooms4 and5wouldhave beenreservedfor thedomina,orwomanof thehouse;cere moniespreparingthefamily'sbridesfortheirweddingswouldhavetakenplace inthefamousroomof thefrieze.Thedestroyednorthwesternsuitewouldthen havebeen reservedfor theprivateuse of thepaterfamilias, andthe triclinium, 6,situated near the kitchen, would be for dining.^' Although highly conjec tural,Little'shypothesis issupported by thedifferencesin thequalityof deco
31. AlanM.G.Little, A RomanBridalDrama attheVilla oftheMysteries (Kennebunk,Me., 1972),35,910.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES O F THELATE REPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES O F THE LATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE29. Thislandscapepaintingformedpart of theSecondStyledeco

rationintheatrium;itwas locatedabovetheheight of thedoorways.

ration among theseSecondStyle rooms,with the best ensembles in rooms5 (with itsfigurai frieze and slate and marblefloor), 4, 16, and 6. Simpler schemesadornedcubicula8,3,and15.Thefewremainsoftheoriginalscheme of rooms 1113 indicate that its decoration was on a par with the best
rooms.^^

Concept,color,anddesignbindcubiculum4tooecus5.Bothopenedorigi nally only to thewestern portico,toward theview of theBay of Naples,and theyalsocommunicatewitheachotherthroughasmalldoorway.TheSecond Stylepaintedarchitectureinboth roomscreatesa shallowstageforthefigures with a brightcinnabar red background.The Dionysiacsubject matterof cu biculum4isa preludetothegreatfriezeof oecus5.^^ Cubiculum 4 is an amphithalamos,a bedroomwith twoalcoves (Fig.30). Although both alcoves were later pierced with rudeopenings, enough of the original scheme survives to understand its original effect. The existing en sembleeloquently illustrateshow changesinfloor andwall decorationdivide thefunction of the anteroom from thatof the alcoves, where the bedswere placed.A cutmarblepattern of trianglesin black andwhite definesthe ante room. Polychrome scendiletti mark the thresholds of both alcoves. Whereas
32. Maiuri,Villadei Misteri,1;plan,fig. 20;187191,figs.7578. 33. Maiuri,Villa deiMisteri,1: 166.

FIGURE 30. Both wall and floor decoration differentiate the alcoves and anteroomof cubiculum4.TheDionysiacfigures formapreludetothead joiningRoomof theMysteries.

theanteroom'swall paintingconsistsof illusionisticmarblerevetment, theal covesopentoshallowstagesthatsupporttherepresentationsofstatues.Above this cinnabarred zone appear pictures with twin shutters, the pinakes men tioned above.Thestatues representwellknown Dionysian themes: Dionysus leaningona satyr,dancingmaenads,adancingsatyr,Silenus,anda priestess. Bothsurvivingpinakesrepresentscenesofsacrifice:a nighttimesceneofa man offering a pig to Priapus in a rustic setting and a woman offering cakes to Dionysus.

96

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE 32. A Startled woman and a group of a Silenus and two youngpansspana cornerin theRoomof theMysteries.

FIGURE31.

TheRoomof theMysteriesseenfrom theperistyle.

Viewer Address in the Room of the Mysteries Vitruvius includes the term megalographiasignorum,ormonumentalpaintedrepresentationsofstatues,in hissummaryofcurrentfashionsinwalldecoration.Thefriezeofnear Ufesize figures arrangedaround theperimeterof theroomof theMysteries,aswell as themonumentalfigures fromthecontemporaryVilla atBoscoreale,^^provides striking examples of megalography. Vitruvius's cryptic mention hardly pre pares the viewer for the exotic, highly allusive, and beautifully painted tab leaux thatseem tospeak,pulling theviewer intoa drama thatboth begs and
34. Vitruvius Dearchitectura 7.5.2.Little, Villa of the Mysteries,9, notes that:"signorum megalographia.. .meantatraditionallyimpressivestyleconsistingoffigured subjectswhichwere basedonwellknownsculpturaltypes.... Bythiscombinationofatechnical termdrawnfromthe Greekvocabularyofpainting, megalographia,withthe Latintermforstatuary,Vitruviuspossibly meant to suggest a decorative adaptation to Roman taste of an already established earlier tradition." 35. PhyllisWilliams Lehmann, RomanWall Paintings from Boscoreale inthe Metropolitan Museumof Art(Cambridge, Mass.,1953),2381.

defiesinterpretation.All isflux. Thecharactersand theiractionsfluctuate be tweenthe realmof mortalsandthatof thegodsanddemigods.Even theview ing pattern alternates between a sequence (and therefore a narrative) arising fromaclockwisereadingof thefigurai groupsandatimeless,fixed, axialfocus on the image of Dionysus and Ariadne that confronts anyone entering the roomfrom theportico(Fig. 31). I wouldsuggestthat thetwo kindsof viewingfrom the room'saxis and clockwiseaswellasthelackof acoherentnarrative,areintentionalsolutions to thewall painter'sproblems in designinga megalographythat wouldfit the space.No matterhow astoundingthe imagesare in themselves, thiswas the decorationof a Ushaped oecushaving a majorentryway from theportico, a minordoorwayinitsnorthwestcorner(wherethe"sequential"patternstarts), anda largewindow interruptingthe south wall.Scholars whohave assumed thatthefrieze isa copyhave proposedvarious compositionalschemes forthe "original."However,analysisof thefriezeasitexistsin theVillaof theMyste riesprovesthatthepainterdesignedthecompositionspecificallyfor thisspace. Howelse can weexplain the effective composition of the corner groups:the startledwomanandtheoldSilenuswithsatyrs(Fig.32),thewingedflagellator

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE 34. Dionysus, focusof thedecoration, ignorestheviewer and the otherfigures inthe frieze.

FIGURE33. Thecomplexinterplayofgazesamongthefigures

and

withtheviewerillustratesthefrieze's multivalence.

andhervictim (PI.2),andthe brideathertoiletandanadmiringcupid (PI.3)? Despite thearguments to the contrary," not only these mutually responsive cornerfigures butalso thecentral,axial tableauof thedrunken Dionysusre cliningon Ariadne'slap aretailormade for thisspace.When viewed aswall decoration in a decorativeensemble includingfloor and ceiling, these empty cornersmakegoodsense.Theelegantcarpetof white(palombino)marbledia
36. Seeespecially Little,Villa ofthe Mysteries,1316,whoattemptstorearrange thefigures intoamore"harmonious"composition;seehis illustrationin thefrontispiece.

monds outUned with black slatestops short of thewalls, itsedges lining up withthevoidsleft inthecorners."If therestoration of asemivaultedceilingis correct,thefloor andceiling bordersmirroredeachother. Herbig'sdiagramof thefigures' gazesbeautifullyillustratesthecomplexin teractionsamongthefigures themselvesand betweenthefigures andthespec tator(Fig. 33).^A personenteringthe roomwould haveimmediatelyfocused onDionysus and Ariadne proclaiming thetheme of the room: theecstasy of both Bacchic intoxication and love. But while Dionysus's body is casually, drunkenlyopentoourgaze,hisface,withhisupturned eyesfixed onhislover, ignorestheviewer(Fig.34).ThegroupofDionysusandAriadneisnotanoma lous:throughout thefrieze theviewer, alternatelyaddressed andignored be causeof thefigures' gazesandspatial placement, becomesalternately partici pantandmerespectator.Furthermore,someof thefigurai groupsrepresented
37. Scagliarini,"Spazioedecorazione":8andfig. 11,17. 38. ReinhardHerbig,NeueBeobachtungenartFriesder MysterienvillainPompeji:EinBeitrag zurrmischenWandmalereiinCampanien(BadenBaden,1958),foldoutplanat back.

100

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATE REPUBLIC

101

in the frieze were oftrepeated stock tvpes^ In the image of Dionysus and Adriadne,forinstance,the ancientviewer wouldhave recognizedasculptural groupdiffused throughouttheHellenistic world." If theviewerthenbeginstosortoutthemeaningof thefigurai friezebylook ingfor a sequenceof actions,he orshe will turn to the north wall,where a patternof lefttorightreading beginsatthelittle doorto room4 (Fig.35).A veiledwoman"walksinto"thesceneof a matronlookingovertheshoulderof anude boywhoreadsfrom ascroll.Asecondwalkingfigure, thistimeapreg nantwoman carryinga trayof offeringcakes, walkstoward ascene of ritual washing,wheretheprotagonist,herbacktous,drawsaveilfromaboxheldby one servant with her left hand.Another servant pours water over her right hand,presumablytowashtheleavessheholdsforuseinarehgiousceremony. Thissecondservantispartiallyhiddenbyatableaufromtheworldof thedemi gods:Silenusplaysthelyrewhileapanwatchesa paniscagivingsucktoakid. Thenorth wallendswith theimposingfigure of awomanin violentcontrap posto,hercloak billowingupbehind herhead,with herright armthrownup wardina gestureof surpriseorterror. Twoscenes frame thecentral imageof Dionysusand Ariadne on therear (east) wall. Another Silenus, this timeseated, holds a cup (of wine) while a young pangazes intoit andanother holdsup acomic mask.One and a half scenescomplete thewall on theright (south)side of thedivinecouple. Three figures helpwith theunveihng of thephallus.The kneelingfigure liftstheveil whiletwostandingfigures assist(their upperbodies arenot preserved) The femaledemon with herstick poised tostrikereaches acrossthe corner of the roomto hervictim,on thesouthwall,herhead nestledinthe lapof awoman wholooksbackacrossthecorneratthedemon.Thenudedancingwomanmay betheflagellant rejoicingafterher whipping.Following thebreak of thewin dow,thescene of thewomanat hertoilet foldsinto thesouthwesterncorner; oneof her attending cupids holds up a mirror while theother, with bowin hand,admires herfrom theentryway (west)wall. On thatsame wall,but on theoppositeside,appearstheisolatedfigure, oftencalled thedomina.Sheap pearstosurveythefriezefrom acalmdistance. In arecent articleGillesSauron countedthirteen interpretationsof theDi onysiac frieze, and added yet another.^' In several readings, beginning with
39. Margarete Bieber, "Die Mysteriensaal der Villa Item," Jahrbuch des deutschen arch ologischenInstituts,vol. 43,pt.1,no.2(1928): 301,figs.3 (cameoinVienna) and4(coinsfrom Smyrna). Herbig, Mysterienvilla,figs. 3132,illustrates twoterracottafigures of Dionysusand Ariadneinthesamepose;theyare fromagraveat Myrinaanddate fromthesecond centuryB.c. 40. AlthoughLittle,Villa oftheMysteries,frontispieceandpassim,seesandrestoresonlyone figurehere,closeinspection revealsthe torsosof twofemalefigures. 41. Gilles Sauron, "Nature et signification de la mgalographie dionysiaque de Pompi," Compterendusdessances del'Acadmiedes inscriptionsetbelleslettres (1984):151174.

Wj

jp l ^ S Il/

ZI jK

r'

\
III IV

^i%L\
11

FIGURE35.

Drawingof thefigurai friezeinthe Roomof theMysteries.

102

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATE REPUBLIC

Macchioro"'^ and elaborated by Little/^ the same woman goes through suc cessive stages of Orphicor Dionysiac"initiation.For Little, who follows Bieber'sinterpretation of theroomasa placefornuptial rituals/^the woman enteringinthepeplosisabridetobeabouttobeinitiatedintothemysteriesof Dionysus.Theboy is readingsacred texts,and thepregnant womancarries a sacrificeof cakes(as inthesacrificesceneinroom4). Next,the"initiate"car riesoutherrituallustration,andthen,inthemidstoftheapparitionof thetwo Sileniand theircompanions,isstartled toseethe unveilingof thephallusand theflagellation scene. She nevertheless undergoes this ritual whipping and emergesaJoyous,dancingmaenad,whothensoberlydresses forherwedding. Somewouldseeinthedomina thebridetobebecome a matron. Sauron,identifying Dionysus'spartner ashis mother,Semele,and thedo minaasa priestess,interpretsthefriezeastwoparallelstories,themythof Se mele and the life of the priestess."' His readingsequence, although correctly beginningwith theimageof Dionysusand hiscompanion,thereafter requires theviewer both to have a detailedand obscureknowledge of thecult and to jumpfromwail towallwhilerecognizingparallels betweendivine andhuman activities.Bastet has recently offered animaginative, if incredible, newinter pretation."^ Allstrictreadingsthat attempttopindown themeaning(s) of themysteries friezeignorebothitssourcesanditspurposes.Thewallpainterresponsiblefor thedecorationsofthisroom respondedtothepatron'sorpatroness'swishesby callingupon awellknown repertoryof stocktypes andcombining themina composition that harmonized with the dimensions and illusionistic Second Style decorativescheme that heworked out for the whole villa. His sources, werem o s t certainlyi n Hellenisticpaintingoft h e fourtho r thirdcenturiesB.C., transmittedbyfellow wallpaintersthroughseveralcenturiesby meansof copy books."* Themysteries of initiation into thecult of Dionysswere successful ones,since their content was never betrayed by any written source that has comedowntous;thisfactalonerulesoutthepossibihtythatroom5presentsa seriesofscenes documentinganinitiate'sexperiences.Itis morelikelythatthe depictedscenesformedpartofsemipublicpageantsortableauxaccompanying
42. VittorioMacchioro, Zagreus: Studisull'orfismo (Bari, 1920),6065,states thatroom5 , servedfor Dionysiacrituals. Hebelieved thatthe Villaof theMysteries, stillnotfully excavated, wasabasilica oftheOrphiccult. 43. Little,Villa of theMysteries,910. 44. Maiuri,VilladeiMisteri,128,insiststhatthescenesaresimultaneous,notchronologically successive. 45. Bieber,"Mysteriensaal,"298330. 46. Sauron,"Natureetsignification,"151174. 47. Frdric Bastet, "Fabularum dispositas explicationes," Bulletin antieke Beschaving 49 (1974):206240,summarizedindeVos anddeVos, PompeiErcolano Stabia,248250. 48. On the style and shortcomings of this copyist/wall painter, see Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli, Storicitdell'arteclassica (Florence,1950),1:146151.

festivalsof Dionysus.FlankingDionysusandAriadneontheback wall,forin stance, are the three sacred symbols of Dionysus's power: wine, mask, and ^^haJJu?.'" Representations of women in bridal costumes sen^ to relate"this realmof Dionysuswith thatof hisfemaledevoteesand perhapstomarriage acentral eventin theUfe of most patricianwomen.^ Yet evenknowing these references, in antiquity the frieze could hardly have appeared as original or unique.Thefactthatimagesinthefrieze,suchasthedrunkenDionysusresting on Ariadne,the woman with thecakes,thewomen unveiling thephallus," andthedancing maenad,"appearin othermedia andthroughout theancient Mediterranean underscoresour painter's approach to the composition.^"He combinesrelated images.Healludes butdoesnot narrate,juxtaposingimages of mortalswithcreaturesofmythand rehgion."Hiemagicof thefrieze,bothin antiquityandtoday,lies initsverymultivalence. Asymmetrical Perspective and Functional Division in Triclinium 6 If in oecus5 a person gets caught upin complexviewing patterns because of the enigmaticfigurai friezewithseveral possibleviewingpatterns andfigures gaz ingateachotherandtheviewer,intriclinium6theconstructedperspectivesof the illusionistic architecture provide clear messages. Among mature Second Styleschemes,however,triclinium 6is unusual.Three,rather than two,sepa rateperspective schemes divideits space between anteroom anddining area, whilethereisonlyonepatterninasinglemosaiccarpetonthefloor." Therear wall's scheme centers on an illusionistic door probably inspired by the real door(left overfrom theFirstStyleatriumscheme) originallypiercingthe wall atthispoint.Rather thancontinuingthis perspectivetothesidewalls,the de signer introduced a second motif of regularly spaced columns against aflat marblerevettedwall.Atthehalfway pointofthesidewallsthisschemein turn changes toa colonnadefestooned withgarlands andopen tothesky abovea marblewall(Fig. 36).

49. Bieber,"Mysteriensaal,"308. 50. InadditiontoreferencesinBieber,"Mysteriensaal,"passim,andLittle,Villaofthe Myste ries,passim, Laetitia La Follettehas presenteda convincingcase forthe identificationof Roman bridalcostumesthroughoutthefrieze (unpublishedpaperpresentedattheColloquiumonAncient Mosaicsand Wall Paintingof L'Association internationale pourl'tude dela mosaqueantique, Baltimore,28April 1989). 51. Representedin theroombehind theperistylein PompeiiIX, 14,4,theHouse ofObellius Firmus,Pompeii;Bieber,"Mysteriensaal,"fig. 15. 52. Represented in a terracotta Campana relief in the Louvre, in Bieber, "Mysteriensaal," fig.7,andin amosaicfromDjemila (Algeria),inHerbig, Mysterienvilla,fig. 30. 53. Astockfigure thatalsoappearsin theHouseof LucretiusPronto (seeFig.74). 54. JacobusHoutzager, Degrote wandschilderingin deVilla deiMisteri bij Pompeiienhaar verhouding tot de monumentender vroegere kunst (TheHague, 1963),attempts totrace every possiblesourceforthe figures,with mixedsuccess. 55. CompareOplontis 14,below,p.119.

104

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

105

FIGURE36.

TwoSecondStyledecorativesystemsarticulatethelongwallof thetriclinium.

FiGtJRE 37. Converging consoles over the entryway reveal the illogic of asymmetricalperspective.

Thislast perspective construction turns the room'scorners and continues overtheentryway.Here wecanobserve acuriousflaw inmatureSecondStyle schemes of asymmetrical, or wraparound perspective discussed in chapter 2 {Fig.37).Theconsolessupportingthecornicearepaintedinperspectivesothat they appearto recedefrom thepointof viewof someonewho hasentered the room,viewed therear wall,and thenturned around toface theentrywayand portico beyond.Thisview outto theportico would alsobe theprincipal one for diners when the couches were in place. But because the consoles' orthogonals slant in opposite directions on the side walls, when their fore shorteningis maintainedon theentrywaywall theymeet ina trapezoidalcon figurationthe same irrational perspective thatspoils the consistency of the

Tombof Lyson andKallikles mentionedabove (see Fig.13).Thisdetailseems notto havebothered either painteror patron,perhaps becausethefictive col onnadeof thesidewallsharmonizessonicely withthe realoneof theportico. Functional Divisionin the Ensembles of Cubiculum 16 Cubiculum 16,to getherwith cubiculum 11of theVilla of Oplontis,provides aclear pictureof howthewallpainter,stuccoist,andmosaicistcoordinatedtheirskillstodiffer entiateareas withseparate functionswithin thesamespace."Of thetwo cu
56. JohnR.Clarke,"RelationshipsbetweenFloor,Wall,and CeilingDecorationacRomeand OstiaAntica:SomeCaseStudies,"Bulletindel'Associationinternationale pourl'tudedelamosa queantique 10(1985): 9495;JohnR. Clarke,"TheNonAlignment of Funcrional Dividersin MosaicandWall PaintingatPompeii," Bulletindel'Association internationale pourl'tude dela

106

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

107

bicula, room16 of theVilla of theMysteries is byfar the moreelegant and imposing,probably becauseits decoration wasadapted toa FirstStyleroom with a particularly tall elevation. It was a bedroom with two alcoves with amplelightandairavailablethroughthelargefoldingdoorsthatopenedtothe portico.(Plastercasts preservetheconfigurationof thedoors.) Entering the minor doorway, from the villa's transverse corridor, one is Struckboth bytheroom'sheightandthedramaticorchestrationofwall,floor, andceiling designsto differentiateand articulatethe spaces(PI. 4).A mosaic carpetwith apattern of redand blackcrosses definesthecirculation spaceof theanteroom.Twocontrastingscendilettimeetatrightanglesattheclosetsep aratingthe twoalcoves. Their designs,in colored tesserae,differ greatly,one being a sober pattern of step triangles, theother an alternation of largedia mondsand squares.They coordinatecloselywith theSecondStyleschemeof thewallpaintingtodividetheanteroomfrom alcovespaces;theporphyryred andgreen pilaster folded around theoutsidecorner of thecloset meetsthese twocarpetbandson thefloor. Inthephotograph onecanseesimilarpilasters, foldedintothe insidecorners of each alcove.^^Whereas thewallsof theante room,regularly divided bythese samepilasters,have acoloristically rich but relativelysimpleschemeofillusionisticfauxmarblerevetment, thepaintedar chitectureof thetwoalcovesis bothdaringinconceptionandimpressivein its detail. FourelegantCorinthiancolumnssupportatriplepointloadedarcadeinthe east alcove."This scheme is a kind offlashforward in time,since this bold formappearsinimperialarchitectureonlyintheSeveranperiod."Betweenthe columns,cinnabarred orthostatestopped witha friezeoffinely detailed con solessupportcoloredashlarsanillusionisticversionofthefauxmarblerelief of theFirstStyle.Thiseastwallof thealcove"opens"thespaceverylittle,toa bit of painted blue sky under the carefully foreshortened wooden lacunary vaultsthatthecolumnssupport.Aboveillusionisticdoorspaintedonthenorth and south walls of this same alcove perspective views open, masked by the usualscallopof blackcurtainshangingbetween thecolumns.
mosaqueantique12(1989):313321;AlixBarbet,"Quelquesrapportsentremosaquesetpein tures murales l'poque romaine,"in Mosaque: Recueil d'hommages Henri Stem,ed. Ren Ginouvs (Paris, 1983),4344;OlgaElia, 'icubicolinelle casedi Pompei," Historia6 (1932): 412417. 57. Foradiscussion of theuseof foldedpilastersand columnsinthe illusionisticweightand supportsystemofSecondStyleschemes,see above,chapter2,pp.3438. 58. Forexcellent photographicand graphicdocumentarion ofthis andthe southalcove, see Josef Engemann, Architekturdarstellungen des frhen zweiten Stils, Rmische Mitteilungen, Ergnzungsheft12(1967):7679,pis.1819(eastalcove);pis. 2023(southalcove). 59. JohnWardPerkins, RomanImperial Architecture(Harmondsworth,1981),456,fig. 309, foranexampleofthepointloaded arcadeatDiocletian'sPalace,Split;arcuatedcolonnadesoccur in domesticarchitectureatPompeii intheCasadella Fortunaand theCasadegliArchi.

FIGURE 38. Regularlyspacedholes inthisSecondStyle latticework ceilingincubiculum16indicate theoriginalplacementof gemsor stucco rosettes.

Thestuccocornice that thesefictive architecturalmembers carryis intwo parts, a small band below in low relief with a deeply projecting dentillated moldingabove.Attheoutsidecorner,overthesupportingpilasterandserving asa springingforthestuccoframesof thealcoves,theuppermoldingprojects attheir intersection.Preserved partsof theeast alcove'sceiling suggestthat it wasa latticepatternshaded inpink,cinnabar red,andporphyry red,perhaps with hghtblue trim (Fig.38). Holesat theintersections of thelattice pattern mayhaveheldnailssupporting,inturn, stuccorosettes;^otherwisetheseholes mayhave oncecontainedgems.^' Room16'ssouthalcovefeaturesatholusorroundtempleappearingbehind a richly revettedmarble wall.Twosets of columns reston thesame podium: fourlarge,fluted columnswith compositecapitals supportan architravethat
60. ForstuccolatticeworkandrosettesofthelateSecondStyle,comparetepidariumgof Pom peiiI, 6,2, theHouseof theCryptopordcus, illustratedin HaraldMielsch, Diermische Stuck reliefs,Rmische Mitteilungen,Ergnzungsheft21(1975):1718,pis.12. 61. ApracticedocumentedinwallpaintingoftheSecondStyleandintheFourthStyleceilings of Nero's DomusTransitoria in Rome. See Ranuccio BianchiBandinelli, Rome: The Center of Rower(NewYork, 1970),134,fig. 140.

108

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE 39. Columns projecting forward from the wall {en ressaut) and carryingsectionsof architraveenliventheSecondStylescheme.

FIGURE40.

Capitalsinthe formof headsanimate thefictive architecture.

arcs over the tholus, while a groupof four similar butsmaller columnssup portsasecondorder.Arrangedinpairs,thesesmallercolumnsholdupa richly ornamentedarchitrave that jutsout fromthe wall ateitherside of thetholus. Like the pointloadedarcade of theeastalcove, thesecolumns supportingthe jutting ressauts (lengths of entablature) preview an architecturalfeature that makesitsdebutin imperialarchitectureunder NervaandtheFlavians."
62. Nerva'sForum Transitorium, inHeinz Kahler, The Artof Romeand Her Empire (New York,1965),113,fig.21;Domitian's"aularegia"intheDomusFlavia,inWilliam L.MacDonald, TheArchitecture of theRoman Empire(NewHaven,Connecticut, 1965),1:53.

At close range marvelous details appear: bearded heads in the composite capitals,theheadofMedusa inthearchitraveof theressauts,a friezeoffigures inthelargerarchitrave,andtheredsilhouettesdancingalongthearch(Figs.39 and40).Suchminiaturismis bothrareand rarelypreservedin wallpaintingof theSecondStyle;it seemsto be thespecialityof theworkshopresponsiblefor fourwealthycommissions:theVillaoftheMysteries,theVillaof Oplontis,the Villaof Boscoreale,andtheHouseof theLabyrinth. WewillleavetheVilla of theMysteriesfor a whiletoinvestigatefurtherthe matureSecondStyleattheVillaofOplontis, returning,inchapter4,to itsfine ThirdStyledecorationsofa b o u t 1 B.C.

110

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHE LATE REPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES O F THE LATE REPUBLIC

111

MATURESECONDSTYLEENSEMBLESINTHEVILLA OFOPLONTIS,CA.40B.C. Sources and Significance Chapter 1outlined the approach, entryway se quence,andvisualaxesoftheVillaof Oplontis(Fig.41).Theexcellentstateof preservationand thehigh qualityof decorativeensemblesclarify therelation shipsamongfloor, wall,andceilingdecorationandhintatpossiblesourcesfor SecondStyledecorationin bothactualandfictive architecture. Inchapter 2wereviewed scholarlyopinion onthe originsandmeaningsof matureSecondStyledecoration, concluding that rather thanderiving strictly fromeitherstagepaintingor actualarchitectureitembraceselementsof both. Therecently discovereddecorativeensembles of theVilla of Oplontisprovide evidence for both thecontemporaneity and thecrossborrowing between the "porticus"mannerdescribedby Leach andthe scaenaefronsfashion. Toget tothe atriumfrom thelandside of thevilla,itwill beremembered, thevisitorhadtoleavethevisualaxisannouncedinthepropylonhall(21)and followalongthelongcorridorsflanking it.Oncewithinthevastreachesof the atrium,itsSecondStylepaintingannouncesitstheme.Onboth longwallsfic tivecolonnadesin perspectiveframethetwolarge falsedoors,oneseenfront ally,theother,atthe northside,foreshortenedasthoughseen fromthecenter of theroom (Fig. 42).^"This perspectiveschemepositions theviewer onaxis, neartheimpluvium.Illusionisticstepsleaduptothedoors,decoratedwiththe figures of victoriesandsurmountedbylandscapepanels(Fig.43).Shieldswith portrait heads (thesocalled imaginesclipeatae) and theprecious marbles of therevetmentsandcolumnsrevealthepatron'sdesiretotransformthisalready largespaceintoakindofroyalvestibule,withdoorsleadingtorichlydecorated receptionhalls withinthe palace.^ Painteddoors occurfrequently in bothFirst andSecondStyle interiors.A fictivedoorcompletestheaxialsymmetryoftheFirstStyleatriumoftheHouse ofluliusPolybiusatPompeii.Totherightoftheaxialentrancetothehouseisa realdoor;ontheleftoftheentryaxisthedecoratorpaintedamatchingdoor."
63. Eleanor Winsor Leach, "Patrons, Painters, and Patterns: The Anonymity of Romano CampanianPaintingandtheTransitionfromtheSecondtotheThirdStyle,"inLiteraryand Artis ticPatronagein Ancient Rome,ed.BarbaraK. Gold(Austin,1982),153159. 64. Mariette deVos, "Tecnicae tipologia dei rivestimenti pavimentalie parietali,"in Sette finestre: Una villa schiavistica nell'Etruria romana, ed. Andrea Carandini and Salvatore Settis (Modena,1985),1:85,notespaintedrepresentationsofdoorsintheVillaofSettefinestre,theVilla ofthePapyri,theVillaofBoscoreale,theVillaof theMysteries,andinsevenexamplesatPompeii. 65. Leach,"Patrons,Painters,andPatterns,"147149,interpretsthefictive transversespaces asillusionisticalae, commentingthat "thisatriumis intendedless forpractical businessthan for show." 66. Bek,TowardsParadiseonEarth,183184,fig.68;Bekincorrectlyidentifiestherealdoor onthe rightas"thedoor leadinginto thehouseitself." Entranceis throughthe cehtralopening, thatof thetablinum.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

FIGURE 42. Large,ornatedoors anda colonnadein perspectiveare regal allusionsin tlieatrium.

Thepainteddoorbothstressestheimportanceofarchitecturalbalanceandthe desire of theowner to make the modest vestibule seem grander than it was. RealdoorsremainingfromtheFirstStyleschemealongthesidesoftheatrium in the Villa of theMysterieswereleft in placewhen thespaces towhich they originallyled wereclosed in.In thiswaythey becamefalsedoors butkept the original symmetry and grandeur of the atrium's decoration, based on faux marble blockswith landscapepanels inthe upperzone.We havealreadyseen howthefalsedoorthatformsthefocusoftriclinium6'sSecondStyleschemein theVillaof theMysterieswasinspiredbyadoorleadingtotheatriumthatwas eliminated. Thegrandiose toneset by theatrium is continued in the villa's enormous triclinium (14), where elaborate entrances to sanctuaries appear on the rear andsidewalls(Pi.5).Tallandelaboratecolumnssupportanarchitraveframed atitsuppermostpartinstuccorelief.Thestuccocorniceisintwoparts,witha thin band below in low relief surmounted by a thick dentillated molding in highrelief.This uppermoldingmarked theactualtransition fromwalltoceil ing.ThisraresurvivalofastuccomoldinginaSecondStyleroomillustratesits

FIGURE 43. Victoriesadornboth battensof adoor,whilealandscape panelappearsabovethelintel.

4 ^

importantroleinincreasingthebelievabilityoftheillusionthattheroomwasa colonnadedpavilion withcolumnssupportingthe ceihng. Asin cubiculum16of theVillaof theMysteries,astoundingcareand vari etyof detailinviteclose viewing.Golden, bejeweled tendrilswind around the goldencolumns framingthedoors tothesanctuaries.The recentrvaluation of thegems foundin theexcavations of the Horti Lamianiin Romesuggests thatthere realcolumns of gilded woodand ivorywerestudded with precious andsemipreciousgems in themannerdepictedhere.*'^
67. Maddalena Cima, "Il 'preziosoarredo' degli horti Lamiani," in Eugenio La Rocca and MaddalenaCima,Le tranquilledimoredeglidei:Laresidenza imperialedeglihortiLamiani(Ven ice,1986),124128,pis.4445; forpaintedrepresentationsofgemsinthelateSecondStyleVilla

114

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHE LATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATE REPUBLIC

115

FIGURE44. Atragicmask andapeacock onaledgeincrease the strengthof theillusion inoecus15.

FIGURE 45. Untheatrical details,like the glass bowl withfigs, adorn the

fivepartstagesettingof oecus23.

Althoughthesanctuariespicturedon thewallshave beencalledsanctuaries of Apollo,presumably becauseApollineattributes,such asthe quiverand the griffin,arepresent,itissafertoassumethatthisisahybridof theporticustype andthestagesettingfortragedy mentionedbyVitruvius.^ Asinthe mysteries friezeof theVilla of theMysteries, images are allusive but notillustrative. If oneinsistedondefiningsuchSecondStyledecorationsstrictly,forinstance,the sanctuarydepicted ontheeast wallof adjoiningroom15, withits prominent peacocks,wouldhave tobeasanctuary ofJuno (Fig.44).Incidentalelements, such as the bird on the podium, the tragic masks, and the pinakes resting againstcolumnswouldhave tobeexcluded topursuethislineof reasoning.
of the Farnesina:Irene Bragantini and Mariettede Vos, Le decorazionidella villaromana della Farnesina,MuseoNazionaleRomano,voi.2,pt. 1:Lepitture (Rome,1982),pis.39,SS,56,153; inthe FourthStylepaintingsof theHouseof theMenander, inAmedeo Maiuri, LaCasa delMe nandroeit suotesorodi argenteria,2vols. (Rome,1933),2:figs.4446,pl.10. 68. Vitruvius Dearchitectura7.5.2.(Loeb, 2:102103).

Room23'sSecondStyleschemeisthemostclearlyderivedfromthescaenae fronsof tragictheater (Fig.45).'^' Pilastersresting onthesocle dividethewall intofivecompartments.Thetwooutermostcompartmentsarepavilionspush ingforward fromthe wallplane, and thecenter isclearly thestage door.But evenheretheincidentalpresenceofabasketoffigsrestingonthepodiuminthe righthandcompartment revealsthe painter's(andthepatron's) tasteforanec dotaldetail.Suchinsertionofimageshavingnothingtodowiththetheaterbut being showyin theirtrompel'oeilillusionism weighsagainst anystricticono graphicalinterpretation.IfRomanslikePlinytheElder mademuchof Zeuxis's depictionof grapesso realisticthat birds pecked at them^itseems Hkely
69. Leach'snotionthatroom23'sdecorationpostdatestheotherSecondStylewallsatOplon tismustberejected;"Patrons, Painters,andPatterns,"171note30. 70. Pliny the Elder Naturalishistoria 35.36.6566."Parrhasios is reported tohave entered intoa contestwith Zeuxis,and whenZeuxis depictedsome grapeswith suchsuccess thatbirds flewupto thescene,Parrhasiosthen depictedalinencurtain withsuchverisimilitudethatZeuxis, puffedupwith prideby theverdictof thebirds, eventuallyrequested thatthecurtain beremoved

li

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATE REPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

117

FIGURE 47. Both Stucco omamcnt and

painted perspectives differentiate

thealcovesin cubiculum11.

FIGURE46. Mosaicband,painted pilaster,and

projectingstuccocornicecoordinatetodividethe areafortheseated guestsfromtheanteroomin triclinium 14.

thattheyprizedtheirfrescoedSecondStylewallsfortheirillusionisticeffectsas muchasfor theregalassociationsdiscussed inchapter 2. CoordinationofDecorativeEnsembles Intheend,nomatterhowrefined the wallpainting,thesewereroomstobelivedin,afactunderscoredbythewayin which painting and stucco decoration coordinate with mosaic decoration to emphasizethefunctionof eachspace.
andhispicturcshown, and,whenhe understoodhiserror,concededdefeat withsinceremodesty, becausehehimselfhad onlydeceivedbirds, butParrhasioshaddeceivedhim, anartist";JeromeJ. Pollict,TheArt ofGreece,140031 B.C.:SourcesandDocuments(EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.,1965), 155.

Intriclinium14amosaicbandwithapolychromemeanderdesigncoincides with pilasters painted on the wall (Fig. 46). Stucco molding, pilasters, and mosaictogether dividethe inner areawhere diningcoucheswereplaced from theouter area used for serving.The inner spacehas a central carpet with a polychromedesign of diamondsin ashaded latticepattern, withthe represen tationsof sanctuarieson thewalls. In thecirculation spaceof theouter area, wallsof blocksofyellowmarblewithmonochromesacroidylliclandscapesare coupledwith asimple grid patternof blacktesserae on thefloor. Thesesharp distinctions in decorative systems visually divide this single, deep, Ushaped roomintotwoseparatespaceswithtwo differentfunctions. Likecubiculum 16of theVilla of theMysteries,cubiculum 11atOplontis employs carefully orchestrated ensembles of complementary but contrasting mosaic, painted, and stucco decoration to differentiate the alcoves from the antechamber (Fig. 47).Two different patternsin themosaic scendiletti mark

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHE LATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATE REPUBLIC

119

FIGURE 48.

Illusionisticallyshaded squareandrectangular lacunarsdeco ratetheceilingof thenorthalcove.

FIGURE49. Agridofporphyrylinesappearsundertheabradedlacunaryin

theeastalcove'sceiling.

the alcoves on the floor." The room's wellpreserved stucco moldings and paintedbarrel vaultsovereachalcoveshowhow thisdifferentiationofthetwo spacesonthefloor wascarriedthroughon thewallsandtheceiUngs.Trompe l'oeil pilasters on the walls of each alcove correspond with the scendiletto bandsonthefloor. Theyappeartosupporttheheavystuccoarchitraveandare toppedon eachside of thealcoves bysectionsof molding.Supportedby con soles,these blocksof moldingjutoutfrom theuppercorniceof thearchitrave, likethose of triclinium14. Between these juttingsectionsof moldingrun the stuccobands thatframethe intradosof each barrelvault. Likethe scendiletti on thefloor beneath them, each carries a different design. Whereas dentil ranges and beadandreel moldingsculminate in alternatingsquares and dia monds in thenorth alcove, theyend in a bandof squares with hollowedout centersin theeastalcove.
71. Clarke,"Relationships,"95andfig. 4.

Thescendiletti, pilasters, juttingmoldings, andintrados moldingstogether forma threedimensionalframedefining theentrancetoeach alcove.As scen dilettoand intradosbands differ fromonealcove tothe other,so doeach al cove'swallandceiling painting.ThedifferencesinthewaUpaintingareevident from thephotograph.''^ Cubiculum 11is unique in preserving theceilings of both alcoves and the landscapepaintedinthetympanumofthenorthalcove.Althoughbothceilings employlacunaryschemes,they, too,werecarefullydifferentiated.In thenorth alcove'sceiling(Fig. 48)twosquare lacunarsappearon thelowerpart of each sideof thevault,followedoneachsidebytwo rectangularlacunarsofthesame width.Theillusionof thelacunars'recedingplanesiscarriedbyshadedstripes
i 72. Seealso thecolorplatesinAlfonso deFranciscis,"La villaromana di Oplontis,"in Neue Forschungeniti Pompeji,ed.Bernard AndreaeandHelmut Kyrieleis (Recklinghausen,1975), 27, fig. 14;thedrawing inAlix Barbet, La peinturemurale romaine: Lesstyles dcoratifs pompiens (Paris,1985), 60,fig. 29,incorrectlyreproduces thesamestucco patternfor bothintradosbands.

DECORATIVEENSEMBLES OFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

T
A

sionismandthecompetitionof mosaic,stucco,andpaintedpatterns,although contrarytomoderncanonsoftaste,providedalively andengaging(buthardly restful)interiordecoration. ^ ButwithAugustus thisshowyandaggressivedecoration wouldcome toan end,tobereplaced bya moresober tastethatended inreaffirming theflatness of thedecoratedsurfacesandexploredfurthertheminiaturismhintedatinthe bestSecondStyledecorations.

FIGURE50.

ANiloticlandscape decoratedthetympanum of thenorthalcove.

rangingincolorfromlightcreamtoHghtredtodarkredto black.Closeobser vation reveals that these panels were ornately deprated in added gold with tongueanddartmoldings. Theceihngof theeastalcove (Fig.49) usesthesame colors,butin placeof thelacunarsonthelowerpartof eachsidetwolongrectangularlacunarypan elsappear,followed bytwosetsof threerectangularpanelsset atrightangles tothem.Themassivepaintlossesrevealagridof Unespaintedin porphyryred thatformedlayingoutlinesforthedesign. Althoughmuchfadedandabraded,thelandscapeinthenorthalcove's tym panumrevealsanotherwayin whichtheSecondStyleemployedthenewgenre of landscapepainting."Whereas similarlandscapes occur in theatrium of the Villaof theMysteries(seeFig. 29)andin thefaucesof theSamniteHouse(see Fig.25), beforethe discovery of theVilla of Oplontisthey were unknownin cubicula.Thedrawingreconstructsthepainting(Fig.50).'^Itsdetailsfigures standing and gesturing against colonnades and pavilions, the two men in a boat,thescenesof greetingand leavetakingservetoconnectthis landscape with the Nilotictradition mentioned above; in particular the pavilion by the watercomparescloselywith thatin theBarberinimosaic/"* This cubiculum reveals the richness and variety of detail employed in SecondStyledecorative ensembles.Thecomplexity of theirarchitectural illu
73. Thisreconstrucrionisbasedonmyowntracingoftheremainsofthepaintingdonein1988 andthedrawingbyloriodonein1968,atthe timeofexcavation.ThedrawinginBarbet, Peinture muraleromaine,60,fig. 29,islooselymodeled afteralater pencilsketchalsoby Iorio. 74. Gullini,/mosaicidiPalestrina, pl.14.

122

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

DECORATIVEENSEMBLESOFTHELATEREPUBLIC

T H E H O U S E S O F R O M A N I T A L Y 100 B. C.A. D. 2 5 0

R I T U A L , S P A C E ,

D D E C O R A T I O N

J O H N R.

C L A R K E

U N I V E R S I T Y O F C A L I F O R N I A P R E S S Berkeley qjAngeles Oxford