Introduction To Logic

Basic Denitions
Unit 1 Notes Unit 1 Notes
Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review
Introduction to Logic, Unit 1

Kevin C. Klement
UMassAmherst
Logic is the science of the correctness or incorrectness of reasoning. Or, more to the point Logic is the study of the evaluation of arguments. A statement is a declarative sentence, or part of a sentence, that can be either true or false. How many statements are there in the example below? Example Today is the third day of classes this semester, and today is the second day of Logic class. (The answer is 3.)
Basic Denitions, continued

Example ArgumentsIdentify the Conclusion
A proposition is what it is meant by a statement, the idea or notion it expresses. This might be the same for different sentences (e.g. translations from one language into another.) An argument is a collection of statements or propositions, some of which are intended to provide support or evidence in favor of one of the others. The premises of an argument are those statements or propositions in it that are intended to provide the support or evidence. The conclusion of an argument is that statement or proposition for which the premises are intended to provide support. (The intention need not be fullled.)
Example
God is dened as the most perfect being. A perfect being must have every trait or property that its better to have than not to have. It is better to exist than not to exist. Therefore, God exists. Example Hillary Clinton must be a communist spy. She supports socialized health care, and everyone who supports socialized health care is a communist spy. Example It has rained more than 15 inches per year in Amherst every year for the past 30 years. So you can safely bet it will rain more than 15 inches in Amherst this year.

Example Professor Chappell said that the ratio of female to male students in the class was exactly 3:1. This means that there are 112 female students in the class, because there are 148 students in the class total. Example The Encyclopdia Britannica has an article on symbiosis. It stands to reason that the Encyclopedia Americana has an article on symbiosis as well, since the two reference works tend to cover the same topics.
Example 1 is prime. 3 is prime. 5 is prime. 7 is prime. Therefore, all odd integers between 0 and 8 are prime. Example Jason isnt an NRA member. Almost 90% of NRA members are Republicans, and Jason isnt a Republican.
Induction and Deduction

Strong and Weak
Distinction is often taught wrongly. Actually has to do with strength of the strength of the intended evidence. A deductive argument is one in which the author intends the evidence to be so strong that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, or the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. An inductive argument is one in which the author intends the evidence only to be so strong that it is improbable that the premises could be true and the conclusion false, or the conclusion is likely true if the premises are true. This course is almost entirely focused on deductive logic.
A strong inductive argument is for which it actually is the case that the conclusion would probably be true if the premises were true. A weak inductive argument is an inductive argument that is not strong.
Example ArgumentsInductive or Deductive?

Example
God is dened as the most perfect being. A perfect being must have every trait or property that its better to have than not to have. It is better to exist than not to exist. Therefore, God exists. Deductive Example Hillary Clinton must be a communist spy. She supports socialized health care, and everyone who supports socialized health care is a communist spy. Deductive Example It has rained more than 15 inches per year in Amherst every year for the past 30 years. So you can safely bet it will rain more than 15 inches in Amherst this year. Inductive
Example Professor Chappell said that the ratio of female to male students in the class was exactly 3:1. This means that there are 112 female students in the class, because there are 148 students in the class total. Inductive Example The Encyclopdia Britannica has an article on symbiosis. It stands to reason that the Encyclopedia Americana has an article on symbiosis as well, since the two reference works tend to cover the same topics. Inductive

Validity
Basic Denitions
Example 1 is prime. 3 is prime. 5 is prime. 7 is prime. Therefore, all odd integers between 0 and 8 are prime. Deductive Example Jason isnt an NRA member. Almost 90% of NRA members are Republicans, and Jason isnt a Republican. Inductive
Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review
A valid deductive argument is one for which it actually is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, or for which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. An invalid deductive argument is a deductive argument that is not valid. A rough test for validity:
1
First imagine that the premises are truewhether or not they actually are. Ask yourself, without appealing to any other knowledge you have, could you still imagine the conclusion being false? If you can, the argument is invalid. If you cant, then the argument is valid.
Validity and Truth

Soundness
Validity is not about the actual truth or falsity of the premises. Its only about what would follow from the premises if they were true. A valid argument can have false premises. Example All toasters are items made of gold. All items made of gold are time-travel devices. Therefore, all toasters are time-travel devices. Hard to imagine the premises as true. But if they were true, the conclusion would have to be as well. Validity is about the process of reasoning.
Theres more to an arguments being a good one than validity. A good argument must also have true premises. A factually correct argument is an argument with (all) true premises. A sound argument is an argument that is both valid and factually correct. A good argument is a sound argument.
Whats Possible?
Form and Content
Example 1
False premises, False conclusion False premises, True conclusion True premises, False conclusion True premises, True conclusion
Valid possible possible impossible possible
Invalid possible possible possible possible
Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations
All tigers are mammals. No mammals are creatures with scales. Therefore, no tigers are creatures with scales. Example 2 All spider monkeys are elephants. No elephants are animals. Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals. These arguments have the same form:
Sound arguments always have true conclusions.
Review
All A are B. No B are C. Therefore, no A are C.

All arguments with this form are valid.
Form and Content, continued

The Counterexample Method
Example 3
A recap of two points:

All Jedis are one with the Force. Yoda is one with the Force. Therefore, Yoda is a Jedi Example 3 All basketballs are round. The Earth is round. Therefore, the Earth is a basketball. These have the form:
Deductive arguments with the same form are either both valid or both invalid. Valid arguments with true premises always have true conclusions. Together these mean: For any argument, if you can nd another with
1 2
The same form. True premises and a false conclusion.
All A are F. X is F. Therefore, X is an A.

All arguments with this form are invalid.
then both arguments are invalid. The basketball/Earth argument could be used as a counterexample to show the invalidity of the Jedi/Yoda argument.
An Example Counterexample
Counterexample-proof Arguments
Is this valid? All bandersnatches are toves. Some borogoves are toves. Therefore, some bandersnatches are borogoves. Unsure? Try to nd a counterexample. Counterexample to the above. All sh are aquatic animals. Some mammals are aquatic animals. Therefore, some sh are mammals.
If an argument is valid, it is impossible to nd a counterexample. An argument without counterexamples. All bandersnatches are toves. Some borogoves are bandersnatches. Therefore, some toves are borogoves.
Symbolic Logic, Sentential Logic

Atomic and Molecular Statements
Symbolic logic is the study of the evaluation of arguments through the use of mathematically-inspired logical notation. Mathematicans use (e.g.) the signs + and = to stand for the mathematical concepts of addition and equality. Logicians use signs such as and to stand for the logical concepts of disjunction and negation. Sentential logic (also called propositional logic) is the simplest species of symbolic logic; it is the study of truth-functional statement connectives. Statement connectives are words used to make complex (or molecular) statements out of simpler (atomic) ones. Example English statement connectives and, or, but, if, only if, unless, not, yet (etc.)
Example Molecular Statements

I live in Amherst and I hate living there. If Twilight was a good movie, then Im crazy. You shouldnt take this class unless you are prepared to work hard. (The atomic statements are red; the statement connectives blue.) In sentential logic We use uppercase letters to abbreviate entire atomic statements. We use symbols as statement connectives to join atomic statements together to form molecular statements. So the rst example would be written:
L&H
L and H abbreviate the simple statements and & means and.
Functions
Truth Functions
We borrow the notion of a function from math. Crudely put, a function in math has one or more numbers as input, and a number as output. Mathematical Functions The function takes 4 as input and gives 2 as output. ( 4 = 2) The function + takes 5 and 7 as inputs and gives 12 as output. (5 + 7 = 12) The technical names for input and output are argument and value. Sentential logic deals with functions that operate on truth and falsity rather than on numbers. We describe truth and falsity as the truth-values of statements.
The statement connectives of sentential logic can be understood as truth functions. They take the truth-values of simpler statements as inputs and yield the truth-values of molecular statements as outputs. Complex statements with and are true when both sides are true, and false otherwise.
1 2
Amherst is in Massachusetts and Boston is in Massachusetts. Amherst is in Massachusetts and Chicago is in Massachusetts.
Let A be Amherst is in MA, B be Boston is in MA and C be Chicago is in MA.

1 2
A & B is TRUE. A & C is FALSE.
Negation
Conjunction &
The simplest truth function is negation (not). It is written . (This sign is called a tilde.) This is placed before the statement to which it applies. Its output is the opposite of its input.
Conjunction (and), unlike negation, has two inputs. Conjunction is written &. This sign is called an ampersand. It goes between the two statements it connects (the conjuncts). There are four possible combinations for the two inputs.
p
T F
p
F T
p
T T F F
q
T F T F
p&q
T F F F
This sign is used to translate not, it is not true that, it is false that, it is not the case that, etc. Some other logic books use the signs or . (This is not the same as the mathematical concept of negative.) I am not 8 feet tall. = I am 8 feet tall.
This translates and, but, moreover, however, although, yet, etc. Some other books use the signs or .
Disjunction
Unit 1 Notes
Material Implication
Unit 1 Notes
Disjunction (or) is written . This sign is usually called a wedge. Its two inputs are called its disjuncts.
p
T T F F
q
T F T F
pq
T T T F
Material implication, also called the material conditional is written . This sign is called the arrow.
p
T T F F
q
T F T F
pq
T F T T
Translates or, either . . . or . . . and unless. This leaves open the possibility that both sides are true. This called the inclusive or. The word or is sometimes used another way in English. Compare: 1 Either the Yankees will be AL champs or the Mets will be NL champs. (Inclusive or) 2 Either the Red Sox will be AL champs or the Yankees will be AL champs. (Exclusive or)
The if-part of a conditional is called the antecedent, and the then-part is called the consequent. Some other books use the signs or . This is used to translate if . . . then . . . , . . . only if . . . and . . . implies that . . . . But there are differences.
Differences between and if . . . then . . .

Unit 1 Notes
Material Equivalence
Unit 1 Notes
Since is a truth-function, it behaves a bit differently from if . . . then . . . . There doesnt need to be any causal or conceptual link between A and B for A B to be true. Always true when the part before the arrow is false. Example If Al Gore is the president (A), then a Republican is running the country (R). (false) A R (true) Always true when the part after the arrow is true. Example If Kevin grew up in Milwaukee (G), then Kevin lived in Minnesota (L). (Unclear, but seems false.) G L (true)
Material equivalence, also called the material biconditional, is written . This sign is called a double arrow.
T T F F
T F T F
pq
T F F T
Used to translate . . . if and only if . . . , its abbreviation . . . iff . . . , and . . . just in case . . . . But again, there are differences. Example Al Gore is president (A) if and only if a Republican is running the country (R). (false) A R (true) Some other books use instead.
Complex Statements
Parentheses
Complex statements with more than two atomic parts

Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review 3 2 1
The election was held on November 7th 2000, and either Bush won the election or Gore won the election. If you think N Sync was good or you think the Backstreet Boys were talented, then youre crazy. I hate Justin Timberlake, but if you like Fergie, then if you dont like Britney Spears, then we can still be friends.
E & (B G)
The placement of parentheses determines the order in which functions are applied. This order can matter, just as in math. (12 3) 4 = 1 but 12 (3 4) = 16. Let A, B and C be true, and X , Y and Z be false. Then (A B) & Y is FALSE. But A (B & Y ) is TRUE. And Y C is TRUE. But (Y C) is FALSE.
(N B) C
H & [L ( B F )]
To translate these we need to use multiple connectives. We need the parentheses for the same reason we need them in math.
Evaluating Complex Statements

Unit 1 Notes
Truth Tables
Unit 1 Notes
Work from inside parentheses outwards. Negations apply only to what comes immediately after, and are calculated prior to anything inside the same number of parentheses. Examples (Again, A, B, C are true; X , Y , Z are false.)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Suppose you dont know the truth values of P and Q. What can you know about P (Q P)? A lot! There are four possibilities for P and Q: both are true, P is true and Q is false, or vice versa, or both are false. Writing the possibilities under the atomic statements makes a table.
A (B & C) TRUE
(Y Z) & (A Y ) FALSE [C (A Y )] X TRUE [(C A) & B] TRUE
P
T T F F
(Q
T F T F
P)
T T F F
A A TRUE
Y Y TRUE
The main connective of a statement is the one used last in the calculation, having the whole statement as its scope.
(Here we repeat the same possibilities under both occurrences of P, since they abbreviate the same statement.)
Truth Tables, continued.

Truth Tables, continued
By comparing the columns in green and pink we can determine the truth-value for the conditional sub-statement on the right.
P
T T F F
P
T T F F
(Q
T F T F
T T F T
P)
T T F F
T T T T
(Q
T F T F
T T F T
P)
T T F F
The yellow column then represents the truth value of the part in parentheses. We can now use it to calculate the truth value of the whole. (Ill change the colors to indicate which columns were now looking at.)
The column under the main operator (here yellow) is very important. You may want to indicate it in some way. It tells you the truth value of the whole statement. In this case, it tells you that this statement cannot be false.
Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

Contingent Statements
A tautology is a statement that is true for every possible assignment of truth values to its atomic parts. Example
A contingent statement is a statement that is true for some truth-value assignments, and false for others. Example
P (Q P) is a tautology.
A self-contradiction is a statement that is false for every possible assignment of truth values to its atomic parts. Example
P (P Q) is a contingent statement. P
T T F F
T F F F
(P
T T F F
T F T T
Q)
T F T F
P & P is a self-contradiction. P &

F F T F
F T
T F
This statement is true when both P and Q are true, and false otherwise.
How to Draw a Truth Table

Unit 1 Notes 1 2 Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review 5 3 4
The Process in Action

Unit 1 Notes
Count the number of distinct atomic statements. For n atomics, we 2n rows. (Doubles with each new one.)
For 1 atomic, we need 2 rows. For 2 atomics, we need 4 rows. For 3 atomics, we need 8 rows. For 4 atomics, we need 16 rows, etc.
1 Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review
Count the letters. First letter: half Ts, half Fs. Cut each half in half for next letter; repeat. Last letter alternates Ts and Fs. Rest of table, inside parentheses to out. Check nal column. (Contingent!)
P
T T T T F F F F
T T T T T F F T
[Q
T T F F T T F F
F F T T T F F T
(
F F F F T T T T
P
T T T T F F F F
&
F F F F T F T F
R)]
T F T F T F T F
For the rst atomic, make the rst half true, second half false. For the next, do half as many trues consecutively as the previous, then the same number of Fs, and repeat. Last one should alternate T, F, T, F, etc.
Example Suppose a statement has P, Q and R as distinct letters. You need eight rows. For P make the rst four rows T, and the second four F. For Q, do two Ts, then two Fs, repeat. For R, alternate T/F.
Ready for 4 atomics (16 rows)?
Monster Truth Table

Unit 1 Notes
Logical Equivalence
[(C D) (C D)]
T T F F T T F F T T F F T T F F T F F T T F F T T F F T T F F T T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T F F T T F F T T F F T T F F F T T F F T T F F T T F F T T F F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F
Unit 1 Notes
[(A B) (B A)]
T T T T T T T T F F F F F F F F T T T T F F F F T T T T T T T T T T T T F F F F T T T T F F F F T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T F F F F T T T T F F F F T T T T T T T T F F F F T T T T T T T T T T T T F F F F F F F F
&
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness
Logically equivalent statements are those that necessarily have the same truth value (the same for every possible truth value assignments to their atomic parts). We can test for logical equivalence with a combined truth table for two statements. Their nal columns should match exactly. Do (P & Q) and P & Q mean the same?
A tautology!
Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review
F T T T
(P
T T F F
&
T F F F
Q)
T F T F
F F T T
P
T T F F
&
F F F T
F T F T
Q
T F T F
No. These differ in truth-value when P is true and Q is false, or vice-versa.
Logical Equivalence, continued

Truth Tables for Arguments

We can also test the validity of an argument with a combined truth table for the premises and conclusion.
Another example:
Basic Denitions
P
T T F F
T F T T
Q
T F T F
Q
T F T F
T F T T
F F T T
P
T T F F
Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic
P
T T T T F F F F
T T F F T T T T
Q
T T F F T T F F
R
T F T F T F T F
T T F T T T F T
Q
T T F F T T F F
R
T F T F T F T F
T F T F F T F T
P
T T T T F F F F
Important: This is done like one table, not two, so P and Q are treated the same in the two statements. These are true on precisely the same rows. In other words, they are logically equivalent.
Truth Tables Translations Review
If there is any possibility (even one row) that all the premises are true, and the conclusion false, the argument is invalid. We have two.
Truth Tables for Arguments, continued

A Table for a Real Argument
However, if not a single row has all true premises and a false conclusion, the argument is valid.
Example
P
T T T T F F F F
T T T T T T F F
Q
T T F F T T F F
P
T T T T F F F F
T F T F T T T T
R
T F T F T F T F
F T F T F T F T
R
T F T F T F T F
T F T T T F T T
F F T T F F T T
Q
T T F F T T F F
R
T F T F T F T F
If there is a God (G), then God created everything in the universe (C). If God created everything in the Universe (C), then everything in the universe is good (E). Its not the case that everything in the universe is good (E). Therefore, there is not a God (G).
G
T T T T F F F F
T T F F T T T T
C
T T F F T T F F
C
T T F F T T F F
T F T T T F T T
E
T F T F T F T F
F T F T F T F T
E
T F T F T F T F
F F F F T T T T
G
T T T T F F F F Valid, yes. But sound?
The argument is valid. (We dont know if its sound.)
Translations into Sentential Logic

Letter Choice, continued
The rst step is to assign a letter to each simple statement. Usually well use the rst letter in the statement. Example If we are going dancing, then Jessica should change her shoes and Mark should take a shower. Use: W for we are going dancing, Use: J for Jessica should change her shoes, and Use: M for Mark should take a shower. The nal translation is W (J & M ).
However, you must use different letters for different statements. Pick something to help remember the difference. Example Either Ill buy a Chevy, or Ill buy a Ford. Becomes: C F Use the same letter twice only if the same simple statement is repeated. Example Either the Belchertown bus is late, or the Belchertown bus is not late and the schedule is outdated. Becomes: B ( B & S)
Translating Conjunctions
Translating Disjunctions
translates or and the phrase either . . . or . . . . Example (Inclusive) Disjunctions
1
& translates and, but, yet, although, however, moreover, whereas, etc. (These differ in connotation only.) The & always goes in the middle, even if the English word begins the sentence. Example Conjunctions
1
Peter is intelligent but he voted for Bush. Becomes: I & V Philosophers loves truth whereas rhetoricians love eloquence. Becomes: P & R Although Quebec is in Canada, the people in Quebec speak French. Becomes: Q & S
If context suggests the exclusive sense of or, the translation must be more complex. Example Exclusive Disjunction Either you can keep dating Sanjukta or you can keep dating Kalinda [but not both]. Becomes: (S K ) & (K & S) or S K
Either Peter overslept or he forgot about the meeting. Becomes: O F
Jenna bought a copy of the book from the bookstore, or she downloaded it online. Becomes: B D
Translating Negations
Translating Conditionals
loosely translates all of if . . . then . . . , . . . if . . . , . . . only if . . . , . . . provided that . . . , . . . on the condition that . . . , . . . in case . . . , . . . implies that . . . . The tricky thing with is that the order matters. Example Conditionals
1
translates anything used to negate a sentence: not, it is not the case that . . . , it is not true that . . . , it is false that . . . . It can be hard to spot if it appears mid-sentence, or in a contracted form as part of a nt word. Example Negations
1
It isnt raining. Becomes: R
It is not true that Boston is boring. Becomes: B Kanye West is no genius. Becomes: K where K is Kanye West is a genius.
If Anna goes out, then Ken babysits. Anna goes out only if Ken babysits. Annas going out implies that Ken babysits. Provided that Anna goes out, Ken babysits. In case Anna goes out, Ken babysits. ALL become: A K
Anna goes out if Ken babysits. Anna goes out provided that Ken babysits. Anna goes out on the condition that Ken babysits. Become: K A
Tips for Getting the Order of Conditionals Right

Translating Biconditionals
The if-part goes before the arrow.

So if the word if (or a synonym) is in the middle, reverse directions. P Q rules out P being true while Q false; think about the truth of which rules out the falsity of the other. Although Q P is not equivalent to P Q, it is equivalent with P Q. only if is like if except that it reverses the order (or, equivalently, negates both sides). When only if is in the middle, its like reversing the position back to left-to-right. P only if Q translates to either P Q or Q P.
translates the whole phrase if and only if, its abbreviation iff, as well as the phrase just in case. Example Biconditionals
1
Annemarie will make it to the conference if and only if her car is running well. Becomes: A C Kevin will have a date this weekend just in case hell freezes over. Becomes: K H
Hidden Conjunctions and Disjunctions

Hidden Conjunctions and Disjunctions, continued
Grammatically non-compound sentences can express molecular propositions when words like and or or join names or predicates. Examples
1
Statements with and/or between names or predicates cannot always be broken into separate atomic statements. Naomi and Kathy are roommates. Is this a hidden conjunction? Does this mean Naomi is a roommate and Kathy is a roommate? It might, but more likely it means that they are roommates to each other. It is inappropriate to translate this as N & K , since it does not express two separate thoughts. Make it just R. You need to consider each case individually.
Massachusetts and Connecticut are in New England. means Massachusetts is in New England (M ) and Connecticut is in New England (C). Becomes: M & C Sean is either Irish or Scottish. means Either Sean is Irish (I) or Sean is Scottish (S). Becomes: I S
Neither . . . Nor . . . and Unless

Unit 1 Notes
Necessary and Sufcient Conditions

Unit 1 Notes
Neither p nor q can be translated as either (p q) or p & q. Unless roughly means if not. So, unless p, q can be put as p q. (Like if, reverse the order if its in the middle!) Examples
1
Minnesota is neither an Eastern nor a Western state. Becomes: (E W ) or E & W Sarah works at the library, unless shes been red. Becomes: F W (or alternatively, F W )
Neither the sun shone nor the stars twinkled. Becomes: (S T ) or S & T
p is a sufcient condition for q means that p guarantees q, or that if p then q. p is a necessary condition for q means that q can be true only if p is, or that if q is true, p must be. (The difference is the same as between if and only if.) p is necessary and sufcient for q can be translated with . Examples
1
Unless you stop starting at me, Ill throw a taco at you. Becomes: S T (or alternatively, S T )
Buying a ticket is a necessary condition for winning the jackpot. Becomes: W B or B W Knowing Bjrk is necessary and sufcient for loving Bjrk. Becomes: K L
Averaging above 50% is a sufcent condition for passing. Becomes: A P
Translating Complex Statements

Example Complex Statements
For these we need to combine approaches

1
Parenthesis placement can be tricky

Unless ALLIE and ERIN go to the party, I dont WANT to go. Becomes: (A & E) W context common sense punctuation
Youll ENJOY Scary Movie provided you have a SENSE of humor and you LIKE horror movies. Becomes: (S & L) E
Its not true that Im BALD and Im LAZY. Becomes: (B & L)
Its not true that I am BALD, and I RESENT the insult. Becomes: B & R
To properly place parentheses, make use of:
If they go to the STORE at 7pm then theyll arrive HOME at 9pm, but Ill be GROWING hungry by 8pm. Becomes: (S H ) & G
If they go to the STORE at 7pm, then theyll arrive HOME at 9pm and they will MISS the start of the movie. Becomes: S (H & M )
Translating Whole Arguments

Translating Arguments, continued
Guidelines and tips for translating an entire argument:

Another example argument

Identify the conclusion rst. (Remember it neednt be last.) Use the same letter for the same simple statement. Use different letters for different simple statements.
Example If the man in black murdered Inigo Montoyas father, then the man in black has SIX ngers on his right hand. The man in black does not have six ngers on his right hand, so the man in black did not MURDER Inigo Montoyas father. Whats the conclusion? The one in red. Lets use M . Then we do the premises. We have one other statement: S. M S ; S / M
Marijuana will not be legalized in the next decade unless the medical community will SUPPORT its legalization. Thus a medical USE for marijuana will be found soon if marijuana will be LEGALIZED in the next decade, because the medical community will support its legalization only if a medical use is found soon. First, lets nd the conclusion. In the middle! We translate it rst. Done. Now the premises.
S L ; S U / L U
Now we can check its validity with a truth table.
Truth Table for Translated Argument

More Examples
The OZONE layer becoming depleted is a sufcient condition for SKIN cancer rates increasing to epidemic levels, although our POLITICIANS do not seem concerned with the problem. Becomes: (O S) & P
F F F F T T T T
S
T T T T F F F F
T T T T F F T T
F F T T F F T T
L
T T F F T T F F
S
T T T T F F F F
T F T F T T T T
U
T F T F T F T F
L
T T F F T T F F
T F T T T F T T
U
T F T F T F T F
HUMAN life on Earth will not perish unless either we POISON ourselves with pollution or a large ASTEROID collides with Earth. Becomes: (P A) H CHINA and RUSSIA will reduce their nuclear arsenals only if neither the UNITED States nor BRITAIN increase their tariffs. Becomes: (C & R) ( U & B)
The argument is valid.
The EBOLA virus is deadly, but it will become a MAJOR threat to humanity if and only if becomes AIRBORNE and a VACCINE is not developed. Becomes: E & [M (A & V )]
More Examples
Unit 1 Notes
More Examples
Unit 1 Notes
If EVOLUTIONARY biology is correct, then HIGHER life forms arose by chance, but if higher life forms arose by chance, then it is not the case that there is any DESIGN in nature and divine PROVIDENCE is a myth. Becomes: (E H ) & [H ( D & P)] SHEILA is the best candidate, but she wont WIN the election unless a MIRACLE occurs. Becomes: S & ( M W ) A UNITED Nations-lead military being created is a necessary condition for there existing PEACE in the 21st century. Becomes: U P Neither RAIN nor SNOW will prevent your postal carrier from delivering the mail. Becomes: R & S IKE and TINA Turner wont both sing at the concert. Becomes: (I & T )
Ill get TENURE only if I PUBLISH and get good teaching EVALUATIONS, but Ill neither publish nor get good teaching evaluations unless I DELETE all the games on my computer. Becomes: [T (P & E)] & [ D ( P & E)] Although narcotic drug use is DETRIMENTAL to the welfare of many, if we want to KEEP our streets safe and REDUCE our police expenditures, we must either LEGALIZE drug use or not ENFORCE the existing laws. Becomes: D & [(K & R) (L E)] Ross and Rachel will get back together on the condition that Ross takes full responsibility for the break-up and does not sleep with the girl from the copyshop again. Becomes: (R & S) G If death is like a deep SLEEP or there is an AFTERLIFE, then there is not any reason to FEAR death unless GOD is cruel. Becomes: (S A) ( G F )
More Examples
Unit 1 Notes
Whats On Exam 1?
Unit 1 Notes
If it is not true that KEN will watch the baby if ANNA goes out tonight, then we will need to nd a BABYSITTER. Becomes: (A K ) B Peter is a GENTLEMAN and a SCHOLAR, but he will get a JOB if and only if his BRIBING a university ofcial is a necessary and sufcient condition for his getting a job. Becomes: (G & S) & [J (B J)]
24 true/false questions about denitions (1A)

24 syllogisms to identify as valid or invalid, factually correct or not factually correct, and sound or sound (1B) 24 truth-tables to determine whether a statement is a tautology contradiction or contingent (2B/3A) 24 truth-tables to determine whether an argument is valid or invalid (like 3C) 610 translations into Sentential logic (like 4A4D) 13 combined problems involving translating an and checking its validity with a truth table The practice exam available on Moodle provides a near perfect model of the exam.
I have FREEWILL to choose my actions if and only if I am not COERCED, provided that it is false that all human action is DETERMINED by brain chemistry. Becomes: D (F C)
I will be in DEBT next month if my TAX refund doesnt arrive before the 28th, but if my tax refund arrives before the 28th, then Ill go to CANCUN with you over Spring Break if you ASK. Becomes: ( T D) & [T (A C)]
Review: True/False
REVIEW: Syllogisms
All valid arguments are sound. (False) All sound arguments are valid. (True) All arguments with all true premises and true conclusions are valid. (False) All valid arguments with true conclusions are sound. (False) All invalid arguments with false premises have true conclusions. (False)
Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic
Valid? Factually correct? Sound? No novels are books. Some books are refrigerators. Therefore, all novels are refrigerators. Invalid | Factually Incorrect | Unsound All poets are authors. All novelists are authors. Therefore, some poets are novelists. Invalid | Factually Correct | Unsound
Truth Tables Translations
Review
REVIEW: Syllogisms, continued

REVIEW: Truth Tables for Statements
F F F F
[(P
T T F F
Valid? Factually correct? Sound? All diamonds are gems. Some gifts are not gems. Therefore, some gifts are not diamonds. Valid | Factually Correct | Sound All camels are snowmobiles. Some staplers are camels. Therefore, some staplers are snowmobiles. Valid | Factually Incorrect | Unsound
F F T T
F F T T
P)
T T F F
T T T T
(Q
T F T F
T T F T
P)]
T T F F
Self-contradiction
F T T T
(P
T T F F
&
T F F F
Q)
T F T F
F F F T
(
F F T T
P
T T F F
T F F T
F T F T
Q)
T F T F
Contingent
REVIEW: Truth Tables for Arguments

Unit 1 Notes
REVIEW: Combined Problem

P
T T F F
T F T T
(P
T T F F
&
F T F F T T F F T T F F T T F T T T F T
F T F T
Q)
T F T F
Q
T F T F
T T F T
P
T T F F
T F F T
Q
T F T F T F T F T F T F Valid
Unit 1 Notes
Translate, then Truth Table The KANGAROO will be saved from extinction only if SPORTS shoe manufacturers decline to use kangaroo hides in their products. After all, if sports shoe manufacturers decline to use kangaroo hides in their products, then AUSTRALIAN hunters will cease killing millions of kangaroos yearly. Moreover, it is not the case that both Australian hunters will cease killing millions of kangaroos yearly and the kangaroo will not be saved from extinction. Conclusion? First sentence. Lets translate. Now premises.
Basic Denitions Example Arguments Induction and Deduction Validity and Soundness Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables
P
T T T T F F F F
T T F T T T T T
(Q R)
F T F T F T F T T F T F T F T F
P
T T T T F F F F
T T F F T T T T
Q
T T F F T T F F
F T F T F F F F
(P R)
T T T T F F F F T F T F T T T T
Invalid
Translations Review
S A ; (A & K ) / K S
Now lets do its truth table.
REVIEW: Combined Problem, continued

Unit 1 Notes
S
T T T T F F F F
T T F F T T T T
A
T T F F T T F F
T F T T T F T T
(A
T T F F T T F F
&
F T F F F T F F
F T F T F T F T
K)
T F T F T F T F
K
T F T F T F T F
T T T T F T F T
S
T T T T F F F F
Invalid

Introduction To Logic

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Introduction To Logic

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Basic Denitions

Unit 1 Notes Unit 1 Notes

Introduction to Logic, Unit 1

Basic Denitions, continued

Example ArgumentsIdentify the Conclusion

Example ArgumentsIdentify the Conclusion

Example ArgumentsIdentify the Conclusion

Induction and Deduction

Strong and Weak

Example ArgumentsInductive or Deductive?

Example ArgumentsInductive or Deductive?

Example ArgumentsInductive or Deductive?

Validity and Truth

Form and Content

Valid possible possible impossible possible

Invalid possible possible possible possible

Sound arguments always have true conclusions.

All A are B. No B are C. Therefore, no A are C.

Form and Content, continued

The Counterexample Method

A recap of two points:

The same form. True premises and a false conclusion.

All A are F. X is F. Therefore, X is an A.

Symbolic Logic, Sentential Logic

Atomic and Molecular Statements

Example Molecular Statements

Let A be Amherst is in MA, B be Boston is in MA and C be Chicago is in MA.

A & B is TRUE. A & C is FALSE.

Differences between and if . . . then . . .

Complex statements with more than two atomic parts

Evaluating Complex Statements

(Y Z) & (A Y ) FALSE [C (A Y )] X TRUE [(C A) & B] TRUE

Truth Tables, continued.

Truth Tables, continued

Tautologies and Self-Contradictions

P & P is a self-contradiction. P &

How to Draw a Truth Table

The Process in Action

Ready for 4 atomics (16 rows)?

Monster Truth Table

Argument Form Sentential Logic Truth Tables Translations Review

No. These differ in truth-value when P is true and Q is false, or vice-versa.

Logical Equivalence, continued

Truth Tables for Arguments

Truth Tables Translations Review

Truth Tables for Arguments, continued

A Table for a Real Argument

The argument is valid. (We dont know if its sound.)

Translations into Sentential Logic

Letter Choice, continued

Either Peter overslept or he forgot about the meeting. Becomes: O F

It isnt raining. Becomes: R

Tips for Getting the Order of Conditionals Right

The if-part goes before the arrow.

Hidden Conjunctions and Disjunctions

Hidden Conjunctions and Disjunctions, continued

Neither . . . Nor . . . and Unless

Necessary and Sufcient Conditions

Averaging above 50% is a sufcent condition for passing. Becomes: A P

Translating Complex Statements

Example Complex Statements

For these we need to combine approaches

Parenthesis placement can be tricky