IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

AS PER GTU B.E. VIII SYLLEBUS

[Pick the date] DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY ASST. PROF. VIDHI KHOKHANI

CHAPTER 2 PART 2 DRIP IRRIGATION 2.1 DRIP IRRIGATION METHOD Drip irrigation, also called trickle irrigation, refers to the application of water at a slow rate drop by drop through perforations in pipes or through nozzles attached to tubes spread over the soil to irrigate a limited area around the plant. It achieves wetting of even smaller surface area than in case of furrow irrigation. A precise amount of water as equal to daily consumptive use or the depleted soil water as changing with time can be applied. The soil water can be maintained at field capacity or at low tensions during the crop growing period. The soil factors are thus less important in deciding the frequency of irrigation. Deep percolation losses can be completely prevented and the evaporation loss is also reduced. The method is profitably used in arid regions where water is scarce and often of poor quality in respect of salt concentration. Saline water can be more safely used through drip irrigation than through any other method. It enables application of fertilizers along with irrigation water. Drip irrigation ensures optimum growth, better fruiting and early maturity of crops by assuring balanced soil water, air and nutrients throughout the crop period. It is well adapted to a variety of row crops from widely spaced fruit crops to closely spaced vegetable crops. 2.2 Advantages and limitations Major advantages of drip irrigation major advantages of drip irrigation, as other methods of irrigation include the 1. Higher crop yields. Yield increases ranging from 20 to 50% or more in drip irrigated crops, namely fruit crops vegetable crops. The increase in crop yield is mainly due to maintenance of optimum soil moisture in the crop root zone throughout the growing period of the crop with the better control of irrigation water application in the drip system. 2. Improved quality of the harvested produce of the crop. This is because of the maintenance of optimum soil moisture conditions in the root zone throughtout the growing season, resulting in uniform crop growth. In addition, damage and loss due to water contact with foliage are eliminated, resulting in better quality of produce. 3. Savings in irrigation water. 20 to 50 % water is wasted due to percolation, runoff, and evaporation losses which can be eliminated in drip irrigation. Further, the irrigation water
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 42

requirement of crops under drip irrigation is substantially low during the initial stages of crop growth. The saving in water by introducing large scale application of drip irrigation in a project area increases the irrigation command area of the project and provides opportunity for diversification of crops and introduction of high value crops in the cropping system. 4. Increased efficiency in fertilizer use. A drip irrigation system is an effective means of applying fertilizers and other plant nutrients into the crop root zone where they are needed. The efficiency in fertilizer application increases greatly when fertilizers and nutrients are applied with the drip system, as compared to other methods of water application. 5. Reduced energy consumption. Drip irrigation results in reduced energy requirement in pumping, compared to sprinkler irrigation, due to the low operating pressure required by the drip system. Further, the quantity of water required for irrigation is low under the drip system, which further reduces the energy requirement. 6. Tolerance to windy atmospheric conditions. Wind has no adverse influence on drip irrigation, as compared to the sprinkler system. In the drip system, the laterals with the emitters are laid at the land surface and only the point of water application is wetted which is not influenced by the wind. The evaporation loss from the land surface is also negligible, as the wetted area is under the plant foliage, 7. Reduced labour costs. In irrigated agriculture using the drip system, the labour requirements are low due to reduced cost of field preparation, elimination of fertilizer application as a separate operation, low requirement of weeding and fewer harvesting rounds due to more uniform ripening of the crop, 8. Improved disease and pest control. Plant diseases and pests are lower in drip irrigated crops, as compared to other methods of water application. Bacteria, fungi and other organisms are reduced as the 'above ground' plant parts remain dry. As the application of water is limited only to the crop root zone, the areas surrounding the plant remain dry and hence the weed growth in the crop field is greatly reduced. With little or no weed growth, the intensity of pest and disease incidence is reduced. With the elimination of surface runoff resulting from drip irrigation, the spread of disease causing organisms by water movement is reduced, 9. Feasibility of irrigating undulating terrain and sloppy lands. Hilly and undulating terrain cannot be irrigated with surface irrigation methods without extensive land levelling operations. Drip and sprinkler methods can be designed to operate efficiently on almost any topography without incurring the expenditure in land levelling. Drip irrigation can be designed to suit changing field gradients. 10. Suitability for problem soils. In heavy clay soils, with low infiltration rates, low rates of water application can be selected with the drip system to match the soil characteristics. On the other
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 43

hand, in sandy soils with high infiltration rates, water can be applied in small quantities frequently, avoiding deep percolation losses, 11. Improved tolerance to salinity. With the adoption of drip irrigation systems, it is possible to use more saline water for irrigation, as the root zone soil column is kept at higher level of moisture content, resulting in reduced soil moisture stress. The contact of water with the plant is minimized, compared to other methods of irrigation. In general, drip irrigation will reduce the sensitivity of most crops to saline soils and waters, due to its ability to maintain low water tension in the root zone. The frequent application of water with drip irrigation reduces the concentration of salts in the root zone by moving salts away from the root zone to the edges (perimeter) of the wetted bulb formed by the point source of water application in the drip system. This process, called micro-leaching, prevents the harmful combination of high soil salinity and low moisture availability, 12. Promotes congenial soil physical conditions in the root zone. The maintenance of soil moisture at nearly constant and optimum levels by renewing the water supply to the root zone nearly at the same rate as it is used by the plant results in low soil suction and facilitates water and nutrient uptake by the plant and high soil hydraulic conductivity. The soil on the other hand, is never saturated in a properly managed drip irrigation system, and adequate aeration is maintained throughout the growing period of crop The low rate of water application makes drip system suitable even in soils with low infiltration characteristics. 13. Promotes better uniformity in irrigation water application. The large numbers of irrigation points (emitters) in a drip system provide better uniformity of application of water. Low discharges and low heads in the water distribution network enable use of smaller pipes of lower pressure ratings at reduced costs. Fertilizers, pesticides and other chemical may be injected into the system and applied in small quantities, as needed, with irrigation water. 14. Easy in operation. Drip irrigation system is comparatively easy to operate. Irrigation can be continued throughout the day and the night, regardless of wind, daytime temperature or cultural practices. 15. Facilitates automation. Automation could be easily incorporated into the drip irrigation system. 16. Adapted to irrigate crops in green houses. Drip irrigation system is well adapted to irrigate crops grown in covered green houses with no wetting of the walls or the cover. 2.3. Problems associated with drip irrigation s 1. Emitter clogging. A major problem associated with drip irrigation systems is the clogging of emitters, unless preventive measures are taken. Emitter outlets are nearly small and can become clogged easily by suspended materials (sand and silt), precipitated dissolved salts (mainly carbonates), rust and other iron oxides and organic matter (including plant roots, algae other minute animals). Clogging can reduce emission rates and cause poor uniformity of water application. Prolonged clogging can cause severe damage to the crop. Clogging also increases the maintenance costs, as it becomes necessary to check, repair or replace clogged emitters and other components. Chemical treatment and proper filtration of
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 44

water can prevent or correct emitter clogging. The first requirement is to select emitter devices which may require less maintenance. Well-designed filtering systems, when properly maintained, can solve the problem caused by suspended material (sand and silt) and in some cases the organic matter. An effective means of dissolving carbonates is by means of dilute acids. However, it will require an interruption in irrigation water application. Flushing by water or air under pressure is feasible if the pipes and joints can withstand the pressure. Pulse irrigation, namely irrigating at a higher rate for a very short time, is effective. 2. Restricted root development of crops. Drip irrigation normally wets only a part of the root zone. Hence, the root distribution is almost limited to the moist zone. Many factors, involving soil and plant characteristics, management practices and the design of the irrigation system influence the root development of crops. The concentrated distribution of roots may reduce the plants ability to withstand strong winds. Further, the ability of the plant to withstand drought, resulting from any breakdown in the irrigation system, is greatly reduced as water of the wetted zone gets depleted soon and the surrounding region is dry. Careful planning and operation of the irrigation system and prevention of breakdowns will reduce the magnitude of the problem. 3. Salt accumulation at the root zone periphery. Where high salinity water is used for irrigation in arid regions salts tend to accumulate towards the periphery of the wetted zone and the interface between the irrigated and non-irrigated zones in the soil. As the root zone is kept constantly at high moisture level, there may not be any major impact on the crop, but in the next growing season these salts, if not leached away, may damage the succeeding crop if planted on the interface having the salt patch. In regions where drip irrigation is practiced in the dry season with rainfall exceeding about 300 mm in the following rainy season, the salts will generally be leached. Like in other methods of irrigation, good natus al or artificial drainage is needed in drip irrigated areas as well. Otherwise, artificial leaching is to be provided once every one or two years. 4. Damage from rodents and other animals. There are several kinds of burrowing animals which can cause damage to surface or buried polyethylene laterals. They include rats, mice, squirrels, dogs and rabbits. When present in large numbers, these animals can cause heavy damage to drip irrigation systems by chewing holes in the lateral lines. Use of repellents to keep the animals away and baiting or trapping them are possible control measures. Rats and squirrels can be controlled by adopting subsurface drip system. Rats generally never cross a wet surface. Keeping the system moist is a possible remedy to control it. A chemical repellent which tastes or smells bad to the animal can be injected through the system or laid down with the laterals during installation. There are a number of chemicals available which are obnoxious to animals, including anhydrous or aqua ammonia and a number of insecticides which can be injected into the drip system. Rodent damage can also be prevented by the use of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) laterals. Ants and beetles can damage thin-walled polyethylene tubing. Ant damage typically takes the form of holes chewed through the sides of strip tubing and enlargement of orifices in strip tubing. Some types of insects will build a cocoon inside emitter outlets in water distribution tubing. Cocoons are built
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 45

when the system is shut down for a period of time. These insects are to be controlled only during prolonged shut down periods. Ant damage can be successfully controlled with chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. However, these chemicals are usually toxic and persist in the environment and should be used with great care. A common recommendation is to use lateral tubes with sufficient wall thickness (not less than 15 mils (0.38 mm) to reduce damage by ants and insects. 5. High cost of drip irrigation systems. The cost of drip irrigation system is high when compared to surface or portable sprinkler irrigation sys .ems. (Many studies have shown that the cost of solid state sprinkler systems and the drip system are nearly same). Drip irrigation systems are expensive because of their requirements of large quantities of piping and filtration equipment to clean the water. However, the cost of drip irrigation systems varies considerably depending on the crop and terrain. Steep terrain may require several pressure regulators in the system. In many situations, the benefits of the drip system will usually overweigh the cost of the system, when compared to other methods of irrigation. Selecting widely spaced crops of high market value is necessary to increase the benefit-cost ratio in drip irrigation. Under average field conditions, the major components of the total cost of the system lie in the number of laterals/and emitters of the system. Evidently, both these items will be low in orchards and other widely spaced row crops.

2.4 Drip irrigation system consists of three components:

1. Control Head : The control head consists of An overhead tank A flow control valve A water measuring device Pressure control device Filters Pumping unit, etc. The control head is usually located near the source of water. The water is pumped into the overhead tank. The size of overhead tank is usually 3 x 3 x 3 m, resting on a raised platform to maintain a pressure head of 3 to 5m. The filters are used to remove all debris, sand and clay in the water to prevent clogging of the emitters. Generally, a fertilizer injection system is also provided at the control head. 2. Pipe network : The pipe network (trickle lines) consists of a main line and a number of lateral pipes. Sometimes submain lines are also required between main lines and the lateral pipes. A number of small diameter pipes (10 to 20 mm) called trickle lines are provided from laterl pipes to carry water to the roots of the crops. Generally, there is one trickle line for each row of crops. All the pipes are usually made of P.V.C. 3. Emitters : Emitters are provided on each trickle line at a suitable spacing depending upon the type of crop and soil conditions. Emitter is a precise metering device which has a very low flow rate, usually 1 to 10 litres per hour.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 46

Schematic plan of drip irrigation.

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 47

2.5 Differentiate between sprinkler and drip irrigation-

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 48

2.5 Differentiate between surface and drip irrigation-

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 49

2.6 OPERATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION

When starting up system for the season flush all of lines to remove any algae, dirt, debris or critters that got in during installation, or that entered over the winter for permanent systems. Start out by closing all submain valves and flush out the main lines first, then flush all the submains. Then close the submain flush valves, flush the tape laterals and last, close the ends of the laterals. Make sure use properly adjusted pressure regulation devices so that downstream pressure will not exceed the maximum pressure rating of the lateral tape lines. Thin wall products like drip tape are generally rated at a maximum pressure of 8 to 15 psi depending on mil thickness. Thick-walled products such as orchard tubing or drip line are rated at 50 psi. Oval hose or flat tube are usually rated around 21 psi. Filters should be cleaned and in good working order. Make sure disc and screen filter elements are clean and properly installed, and that the sand is not worn and is at the proper level in sand media filters. Automating the back flush function when possible helps keep filters clean and operating properly. It also prevents dirt and debris from extruding through the filter from too much pressure differential. The differential between the upstream and downstream pressure indicates when the filter is clean and when it needs flushing/cleaning. Generally, a clean filter will only have a pressure differential of 1 to 3 psi, while a filter with a 6 to 10 psi differential requires flushing. Now that system up and operating check and record the flows and pressures and make sure they are within specifications. Pressure should be checked and recorded at the pump, filters, main line, header, beginning and end, and then at the end of the lateral, and at all high and low points in the field. Now that flows and pressures recorded, should monitor system for anomalies. These can be caused by clogging, filtration problems, leaks, the wrong valve open or closed, and/or pump problems. irrigation system should be operated to maintain moisture throughout the bed or row as much as possible keeping in mind that water moves through the soil and across the bed via capillary action. Drip irrigation should be operated frequently to maintain moisture, unlike a sprinkler system where you allow the soil to dry out and then replenish with saturation. Moisture should be monitored regularly or on a daily basis depend-ng on soil type and crops grown. Soils differ in their water holding capacities and wetting patterns. Light sandy soils hold less water and exhibit a conically shaped wetting pattern while heavy clay or loam soils hold more water and exhibit an oval shaped wetting pattern.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 50

 Moisture can be monitored with a variety of methods including direct analysis of the soil with the feel method, evapotranspiration tracking, and measuring readings from tensiometers, electrical resistance meters, capacitance sensors and others. The tape system not only allows proper irrigation, but enables proper fertigation and chemigation to provide a boost to growth and crop production. A water and soil analysis is needed to determine crop requirements and chemical compatibility. Fertilizer applications should be scheduled to apply the amount of fertilizer needed depending on the crop, stage of growth and fruiting stage. Always follow the label when applying pesticides. A jar test is important and should always be conducted prior to adding fertilizer or chemicals, or mixing and adding chemicals, to irrigation water.

2.7 Maintenance of drip irrigation

Reliable performance of a drip irrigation systems depends on preventive maintenance that includes proper filtration, pipe flushing, field check of leakage in any component of the system, and monitoring the effective functioning of mechanical device. General maintenance includes periodic checking of including their discharge, wetting zone, and leakage of pipes and filter gaskets in the lids, flushing valves and fittings. The placement of drippers should be periodically inspected. In case the placement is disturbed, they should be put at the proper location. Filter is the heart of the drip irrigation system. Filter failure will lead to clogging of the entire system. Flushjjzg. of sub-mains and lateral After installation/repairs, the system should be flushed systematically, beginning with the main line and proceeding to the sub-mains, manifolds, and laterals. The main lines and the sub-mains should be flushed one at a time with the manifold or riser valves turned off. Closing the valves on all lines, except the one being flushed, allows a large flow of water. The manifolds should be flush with all the lateral riser valves turned off. Finally, the lateral hoses should be connected and flushed for about an hour at each operating station. Sometimes silt escapes through the filter and settles in sub-mains and laterals. Further, some algae and bacteria lead to the formation of slimes/pastes in the pipe and laterals. To remove these silts and slimes opening the flush valve should flush the sub mains. Removing the end stops flushes the lateral lines. By flushing, even the traces of accumulated salts will also be removed. Stop the flushing once the water going out is clean. Fine sand, silt and clay tend to settle in the low velocity section of the system, at the ends of manifolds and laterals. Emitters receiving high concentrations of fine contaminants are susceptible to clogging; therefore, periodic flushing is a recommended part of a good maintenance program. Annual flushing is enough for many systems, but some water and emitter combinations require more frequent flushing to control clogging. Chemical treatment.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 51

 Clogging or plugging of drippers will be due to precipitation and accumulation of certain dissolved salts like carbonate, bicarbonate, iron, calcium and manganese salts. Clogging is also due to the presence of microorganisms and the related iron and slimes due to algae and bacteria. Clogging or plugging is usually avoided/cleared by chemical treatment of water. Chemical treatments commonly used in drip irrigation systems include addition of chloride and/or acid to the water supply, Acid treatment, Hydrochloric acid (HC1) is injected into drip systems, at the rate suggested. The acid treatment is performed till a pH of 4 is observed and the system is shut for 24 hours. Next day the system is flushed by opening the flush valve and lateral ends. Chlorine treatment. Chlorine treatment in the form of bleaching powder is performed to inhibit the growth of organisms like algae and bacteria. The bleaching powder is dissolved in water and this solution is injected into the system for about 30 minutes. Then the system is shut off for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the lateral ends and flush valves are opened to flush out the water with impurities. Bleaching powder is directly added into the source at a rate of 2 mg/litre.

2.8 Design of Drip Irrigation System

Design of a drip irrigation system broadly involves the estimation of water requirement of the crops to be irrigated, number of drippers and laterals, diameter of the main, sub-main and lateral pipes, and the size of the pumping unit. The major difference between drip irrigation and other methods of irrigation is that not all the area is irrigated. Under normal conditions in widely spaced crops, a minimum of 30% of the area is irrigated when the drip system is adopted. For mature trees, about 75% of the area may have to be irrigated, while nearly the entire area is irrigated in case of closely spaced crops. The necessary data to be collected includes soil type, infiltration characteristics of the soil, type of crops, consumptive use of water by crops, water quality, and climate, Class A pan evaporation data, and the availability of funds. A topographical map of the area to be irrigated, with contour lines at a spacing of about one metre is necessary in planning and layout of the system. A check list of procedures in designing a drip irrigation system is given below: 1. Prepare on inventory of available resources and operating conditions, 2. Determine the water requirement to be met by the drip system. Monthly irrigation Water requirement given by, , , in mm, , 3. Determine capacity of drip irrigaton system.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 52

itre ,

4. 5.

Where Q= capacity of drip system in Lph, = daily water requirement in L, T = Irrigation interval in days, = water application efficiency, t = duration of each irrigation in hrs. Determine the appropriate type of the system. Determine the type and design of emitters (on-line/in-line and the specific type required). Selection of type and number of emitters depends on the soil types, plant to plant distance of crop, age of the plant The emitter is so selected that application rate equals to the absorption rate of soil Generally, 30-70% of the area is wetted depending upon plant spacing, nature and development of root zone Some times a loop with 3 to 4 emitters is placed around each plant to provide the required wetted area. This should be away from the plant stem If single emitter is provided, it must be placed 15-30 cm. from the base of the plant Number of drippers per plant = (% total area shaded by tree x area per tree)/effective area wetted by single emitter. Where area irrigated by dripper is given by,

Where A = area irrigated in sq.m, L = spacing between plant rows in m, S = spacing between emission points, P = % cropped area irrigated, Ne = number of drippers at each emission. 6. Determine the capacity of the pumping system. 7. Decide on the economic sizes of the piping system, Diameter of pipe can be determined from head loss 8. Determine the maximum and minimum operating pressures and the minimum efficiency requirement, h.p. = (Q X H) / (75 X P X m) 9. Determine the appropriate filtering system to suit the site conditions. 10. Determine the requirement of the fertilization system. 11. Plan field evaluation, 12. Prepare drawings, specifications, cost estimates, schedules, and instructions for proper layout, installation, operation and maintenance.

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 53

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 54

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 55

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 56

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 57

2.8 Automation in drip irrigation system Partial automation. Volume can be controlled simply with some automation by the use of volumetric or mechanical time-clock valves. Semi-automatic volumetric control valves can be placed at the head of each sub unit or single such valve can be used at the control head along with ordinary valves controlling each sub unit. The volumetric valve requires manual opening and adjustment, but it closes automatically. The use of volumetric valves does not require special operating sequence. Because the amount of water applied is measured, precise pressure control is not required at the inlets to volumetric valves. Pressure control is required if mechanical time clock valves are used. Full automation. Drip irrigation can be fully automated either by using a central controller operated on a time or volume basis or by soil moisture sensing. Automation on a time or volume basis requires a control system operating either hydraulic or electric valves. The controller automates the irrigation for an unlimited number of cycles. The order in which the valves operate can be altered from one cycle to the next. Both the operating time of each valve and the quantity of water distributed can be changed easily at the control panel.

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 58

 In time-based automation systems, the operation of the valves is based on prefixed irrigation start times and end times and the sequence of valve operations required. The controller in these systems can be programmed with different valve sequences and irrigation times. These controllers activate/deactivate the low voltage electric solenoid valves in the field, as per the programme set into them. In sensor-based automation systems, the operation of valves could be based on the various parameters sensed from the field, such as soil moisture, leaf temperature, weather equipment and electronic water meters. Any of these sensors either individually or in combination can be attached to the controller for activating and deactivating the low voltage electric solenoid valves and pumps, based on the sensor reading. Usually a tensiometer is used as the moisture sensor. The tensiometer measures the soil moisture tension and signals the valve controlling each sub-unit, and the valve opens or closes. Because each valve operates automatically and is not connected to any other valve, the order of operation is not planned in advance. Therefore, the circuitry must pass through some type of control panel to eliminate the simultaneous opening of more than the desired number of valves. The use of automation equipment is growing worldwide and there exists great potential for these systems.

2.9 Basic principles of drip irrigation

Drip irrigation systems are designed and managed to deliver light, frequent applications of water that wet only a section of the soil. Under the surface and sprinkler methods of water application, the irrigation needs for depth, frequency and salinity controls are based on maximum moisture storage in the root zone. However, to meet the objective of drip irrigation, water application is based on moisture replacement in a small area of the soil. This requires determining the wetted area, wetting pattern, and horizontal and vertical soil moisture movements in the soil. The values of water requirement, consumptive use, and frequency of irrigation are adjusted accordingly. Most soils have layers of various densities. On sloping fields, the wetting pattern distorts in favour of the down slope direction. Hence, the most reliable method of determining the wetted area in a drip irrigation system is to conduct field tests in which test emitters are operated at a few representative sites in the field and the wetting patterns are observed. Wetting pattern in a drip irrigation system is influenced mainly by the soil characteristics, discharge rate of the emitter, and the duration of water application. Figure 13.11 illustrates the typical wetting patterns in heavy, medium and light soils. The wetting pattern resulting from point source irrigation in sandy loam soils. It is observed that the soil moisture in the wetted zone manifested itself by a rapid increase in the moisture content in the soil layer close to the land surface. This zone was identified to extend to about 15 cm deep and 20 cm diameter. It was observed that the moisture content stabilized to about the saturation moisture content of the soil and continued at this level till the remaining part of the application time.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT Page 59

 It was further observed that the soil moisture profile at any instant during irrigation was a function of the water application rate. The ultimate profile, however was eventually a function of the total volume of water applied. Field studies on vertically downward movement of water in sandy loam soils have shown that on-and-off trickling of 1 to 2 hours, if applied ,after an initial continuous trickling, would reduce the downward movement of water and the moisture availability to the crop would increase. Plant response is about the same to drip irrigation as to other methods of water application. Even mature orchards that have been irrigated by surface or sprinkler methods of irrigation can be converted to drip irrigation. The root system of most trees can adapt to the smaller wetted area in a few months. Optimum soil moisture levels are easily maintained with a well designed drip irrigation system. Therefore drip irrigation systems are often run daily, on alternate days, or twice weekly, depending on crop needs and agronomic practices. It is important to wet a relatively large part of the potential root system to ensure some degree of moisture reserve to cope with a temporary failure of the drip irrigation system. It is also important to have a large enough volume of moist soil to promote root extension and water uptake.

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Page 60