tical Ideologies | Parliamentary Terms | British Politics | British Law | Legal Terms Ideologies are the sets of basic

beliefs about the political, economic, social a nd cultural affairs held by the majority of people within as society. absolutism. System where the rulers have unlimited control. anarchism. Society without government, laws, police or other authority. System o f self-control. aristocracy. The privilege of social class whose members possess disproportionat ely large percentage of society's wealth, prestige and political influence. autocracy. Supreme political power is in the hands of one person whose decision are unregulated.. capitalism. Right-wing political system where the principle means of production and distribution are in private hands. communism. Extreme left-wing ideology based on the revolutionary socialist teac hings of Marx. Collective ownership and a planned economy. Each should work to t heir capability and receive according to their needs. conservatism. Governmental system where the existing institution are maintained, emphasizing free-enterprise and minimal governmental intervention. democracy. Government by the people usually through elected representatives. dictatorship. Government by a single person with absolute control over the resou rces of the state. egalitaranism. Belief where all citizens have equal rights and privileges. fascism. Extreme right-wing ideology where the existing social order is protect ed by the forcible suppression of the working class. imperialism. The extension of power and rule beyond established geographical bou ndaries. liberalism. Representative government, free-speech, abolition of class privilege and state protection of the individual. Marxism. Developed by Marx and Engles, it proposes that all is subject to change and resistance to change necessitates the overthrow of the system through class struggle. Maoism. Interpretation of Marxist communism emphasizing the development of agric ulture. Monarchy. A form of rule in which the head of state is a King or Queen. nationalism. The unification of the state and release from foreign rule. oligarchy. A system of government in which virtually all power is held a small n umber of wealthy people who shape policy to benefit themselves. populism. Collective noun for the ideologies which demand the redistribution of political power and economic leadership to the 'common people'. socialism. Left-wing political system where the principle means of production, distribution and exchange are in common ownership. theocracy. Rule by the church. totalitarianism. Government control of all activities. Trotskyism. Form of Marxism incorporating the concept of permanent revolution. THE LEFT liberty. The freedom of speech and the right to dissent. equality. A classless society with the redistribution of wealth through a welfa re state. fraternity. The communal brotherhood, working and living as one. THE RIGHT authority. The preservation of order through an evolved authority. hierarchy. The continuation of the existing social order. property. The right to private ownership. print Print this page Index The Earth Countries Weather Science

Mathematics Medicene Astronomy Politics & Law Religion People & Organizations Language The Calender Art Contact Us The Southern Annular Mode (SAM) The Southern Annular Mode (SAM), also known as the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), describes the north south movement of the westerly wind belt that circles Antarcti ca, dominating the middle to higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere. The changing position of the westerly wind belt influences the strength and posi tion of cold fronts and mid-latitude storm systems, and is an important driver o f rainfall variability in southern Australia. In a positive SAM event, the belt of strong westerly winds contracts towards Ant arctica. This results in weaker than normal westerly winds and higher pressures over southern Australia, restricting the penetration of cold fronts inland. Conversely, a negative SAM event reflects an expansion of the belt of strong wes terly winds towards the equator. This shift in the westerly winds results in mor e (or stronger) storms and low pressure systems over southern Australia. During autumn and winter, a positive SAM value can mean cold fronts and storms are fart her south, and hence southern Australia generally misses out on rainfall. Howeve r, in spring and summer, a strong positive SAM can mean that southern Australia is influenced by the northern half of high pressure systems, and hence there are more easterly winds bringing moist air from the Tasman Sea. This increased mois ture can turn to rain as the winds hit the coast and the Great Dividing Range. In recent years, a high positive SAM has dominated during autumn winter, and has b een a significant contributor to the 'big dry' observed in southern Australia fr om 1997 to 2010. Southern Annular Mode Close Wikimedia India cordially invites you for the launch of Creative Commons India in New Delhi on November 12, 2013 with Minister of State for Human Resource Development Dr Shashi Tharoor as Chief Guest Glacier From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the geological formation. For other uses, see Glacier (dis ambiguation). The Baltoro Glacier in the Karakoram, Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. At 62 kilome tres (39 mi) in length, it is one of the longest alpine glaciers on earth. Ice calving from the terminus of the Perito Moreno Glacier, in western Patagonia , Argentina The Aletsch Glacier, the largest glacier of the Alps, in Switzerland The Quelccaya Ice Cap, is the largest glaciated area in the tropics, in Peru A glacier (US /'gle???r/ glay-sh?r) or (UK /'glsi?/) is a persistent body of dens e ice exceeding a surface area of 0.1 km constantly moving under its own gravity; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation (melting and subli

mation) over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs, and other disting uishing features. They also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to creat e landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are dis tinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bod ies of water. On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets in the polar re gions, but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent, and on a few high-latitude oceanic islands. Between 35N and 35S, glaciers occur only in th e Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico , New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran.[1] Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of freshwater on Earth.[2] Many glaciers fr om temperate, alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the c older seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer tem peratures cause the glacier to melt, creating a water source that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. Wi thin high altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature differen ce is often not sufficient to release meltwater. Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climate changes, e.g., precipitati on, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change and are a major source of varia tions in sea level. Contents [hide] 1 Etymology and related terms 2 Types 3 Formation 4 Structure 5 Motion 5.1 Fracture zone and cracks 5.2 Speed 5.3 Ogives 6 Geography 7 Glacial geology 7.1 Moraines 7.2 Drumlins 7.3 Glacial valleys, cirques, and artes 7.4 Roche moutonne 7.5 Alluvial stratification 7.6 Glacial deposits 7.7 Loess deposits 8 Isostatic rebound 9 On Mars 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Etymology and related terms[edit] The word glacier comes from French. It is derived from the Vulgar Latin glacia a nd ultimately from Latin glacies meaning "ice".[3] The processes and features ca used by glaciers and related to them are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding a rea of study is called glaciology. Glaciers are important components of the glob al cryosphere. Types[edit]

Main article: Glacier morphology Mouth of the Schlatenkees Glacier near Innergschl, Austria Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behav ior. Alpine glaciers, also known as mountain glaciers or cirque glaciers, form o n the crests and slopes of mountains. An alpine glacier that fills a valley is s ometimes called a valley glacier. A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain , mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field.[4] Ice caps have an area less than 50,000 km (20,000 mile) by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km are called ice sheets or continental glacier s.[5] Several kilometres deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nuna taks protrude from their surfaces. The only extant ice sheets are the two that c over most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of fresh wat er, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 meters.[ 6] Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend into water are called ice shelves ; they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced velocities.[7] Narrow, fa st-moving sections of an ice sheet are called ice streams.[8][9] In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large ice shelves. However, some drain directly into the sea, often with an ice tongue, like Mertz Glacier.

Sightseeing boat in front of a tidewater glacier, Kenai Fjords National Park, Al aska Tidewater glaciers are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glacie rs flowing from Greenland, Antarctica, Baffin and Ellesmere Islands in Canada, S outheast Alaska, and the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields. As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off, or calve, forming icebergs. Most tidewater g laciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long cycles of advance and retreat that are much less affected by the climate change than those of other glaciers. Thermally, a temperate glacier is at melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a polar glacier is always below freezing point from the surface to its base, although the surface snowpack may experience seaso nal melting. A sub-polar glacier includes both temperate and polar ice, dependin g on depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by the tempera ture at its base alone. A cold-based glacier is below freezing at the ice-ground interface, and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A warm-based glacier is above or at freezing at the interface, and is able to slide at this contact. [10] This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glaci er to effectively erode its bed, as sliding ice promotes plucking at rock from t he surface below.[11] Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as polythermal.[10] Formation[edit]

Gorner Glacier in Switzerland Glaciers form where the accumulation of snow and ice exceeds ablation. The area in which a glacier forms is called a nv - a typically bowl-shaped geological featu re (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by artes) - which collects an d compresses through gravity the snow which falls into it. This snow collects an d is compacted by the weight of the snow falling above it, crushing the individu

al snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow. Once the air has been squeeze d from it, the snow is turned into extremely dense 'glacial ice'. This glacial i ce will fill the nv until it 'overflows' through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as the gap between two mountains. When the mass of snow and ice is suffici ently thick, it begins to move due to a combination of surface slope, gravity an d pressure. On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as 15 m (50 ft) of snow-ice. In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called firn. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, thi s granular ice fuses into denser and denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice is sligh tly less dense than ice formed from frozen water because it contains tiny trappe d air bubbles. Glacial ice has an overtone of ter is blue for isattributed to a distinctive blue tint because it the infrared OH stretching mode of the same reason. However, the blue Rayleigh scattering due to bubbles absorbs some red light due to the water molecule. Liquid wa of glacier ice is sometimes m in the ice.[12]

A glacier cave located on the Perito Moreno Glacier in Argentina. Structure[edit] A glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, or terminus. Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions.[13 ] The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone; it is t he altitude where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. The upper part of a glacier, where accumula tion exceeds ablation, is called the accumulation zone. In general, the accumula tion zone accounts for 60-70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downwar d force that erodes underlying rock. After a glacier melts, it often leaves behi nd a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basi ns like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as cirques. The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions. The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry. The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to per colate into the snowpack. This zone is often marked by refrozen ice lenses, glan ds, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches melting point. Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. Th is zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a c ontinuous mass of ice. The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 C. The "health" of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the glacier mass ba lance or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation z ones, more than 60% of their area snowcovered at the end of the melt season, and a terminus with vigorous flow. Following the Little Ice Age's end around 1850, glaciers around the Earth have r etreated substantially (see Retreat of glaciers since 1850). A slight cooling le d to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950-1985, but, since 1985, gla

cier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous.[14][15 ][16] Motion[edit]

The Nadelhorn glacier above Saas-Fee, Valais, Switzerland Main article: Ice sheet dynamics Glaciers move, or flow, downhill due to gravity and the internal deformation of ice.[17] Ice behaves like a brittle solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft). The pressure on ice deeper than 50 m causes plastic flow. At the mole cular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bo nds between layers. When the stress on the layer above exceeds the inter-layer b inding strength, it moves faster than the layer below.[18] Glaciers also move through basal sliding. In this process, a glacier slides over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by the presence of liquid water. The w ater is created from ice that melts under high pressure from frictional heating. Basal sliding is dominant in temperate, or warm-based glaciers. Fracture zone and cracks[edit] Ice cracks in the Titlis Glacier The top 50 metres (160 ft) of a glacier are rigid because they are under low pre ssure. This upper section is known as the fracture zone; it mostly moves as a si ngle unit over the plastically flowing lower section. When a glacier moves throu gh irregular terrain, cracks called crevasses develop in the fracture zone. Crev asses form due to differences in glacier velocity. If two rigid sections of a gl acier move at different speeds and directions, shear forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse. Crevasses are seldom more than 150 feet (46 m) deep b ut in some cases can be 1,000 feet (300 m) or even deeper. Beneath this point, t he plasticity of the ice is too great for cracks to form. Intersecting crevasses can create isolated peaks in the ice, called seracs. Crevasses can form in several different ways. Transverse crevasses are transvers e to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate. Longitudi nal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marg inal crevasses form from the edge of the glacier, due to the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are usually largely t ransverse to flow. Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from stagnant ice a bove, forming a bergschrund. Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular fe atures at a glacier's margins. Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden b y fragile snow bridges.

Crossing a crevasse on the Easton Glacier, Mount Baker, in the North Cascades, U nited States Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels . Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via moulins. Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in en glacial or sub-glacial tunnels. These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier' s surface.[19] Speed[edit] The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by friction. Friction mak

es the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's side walls, which s lows the edges relative to the center. Mean speeds vary greatly. There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits . In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20 30 m per day, such as in Greenla nd's Jakobshavn Isbr (Greenlandic: Sermeq Kujalleq). Velocity increases with incr easing slope, increasing thickness, increasing snowfall, increasing longitudinal confinement, increasing basal temperature, increasing meltwater production and reduced bed hardness. A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called surges. These glaci ers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities far great er than normal speed.[20] These surges may be caused by failure of the underlyin g bedrock, the ponding of meltwater at the base of the glacier[21] perhaps deliv ered from a supraglacial lake or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critic al "tipping point".[22] In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year, glacial earthquakes occur. These are large scale tremblors that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1.[23][24] The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland peaks eve ry year in July, August and September and is increasing over time. In a study us ing data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were i n any other year. This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenla nd may be a response to global warming.[23][24] Ogives[edit] Ogives are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light ban ds of ice on glacier surfaces. They are linked to seasonal motion of glaciers; t he width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. Ogives are formed when ice from an icefall is severely broken up, i ncreasing ablation surface area during summertime. This creates a swale and spac e for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge.[25] Someti mes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives.[26] Geography[edit] For more details on this topic, see List of glaciers, and Retreat of glaciers si nce 1850. Black ice glacier near Aconcagua, Argentina Glaciers are present on every continent and approximately fifty countries, exclu ding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant subantar ctic island territories. Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Chile, Cana da, Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the Andes, the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains, the Caucasus, and the Alps. Ma inland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on Mou nt Kosciuszko was present in the last glacial period.[27] In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on its highest summit massif of Puncak Jaya.[28] Africa has glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, on Mount Kenya and in the Rwenzori Mountains. Among oceanic islands glaciers occur today on Ice land, Svalbard, New Zealand, Jan Mayen and the subantarctic islands of Marion, H eard, Grande Terre (Kerguelen) and Bouvet. During glacial periods of the Quatern ary, Taiwan, Hawaii on Mauna Kea[29] and Tenerife also had large alpine glaciers , while the Faroe and Crozet Islands[30] were completely glaciated.

The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaci ers can be found in all latitudes except from 20 to 27 north and south of the equa tor where the presence of the descending limb of the Hadley circulation lowers p recipitation so much that with high insolation snow lines reach above 6,500 metr es (21,330 ft). Between 19N and 19S, however, precipitation is higher and the moun tains above 5,000 metres (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow. Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable. Areas of the Arctic , such as Banks Island, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica are considered polar deserts where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall d espite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much w ater vapor. Even during glacial periods of the Quaternary, Manchuria, lowland Si beria,[31] and central and northern Alaska,[32] though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.[33][34] In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high (4,500 metres (14,800 ft) - 6,900 m (22 ,600 ft)) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from ac cumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are located near or in the hyperarid Atacama Desert. Glacial geology[edit]

Diagram of glacial plucking and abrasion Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near Mariehamn, land Islands Glaciers erode terrain through two principal processes: abrasion and plucking. As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fr actures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion caus es the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. Thus, sediment s of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a rock glacier, like the Timpanogos Glacier in Utah . Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock a nd function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below. The pulveri zed rock this process produces is called rock flour and is made up of rock grain s between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm in size. Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls a nd mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slide s. These add even more material to the glacier. Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by glacial striations. Glaciers produ ce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedro ck. By mapping the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the di rection of the glacier's movement. Similar to striations are chatter marks, line s of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier. They are forme d by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock. The rate of glacier erosion is variable. Six factors control erosion rate: Velocity of glacial movement Thickness of the ice

Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bott om of the glacier Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier Thermal conditions at the glacier base Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as t he zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types: Glacial till: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixt ure of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual c omposition of a moraine. Fluvial and outwash sediments: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified by size. Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "glacial erratics". They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past g lacial motions. Moraines[edit] Glacial moraines above Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. They usually appear as linear mounds o f till, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a f ine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or termina l end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Med ial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral morain es of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Les s apparent are ground moraines, also called glacial drift, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. The term moraine is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe allu vial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French Alps. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly, and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Moraines can also create moraine dammed lakes. Drumlins[edit] A drumlin field forms after a glacier has modified the landscape. The teardrop-s haped formations denote the direction of the ice flow. Drumlins are asymmetrical, canoe shaped hills made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 metres and they can reach a kilometre in length. The tilted side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced (stoss), while the longer slope follows the ice's direction of movement (lee). Drumlins are found in groups called drumlin fields or drumlin camps. One of thes e fields is found east of Rochester, New York; it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins. Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape im plies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers . It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers. Glacial valleys, cirques, and artes[edit]

Features of a glacial landscape Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic "V" shape, produced by eroding water. However, during glaciation, these valleys are widened, deepened, and smoothed, forming a "U"-shaped glacial valley. The erosion that creates gla cial valleys eliminates the spurs of earth that extend across mountain valleys, creating triangular cliffs called truncated spurs. Within glacial valleys, depre ssions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called paternost er lakes. If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a fjord. Many glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller tributaries. Therefor e, when glaciers recede, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression and are called hanging valleys. At the 'start' of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which has es carped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valle y. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier. Two glacial cirques may form 'back to back' and erode their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, cal led an arte is left. This structure may result in a mountain pass. If multiple ci rques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed pyramidal peaks; particula rly steep examples are called horns. Roche moutonne[edit] Some rock formations in the path of a glacier are sculpted into small hills call ed roche moutonne, or "sheepback" rock. Roche moutonne are elongated, rounded, and asymmetrical bedrock knobs can be produced by glacier erosion. They range in le ngth from less than a metre to several hundred metres long.[35] Roche moutonne ha ve a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on thei r down-glacier sides. The glacier abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears loose and carries away rock from the downstream sid e via plucking. Alluvial stratification[edit] As the water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier, it c arries fine eroded sediments with it. As the speed of the water decreases, so do es its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water thus gradually deposit s the sediment as it runs, creating an alluvial plain. When this phenomenon occu rs in a valley, it is called a valley train. When the deposition is in an estuar y, the sediments are known as "bay mud". Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as "ket tles". These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in al luvium melt and produce water-filled depressions. Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape because t he blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted.[36] Glacial deposits[edit] Landscape produced by a receding glacier When a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it beco mes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves stratifie d alluvial deposits. These deposits, in the forms of columns, terraces and clust ers, remain after the glacier melts and are known as "glacial deposits". Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called kames. Some k ames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. Others are produced by fans or deltas created by meltwater. When the gl acial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of th e valley.

Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called eskers. Eskers are composed of sand an d gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier. They remain after the ice melts, with heights exce eding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km. Loess deposits[edit] Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing ove r the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original fluvia l deposition site. These eolian loess deposits may be very deep, even hundreds o f meters, as in areas of China and the Midwestern United States of America. Kata batic winds can be important in this process. Isostatic rebound[edit] Main article: Isostatic rebound Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle. The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glac ier's thickness. After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up. This post-glacial reb ound, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America. An interesting geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as dilation-faulting. It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting. This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the r ock were hit by a large hammer. Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de -glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria. On Mars[edit]

Northern polar ice cap on Mars Main article: Glaciers on Mars The polar ice caps of Mars show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap, especially, is comparable to glaciers on Earth.[37] Topographical fe atures and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past .[38] At mid-latitudes, between 35 and 65 north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the thin Martian atmosphere. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablatio n near the surface is solely due to sublimation, not melting. As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar inst rument on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA's).[39][40][41][42][43] See also[edit] Cryoseism Glacier growing Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Sag (geology) Rock glacier Notes[edit]

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08-013972-8. OCLC 26188. A comprehensive reference on the physical principles un derlying formation and behavior. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glacier. Glacial structures - photo atlas Glaciers of the Pyrenees NOW on PBS "On Thin Ice" Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921 Short radio episode California Glaciers from The Mountains of California by John Muir, 1894. California Legacy Project Dyanamics of Glaciers [hide] v t e Global warming and climate change [show] Temperatures [show] Causes [show] History [show] Opinion and climate change [show] Politics [show] Potential effects and issues [show] Mitigation [show] Proposed adaptations Glossary of climate change Index of climate change articles Category:Climate cha nge Category:Global warming Portal:Global warming [show] v t e Glaciers Peak of the Matterhorn, seen from Zermatt, Switzerland.jpgMountains portal Categories: GlaciologyGlaciersBodies of iceGlacial landformsMontane ecology Navigation menu Create accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView history Search Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools Print/export Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch ???????

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