Process Dynamics & Control

University of The Hague

Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Introduction to PD&C
In the chemical industry, the design of a control
system is essential to achieve:
1. Safety
2. Environmental protection
3. Equipment protection
4. Smooth operation
5. Product quality
6. Profit
7. Monitoring and diagnosis
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Why?
Most chemical and biological engineers are not
process control experts, but they need to
understand the basics!
Production engineering: responsible for day-to-day
operations. Need to understand process controls to
deal with daily issues.
Process engineer: longer term view toward
continuous process improvementthese
improvements often involve new or modified process
controls.
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Specialists
Some chemical and biological engineers become
process control engineers focus on improving
process control systems and implementing
standard systems
Even fewer become process control specialists
implement solutions for specialized, nonstandard,
control situations.
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Basic Control System
Oil heater that uses steam
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
A balloon by itself indicates a discrete stand-alone instrument, such as a:
Transmitter
Sensor
Alarm
P & ID General Instrument Symbols:
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Basic Control System
#1 we need a sensor (and we cannot measure
everything, like entropy or fugacity)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Basic Control System
#2 we need a controller (e.g., PID controller)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Basic Control System
#3 we need something to control (and we cannot
control everything like steam T and P)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Introduction
Process Dynamics:
Study of the transient behavior of processes
Process Control
the use of process dynamics for the improvement of
process operation and performance
or
the use of process dynamics to alleviate the effect of
undesirable (unstable) process behaviors
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Ref. book
Focus is on information needed by process and
production engineers (i.e., not specialists)
Reference book:
1. Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and Practice, George Stephanopoulos
2. Process dynamics and control, Modeling for control and prediction, Brain Roffel and Ben
Betlem
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Introduction
What do we mean by process?
A process, P, is an operation that takes an INPUT or a DISTURBANCE and gives
an OUTPUT
INPUT: (u) Something that you can manipulate
DISTURBANCE: (d) Something that comes as a result of some outside
phenomenon
OUTPUT: (y) An observable quantity that we want to regulate
u
d
y
P
Information Flow
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Examples
Stirred tank heater
M
T
in
, w
Q
T, w
T
in
w
Q
T
Process
Inputs
Output
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control
What is control?
To regulate of a process output despite the effect of disturbances
e.g.
Driving a car
Controlling the temperature of a chemical reactor
Reducing vibrations in a flexible structure
To stabilize unstable processes e.g.
Riding a bike
Flight of an airplane
Operation of a nuclear plant
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Benefits of Control
Economic Benefits
Quality (waste reduction)
Variance reduction (consistency)
Savings in energy, materials, manpower
Operability, safety (stability)
Performance
Efficiency
Accuracy
robotics
Reliability
Stabilizability
bicycle
aircraft
nuclear reactor
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control
A controller is a system designed to regulate a given process
7 Process typically obeys physical and chemical conservation laws
7 Controller obeys laws of mathematics and logic (sometimes
intelligent)
e.g. - Riding a bike (human controller)
- Driving a car
- Automatic control (computer programmed to control)
Process
Controller
What is a controller?
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Block representations
Block diagrams are models of the physical systems
Process
System Physical
Boundary
Transfer of
fundamental
quantities
Mass, Energy and Momentum
Input variables Output variables
Physical
Operation
Abstract
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control
A controlled process is a system which is comprised of two interacting
systems:
e.g. Most controlled systems are feedback controlled systems
The controller is designed to provide regulation of process outputs in the
presence of disturbances
Process
Controller
Outputs Disturbances
Action Observation
monitor intervene
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
What is required?
What is required to control a process?
1. Process Understanding
Required measurements
Required actuators
Understand design limitations
2. Process Instrumentation
Appropriate sensor and actuator selection
Integration in control system
Communication and computer architecture
3. Process Control
Appropriate control strategy
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Types of Process Controls
1. Manual control (open loop)
2. On/Off control (closed feedback loop)
3. PID control (closed feedback loop)
4. Dynamic model-based control (closed feedforward
loop)
1. Empirical models (e.g., cold shower)
2. Phenomenological models
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Classical Control 20/9
Control is meant to provide regulation of process outputs about a
reference/set point, r, despite inherent disturbances
The deviation of the plant output, e=(r-y), from its intended
reference/setpoint is used to make appropriate adjustments in the plant
input, u
Process Controller
Classical Feedback Control System
d
y u r e
+
-
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control Nomenclature
Identification of all process variables
Inputs (affect process)
Outputs (result of process)
Inputs
Disturbance variables
Variables affecting process that are due to external forces
Manipulated variables
Things that we can directly affect
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control Nomenclature
Outputs
Measured
Output temperature of a process
Unmeasured
(e.g., pressure of a process)
Control variables
important observable quantities that we want to regulate can be
measured or unmeasured
Controller
Manipulated
Disturbances
Process
Control
Other
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control
Process is a combination of sensors and actuators
Controller is a computer (or operator) that performs the required
manipulations
e.g. Classical feedback control loop
y r e
A C P
M
d
Computer Actuator
Process
Sensor
-
+
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Positive & negative control
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Examples
Stirred-Tank Heater
Q T, w
Heater
TC
Thermocouple
T
in
, w
T
in
, w
y e
A C P
M
Controller
Tank
-
+
Heater
Thermocouple
T
R
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Examples
Measure T, adjust Q
Controller: Q=K(T
R
-T)+Q
nominal
where Q
nominal
=wC(T-T
in
)
Q1: Is this positive or negative feedback?
Q2: Make feedforward control schema of this model?
T
in
, w
T e
A C P
M
Controller
Tank
-
+
Heater
Thermocouple
Feedback control
T
R
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Examples
Measure T
i
, adjust Q
A P C
M
T
i
Q
i
Q
Q
+
+
Feedforward Control
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control System Development
Define Objectives
Develop a process
model
Design controller
based on model
Test by
Simulation
Implement and Tune
Monitor
Performance
Control development is usually carried out following these
important steps
Often an iterative process, based on performance we may
decide to retune, redesign or remodel a given control system
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control System Development
Objectives
What are we trying to control?
Process modeling
What do we need?
Mechanistic and/or empirical
Controller design
How do we use the knowledge of process behavior to
reach our process control objectives?
What variables should we measure?
What variables should we control?
What are the best manipulated variables?
What is the best controller structure?
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control System Development
Implement and tune the controlled process
Test by simulation
incorporate control strategy to the process hardware
tune and re-tune
Monitor performance
periodic retuning and redesign is often necessary based
on sensitivity of process or market demands
statistical methods can be used to monitor performance
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Motivation:
Develop understanding of process
a mathematical hypothesis of process mechanisms
Match observed process behavior
useful in design, optimization and control of process
Control:
Interested in description of process dynamics
Dynamic model is used to predict how process responds to given
input
Tells us how to react
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
What kind of model do we need?
Dynamic vs. Steady-state
Steady-state
Variables not a function of time
useful for design calculation
Dynamic
Variables are a function of time
Control requires dynamic model
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
What kind of model do we need?
Experimental vs Theoretical
Experimental
Derived from tests performed on actual process
Simpler model forms
Easier to manipulate
Theoretical
Application of fundamental laws of physics and chemistry
more complex but provides understanding
Required in design stages
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Dynamic vs. Steady-state
Step change in input to observe
7 Starting at steady-state, we made a step change
7 The system oscillates and finds a new steady-state
7 Dynamics describe the transitory behavior
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
40
45
50
55
60
65
O
u
t
p
u
t
Time
Steady-State 1
Steady-State 2
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Empirical vs. Mechanistic models
Empirical Models
only local representation of the process
(no extrapolation)
model only as good as the data
Mechanistic Models
Rely on our understanding of a process
Derived from first principles
Observing laws of conservation of
Mass
Energy
Momentum
Useful for simulation and exploration of new operating conditions
May contain unknown constants that must be estimated
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Empirical vs Mechanistic models
Empirical models
do not rely on underlying mechanisms
Fit specific function to match process
Mathematical French curve
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0
0 . 4
0 . 5
0 . 6
0 . 7
0 . 8
0 . 9
1
1 . 1
1 . 2
1 . 3
O
u
t
p
u
t
T i m e
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Linear vs Nonlinear
Linear
basis for most industrial control
simpler model form, easy to identify
easy to design controller
poor prediction, adequate control
Nonlinear
reality
more complex and difficult to identify
need state-of-the-art controller design techniques to do the job
better prediction and control
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
In existing processes, we really on
Dynamic models obtained from experiments
Usually of an empirical nature
Linear
In new applications (or difficult problems)
Focus on mechanistic modeling
Dynamic models derived from theory
Nonlinear
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
General modeling procedure
Identify modeling objectives
end use of model (e.g. control)
Identify fundamental quantities of interest
Mass, Energy and/or Momentum
Identify boundaries
Apply fundamental physical and chemical laws
Mass, Energy and/or Momentum balances
Make appropriate assumptions (Simplify)
ideality (e.g. isothermal, adiabatic, ideal gas, no friction,
incompressible flow, etc,)
Write down energy, mass and momentum balances
(develop the model equations)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Modeling procedure
Check model consistency
do we have more unknowns than equations
Determine unknown constants
e.g. friction coefficients, fluid density and viscosity
Solve model equations
typically nonlinear ordinary (or partial) differential equations
initial value problems
Check the validity of the model
compare to process behavior
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Control and Modeling
In designing a controller, we must
Define control objectives
Develop a process model
Design controller based on model
Test through simulation
Implement to real process
Tune and monitor
y
d
Process
Model
Controller
u r e
Design
Implementation
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Example
T
L
T
w
i
, T
i
w
c
, T
ci
w
c
, T
co
w
o
, T
o
h
Variables
w
i
, w
o
: Tank inlet and outlet mass flows
T
i
, T
o
: Tank inlet and outlet temperatures
w
c
: Cooling jacket mass flow
P
c
: Position of cooling jacket inlet valve
P
o
: Position of tank outlet valve
T
ci
, T
co
: Cooling jacket inlet and outlet
temperatures
h: Tank liquid level
P
o
P
c
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Example
Variables Inputs Outputs
Disturbances Manipulated Measured Unmeasured Control
w
i
T
i
T
ci
w
c
h
w
o
T
o
P
c
P
o
Task: Classify the variables
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Control System Development
Define Objectives
Develop a process
model
Design controller
based on model
Test by
Simulation
Implement and Tune
Monitor
Performance
Control development is usually carried out following these
important steps
Often an iterative process, based on performance we may
decide to retune, redesign or remodel a given control system
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
The task of a process control system
CMonitoring certain variables that indicate process
conditions at any time (measurements)
CMaking rational decisions regarding what corrective
action is needed (current state vs. desired state)
CInducing changes in the appropriate process
variables to improve process conditions (valves to
manipulate)
once more...
According to what rationale does a
feedback control system work?
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
On-off control: the simplest one
The control variable is manipulated according to:

<

=
0 if ,
0 if ,
) (
min
max
e u
e u
t u
The final control element is either
completely open/maximum, or
completely closed/minimum
dead
band
output
input
ON
OFF time
Widely used as
thermostat in
domestic heating
systems, refrigerators,
; also in noncritical
industrial applicns
(some level and
heating loops)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Example
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Summary for on-off control
Advantages
simple & easy to design
inexpensive
easily accepted among operators
Pitfalls
not effective for good set-point control (the
controlled variable cycles)
produce wear on the final control element (it can be
attenuated by a large dead band, at the expense of a loss of
performance)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Common Input Signals
1. Step Input Signal: a sustained instantaneous
change
e.g. Unit step input introduced at time 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
I
n
p
u
t
T i m e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
0
0 . 2
0 . 4
0 . 6
0 . 8
1
1 . 2
1 . 4
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Common Input Signals
2. Ramp Input: A sustained constant rate of change
e.g.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
I
n
p
u
t
T i m e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
- 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
O
u
t
p
u
t
T i m e
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Common Input Signals
3. Pulse: An instantaneous temporary change
e.g. Fast pulse (unit impulse)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
I
n
p
u
t
T i m e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
- 0 . 0 5
0
0 . 0 5
0 . 1
0 . 1 5
0 . 2
0 . 2 5
0 . 3
0 . 3 5
0 . 4
0 . 4 5
T i m e
O
u
t
p
u
t
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Common Input Signals
3. Pulses:
e.g. Rectangular Pulse
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
I
n
p
u
t
T i m e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
- 0 . 2
0
0 . 2
0 . 4
0 . 6
0 . 8
1
1 . 2
O
u
t
p
u
t
T i m e
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Common Input Signals
4. Sinusoidal input
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
- 1 . 5
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
I
n
p
u
t
T i m e
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
- 0 . 8
- 0 . 6
- 0 . 4
- 0 . 2
0
0 . 2
0 . 4
0 . 6
0 . 8
O
u
t
p
u
t
T i m e
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Common Input Signals
5. Random Input
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
- 1 . 5
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
I
n
p
u
t
T i m e
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
- 0 . 8
- 0 . 6
- 0 . 4
- 0 . 2
0
0 . 2
0 . 4
0 . 6
O
u
t
p
u
t
T i m e
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Feedback control
) ( ) ( ) ( t y t y t e
sp
=
y
sp
= set point (target value)
y = measured value
The process information (y) is fed back to the
controller
The objective is to reduce the error signal to zero,
where the error is defined as:
process
transmitter
controller
disturbance
comparator manipulated
variable
controlled
variable
+

error
set-point
y
sp
y
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
The typical control problems
C Regulatory control
the task is to counteract the effect of external
disturbances in order to maintain the output at its
constant set-point (disturbance rejection)
C Servo control
the objective is to cause the output to track the
changing set-point
In both cases, one or more variables are
manipulated by the control system
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Material balance control # 1
Liquid holdup control
(level control)
LT
LC
SP
Flow in
Flow out
If the level h tends to
increase, the error
(h
sp
h) decreases
The controller sends a
signal to the control valve
actuator
The flow out is increased
The level in the tank
decreases
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Material balance control # 1 (contd)
The controllers job is to enforce the total mass balance
around the tank, in order to have neither accumulation nor
depletion of liquid matter inside the tank
rate of mass out = rate of mass in
set by the controller unknown to the controller
The equality is enforced by the controller
regardless of the value of the level set-point
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
For control applications:
Modeling objectives is to describe process dynamics
based on the laws of conservation of mass, energy and
momentum
The balance equation
1. Mass Balance (Stirred tank)
2. Energy Balance (Stirred tank heater)
Rate of Accumulation
of fundamental quantity
Flow
In
Flow
Out
Rate of
Production
=
-
+
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Application of a mass balance
Holding Tank
Modeling objective: Control of tank level
Fundamental quantity: Mass
Assumptions: Incompressible flow
h
F
F
in
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Total mass in system = V = Ah
Flow in = F
in
Flow out = F
Total mass at time t = Ah(t)
Total mass at time t+t = Ah(t+t)
Accumulation Ah(t+t) Ah(t) = t(F
in
-F ),
lim
( ) ( )
( ),

t
in
Ah t t Ah t
t
F F

+
=
0

Ah t t Ah t
t
F F
in
( ) ( )
( ),
+
=

A
dh
dt
F F
in
= ( ).
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Model consistency
Can we solve this equation?
Variables: h, , F
in
, F, A 5
Constants: , A 2
Inputs: F
in
, F 2
Unknowns: h 1
Equations 1
Degrees of freedom 0
There exists a solution for each value of the inputs F
in
, F
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Energy balance
Objective: Control tank temperature
Fundamental quantity: Energy
Assumptions: Incompressible flow
Constant hold-up
M
T
in
, w
Q
T, w
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Under constant hold-up and constant mean
pressure (small pressure changes)
Balance equation can be written in terms of the
enthalpies of the various streams
Typically work done on system by external forces is
negligible
Assume that the heat capacities are constant such that
dH
dt
H H Q
in out
= +
& &
dH
dt
H H Q W
in out s
= + +
& &
H C V T T
P ref
= ( )
&
( ) H C w T T
out P ref
=
&
( ) H C w T T
in P in ref
=
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
After substitution,
Since T
ref
is fixed and we assume constant ,C
p
Divide by C
p
V
C V
d T T
dt
C w T T C w T T Q
P
ref
P in ref P ref
( )
( ) ( )

= +
d C V T T
dt
C w T T C w T T Q
P ref
P in ref P ref
( ( ))
( ) ( )

= +
dT
dt
w
V
T T
Q
C V
in
P
= + ( )

Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Process Modeling
Resulting equation:
(lets use F instead of w)
Model Consistency
Variables: T, F, V, T
in
, Q, C
p
, 7
Constants: V, C
p
, 3
Inputs: F, T
in
, Q 3
Unknown: T 1
Equations 1
There exists a unique solution
dT
dt
F
V
T T
Q
VC
in
P
= + ( )

Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Types of feedback controllers
There are three basic types of feedback
controllers;
Proportional,
Proportional-integral and
Proportional-integral-derivative.
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Proportional (P) controllers
The control variable is manipulated according to:
) ( ) ( t e K c t c
C s
+ =
C
s
is the controller bias
K
C
is the controller gain
The controller gain can be adjusted (tuned) to make the
manipulated variable changes as sensitive as desired to
the deviations between set-point and controlled variable
The sign of K
C
can be chosen to make the controller
output c(t) increase or decrease as the error increases
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
P-only controllers
const = =
s
c c
: at the nominal steady state
The bias C
s
is the value of the controller output which, in
manual mode, causes the measured process variable to
maintain steady state at the design level of operation
[e (t )=0] when the process disturbances are at their
expected values
The bias value is assigned at the controller design level,
and remains fixed once the controller is put in automatic
) ( ) ( t e K c t c
C s
+ =
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
P-only controllers (contd)
The manipulated input c must change to guarantee that
the process stays at steady state, i.e.
What if the disturbance changes during the process?
s
c c
A steady state error e 0 must be enforced by the P-only
controller to keep the process at steady state:
A P-only controller cannot remove off-set
s C s s s
c t e K c c + = ) (
. .
) ( ) ( t e K c t c
C s
+ =
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
no control
(K
C
=0)
off-set
set-point
increasing K
C

c
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
d

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
time
Performance of P-only controllers
Response to a disturbance step change
Whatever the value of
K
C
, the offset is reduced
with respect to open-loop
operation
Increasing K
C
:
the offset is reduced
the system may oscillate
the process response is
speeded up
Although the open-loop
response may be 1
st
order, the closed-loop
one is not
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Summary for P-only control
Advantages
conceptually simple
easy to tune (a single parameter is needed, K
C
; the bias
is determined from steady state information)
Disadvantage
cannot remove off-set (off-set is enforced by the
controlled)
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
PI controllers
|
|

\
|
+ + =

t
I
C s
t t e t e K c t c
0
d ) (
1
) ( ) (

c
s
is the controller bias
K
C
is the controller gain

I
is the integral time const.
(also called reset time)
P=Proportional , I=Integral
integral action contribution
The P controller cannot remove off-set because the only
way to change the controller bias during non-nominal
operations is to cause e 0
The rationale behind a PI controller is to set the actual
bias different from c
s
, thus letting the error be zero
The control variable is manipulated according to:
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
PI controllers (contd)
|
|

\
|
+ + =

t
I
C s
t t e t e K c t c
0
d ) (
1
) ( ) (

Note that until e 0, the manipulated input keeps on

changing because of the presence of the integral term
The change in c (t ) will stop only when e = 0
The integral action can eliminate off-set
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Performance of PI controllers
Response to a disturbance step change: effect of K
C
The offset is eliminated
Increasing K
C
:
the process response is
speeded up
the system may oscillate
CAUTION
For large
values of the
controller
gain, the
closed-loop
response may
be unstable !


fixed
increasing K
C
open-loop
(K
C
=0)
set point


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Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Performance of PI controllers (contd)
Response to a disturbance step change: effect of
I
Increasing
I
:
oscillations are
dampened
the process response is
made more sluggish
CAUTION
For small
values of the
integral time,
the closed-
loop response
may be
unstable !
K
C
fixed
increasing
I
set point


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Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Summary for PI control
Advantages
steady state off-set can be eliminated
the process response can be considerably speeded up
with respect to open-loop
Disadvantages
tuning is harder (two parameters must be specified, K
C
and
I
)
the process response becomes oscillatory; bad tuning
may even lead to instability
the integral action may saturate
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
PID controllers
|
|

\
|
+ + + =

t
t e
t t e t e K c t c
D
t
I
C s
d
) ( d
d ) (
1
) ( ) (
0

D
is called derivative time const.
i) If the error is increasing very rapidly, a large deviation
from the setpoint may arise in a short time
ii) Sluggish processes tend to cycle
P=Proportional , I=Integral , D=Derivative
derivative action contribution
The rationale behind derivative action is to anticipate the
future behavior of the error signal by considering its rate
of change
The control variable is manipulated according to:
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Performance of PID controllers
Response to a disturbance step change
Increasing
D
:
the oscillations caused by
the integral action are
dampened
the process response is
speeded up
no derivative action

D
= 0
increasing
D
set-point


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Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Summary for PID control
Advantages
oscillations can be dampened with respect to PI control
Disadvantages
tuning is harder than PI (three parameters must be specified, K
C
,

I
and
D
)
the derivative action may amplify measurement noise potential
wear on the final control element
Use of derivative action
avoid using the D action when the process is not sluggish
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Controller selection recommendations
When steady state offsets can be tolerated, use a P-only
controller (many liquid level loops are on P control)
When offset cannot be tolerated, use a PI controller (a
large proportion of feedback loops in a typical plant are under PI
control)
When it is important to compensate for some natural
sluggishness in the system, and the process signal are
relatively noise-free, use a PID controller
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
Recommendations
Chapter 13 & 14 of Chemical
Process Control
Chapter: 13 Introduction to feedback control
Chapter: 14 Dynamic behavior of feedback-
controlled process
Author: George Stephanopoulos
Process Dynamics
HHS, 8- Sep, 2011
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
t
s
t
p
t
r
0.95
1.05
P
c
b
a


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time units
Performance assessment
t
r
= rise time
t
p
= time to first peak
t
s
= settling time
a /b = overshoot
c /a = decay ratio
P = period of oscillation
A good
decay ratio is
1/4 (quarter
amplitude
decay)
(set-point tracking problem)