PRODUCTION ENGINEERING.

Production engineering (Manufacturing engineering) is the field of studying all the activities that is concerned with the manufacturing of industrial products.

Five essential requirements must be fulfilled to establish a factory or a workshop. These requirements are; money, management, manpower, method,

machines. BASIC DEFINITIONS

Technology (Know How)
Technology means how to fabricate the products with the highest quality and lowest cost.

Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into final products.

Manufacturing Processes
Casting Process
Casting process is the process where the product is developed by melting a metal, pouring it in a pre-prepared mold. and

Forming Process
Forming process is the process where the product is developed by Hammering, bending, pulling, etc. The material may be pre-heated to facilitate the process.

Machining Process
Machining process is the process where the product is developed by using cutting tool to cut small segments (chips) from the raw material. a hard

Joining and Assembly Process

Joined and assembled together by welding, riveting, Nut-bolt tighten etc. To develop the final product.

Process Automation levels

Manual Operation Mechanized process Automated machine tool (CNC) Fully automated Computer Integrated Manufacturing System CIM Fully Automated CAD/CAM systems

Material
Structure of metals
When metal solidify from a molten metal state, the atoms arrange themselves into various configuration, called crystals . The arrangement of the atoms in the crystal is called crystalline structure . The smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice structure is known as a unit cell . The unit cell is similar to the brick in a wall.

Body centered cube (BCC) and Face centered cube (FCC)

At different temperature the same metal may form different structure because of the lower energy required at that temperature.

Properties of materials.
Physical properties
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Electrical, Magnetic, Optical, Thermal, Elastic Chemical behavior

Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties describe how a material responds to an applied force, include

strength

Ductility Describes how a material behaves when it is exposed to a sudden force,

impact , Fatigue creep wear . 1.

Strength : is a measure of how the material resists being misshapen or deformed

Tensile strength

This is the ability of a material to withstand pulling forces or tension forces. Compressive strength This is the ability of a material to withstand squeezing or compression forces.

Stress strain curve Stress : is defined as the force per unit areas.

=F/A
Strain : is defined as the elongation per unit length

=l /l0

( l = l l0 ) l length before elongation

Increasing temperature generally effects on stress strain curves as shown in Fig. 2.2. It raises ductility and toughness and lower the yield stress.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Torsional properties : This is the ability to withstand twisting forces. Hardness : This is the ability to withstand being scratched, cut or dented. Toughness : This is a measure of how much energy is required to break a material. Stiffness : It is the ability to resist bending deformation Ductility : It is the ability to be elongated or stretched. A ductile material will be fairly
strong in tension.

7.

Brittleness : It is the ability to resist fracture or deformation. A brittle material under tension
can break suddenly and without warning.

Material Classification

Metal fall into several categories:

Base Metal: are pure metals like gold, copper, lead and tin. Alloys: are combination of several metals. They are fused together in a molten state. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Ferrous metals : are alloys that contain iron as a major part of their composition Non-Ferrous metals: contains no iron like aluminum, brass and tin

Metal are further grouped into the following classes:

Ferrous metals

1. Low Carbon Steels : do not contain enough carbon to be hardened (less than 0.3 %). They
are relatively soft. As they are easy to machine, weld and form, they have many applications in bench metal work. Mild steels are available as rods, bars, strips, and sheets.

2. Medium Carbon Steels

: contain 0.30 to 0.60 percent carbon (30 to 60 points). They are good for projects that need machining.

3. High Carbon Steels are sometimes called TOOL STEELS. They contain 0.60 to 1.00 percent
carbon. These steels are used to make tools because they can be heat-treated (this is the process of controlling the heating and cooling of metal to bring about certain desirable characteristics, such as hardness and toughness).

Stainless steel: All true stainless steel contain a minimum of about 12% Cr, which permits a thin, protective
surface layer of chromium oxide to form when the steel is exposed to oxygen.

Non Ferrous metals

ALUMINUM : Aluminum is a term used to identify an entire family of metals (there are over 100 different aluminum alloys). COPPER : Copper is an easily-worked metal. The metal takes a brilliant polish Copper is worked like brass. Much copper is used in electric wiring and in electric motors. BRASS : Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Brass is easy to shape, cut, etch, solder, electroplate, and chemically color. Brass is used a great deal in art metal work.

Non metallic material

Most are made entirely from chemicals obtained from crude oil and, to a much lesser extent, coal. It is the job of the plastics manufacturer to convert these chemicals into plastics.

The structure of plastics

One of the chemicals obtained from crude oil is the gas ethene. This can be used to make the well known plastic polythene.

How polythene is made

Polythene is made, by persuading the free roaming ethene gas molecules to join together to form long chain polythene molecules. The persuasion is provided by chemicals known as catalysts or initiators. During the process many thousands of ethene molecules join together to form each molecule of polythene.

Plastic properties
Plastic will deform under pressure, and retain the new shape when the pressure is removed. Polymers are classified in the most commonly used method to describe polymers is in terms of their mechanical and thermal behavior

Thermoplastics
On heating, the molecules are given the energy to move apart. As a result the forces between the molecules become weaker. This allows them the freedom to slip over one another to form a new shape when under pressure. This process of softening and hardening can be repeated over and over again because the molecules in a thermoplastic are always free to behave in this way.

Thermosetting plastics
On first heating, the polymer softens and can be molded into shape under pressure. However, the heat triggers a chemical reaction in which the molecules become permanently locked together. The reaction is known as cross linking. As a result the polymer becomes permanently set and cannot be softened again by heating.

Thermoset do not have a fixed melting temperature and can not easily by reprocessed after the cross linking reaction

Composite materials
Definition: a material composed of 2 or more constituents 1. Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibers) 2. Binder phase (e.g., compliant matrix)

Advantages High strength and stiffness Low weight ratio Material can be designed in addition to the structure Applications Straw in clay construction by Egyptians Aerospace industry Sporting goods Automotive Construction Forms of Reinforcement Phase 1. Fibers: cross-section can be circular, square or hexagonal 2. Particulate: small particles that impede dislocation movement (in metal composites) and strengthens the matrix 3. Flakes: flat platelet form

Material Selection

Factors affecting materials selection may be summarized as follows: Physical properties. Mechanical properties. Manufacturability. Environmental conditions. Cost

Metal Casting
Casting : is the process of pouring molten metal into a mould containing a cavity which represents the required product shape. Steps in casting are three: 1. Melt the metal 2. Pour it into a mold 3. Let it freeze Advantages of casting
Can create complex part geometries Can create both external and internal shapes Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape Can produce very large parts Some casting methods are suited to mass production. It is economical to use.

Disadvantages of casting

Limitations on mechanical properties Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand casting Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals Environmental problems

Parts Made by Casting

Big parts: engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big statues, and pump housings Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, and frying pans All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and nonferrous

Types of Casting

Mold material; Molding processes Methods of feeding the mold with molten metal

The mold in casting

Contains cavity whose geometry determines part shape Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling Made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal

The mold can be in two forms

a. open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part

b. closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity

The two major categories are ; expandable and permanent mold casting.
Expandable molds
Expandable molds are made of sand, plaster, ceramics and similar material. After the casting has solidifies, the molds in these molds are broken up to remove the casting. Advantage: more complex shapes possible Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mold rather than casting itself

Permanent molds
Permanent molds are made of metals that maintain their strength at high temperature. The casting can be easily removed and the mold used for the next casting. Advantage: higher production rates Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

Solidification of Metals
Solidification is the transformation of molten metal back into solid state.

Solidification shrinkage
A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio cools and solidifies more slowly than one with a lower ratio.

Design the riser to have a larger volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting solidifies first.
Sand Casting
This process relies on : the mold maket creating a cavity in a block of sand. This cavity must have the desired configuration so that when molten metal is poured into it and allowed to solidify, the solid metal will take on the desired shape and have dimensions that match, or can be machined to match, a finished parts.

Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour molten metal into sand mold 2. Allow metal to solidify 3. Break up the mold to remove casting

4. Clean and inspect casting 5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical properties

Properties required in sand

Permeability : porosity of the sand enables the escape of gas and steam formed in the mold. Strength: sand must be cohesive to the extent that it has sufficient bond; both water and clay content affect the cohesive properties. Refractoriness: Sand must resist high temperatures without fusing. Grain size and shape: Sand must have a grain size appropriate with the surface to be produced, and grains must be irregular to the extent that they will have sufficient bonding strength.

Elements of Sand mold

1. Molten metal is poured into the mold cavity. 2. Sand is packed into the casting boxes around the pattern. 3. Pattern an exact copy of the required casting made from wood and sometimes from metal. It is removed to leave the mould cavity. 4. Casting removed from sand after cooling. 5. Cores are placed in the cavity to form holes. 6. Riser is an extra void created to contain excessive molten metal. The purpose of this is to feed the molten metal to the mold cavity as the molten metal solidifies and shrinks. 7. The cavity in the sand is formed using a pattern. 8. In the two-part mould, which is typically of sand casting, the upper half, flask is called COPE and the lower half is called DRAG. 9. Parting line is the surface that separates the mould parts.

Pattern
The pattern is a full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting. Types of patterns Removable : The mold is made in a flask that has two or more parts

(a) solid pattern

(b) split pattern

(c) match-plate pattern

(d) cope and drag pattern

Disposable : In this case, the pattern is usually one piece including the gate Pattern allowance Shrinkage : When any pure metal and most alloys cool, they shrink. To compensate for shrinkage a shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern. Draft : When a removable pattern is drawn from a mold, the tendency to tear away the edges of the mold in contact with the pattern is greatly decreased if the surfaces of the pattern, parallel to the direction it is being withdrawn, are slightly tapered. This tapering of the sides of the pattern, known as draft Machining (Finish): The finish of the cast surface is fairly bad. In most cases these surface have to be machined. The Machining allowance is added to compensate the loss of material as chip during machining process. Core : Core as a full-scale model of interior surfaces of part

Preparation of mold

Patern and core making

Core boxes produce core.

Pattern made with its three allowances shrinkage, machining and draft.

Molding 1Drag Preparation preparation

Half of the pattern have been mounted on plate Inside the drag. The drag is Filled with casting sand. The drag is inverted. The half pattern is removed

2- Drag inverted

3-cope preparation

Drag is filled with sand. The full pattern is inserted The cope is ready for sand

4-hole; riser, spree and vent holes; making

Cope and drag are filled with sand. The pattern is withdrawn. The riser, sprue and vent holes are made inside the sand in the cope

5. Cope and drag assembly

Core is set in place. Cope and drag assembled ready for pouring.

Die Casting
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity Die-casting,

Molds for Die Casting

Usually made of tool steel, mold steel Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

Die Casting Steps

Advantages:
Economical for large production quantities Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish Thin sections are possible Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good

Strength to casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal points Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity

Joining of materials
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding Mechanical fastening.

These processes are an important for the following reasons:

The product is impossible to manufacture as a single piece. The product is easier and more economical to manufacture as individual components, which are then assembled. Different properties may be desirable for functional purposes of his product. These properties require the product to be taken as individual components apart for repair or maintained during their service live. Transporting the product in individual components and assembled them at the customers plant may be easier and less costly.

WELDING

1 Fusion welding
A. The oxyacetylene process. B. Arc welding.

A. The oxyacetylene process Is a process which relies on combustion of oxygen and acetylene. When mixed together in correct proportions within a hand-held torch or blowpipe, a relatively hot flame is produced with a temperature of about 3,200 0C The heat is generated in accordance with the following two stages chemical reactions: The primary combustion process, which occurs in the inner core of the flame, is: C2H2 + O2 2 CO +H2 + heat (1) (The combustion produce about one-third of the total heat generated in the flame.)

The second stage of the chemical reaction 2CO +H2+1.5 O2 2CO2 +H2O +heat (2) (The second stage uses oxygen from air and produce about twothirds of the total heat of the flame). )))))))

Kinds of flames

Natural flame

Oxidizing flame

Carburizing flame

Used Gases Steel melts at a temperature above 1,500 0C, the mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used as it is the only gas combination with enough heat to weld steel. However, other gases such as propane, hydrogen and coal gas can be used for joining lower melting point non-ferrous metals, and for brazing and silver soldering. Filler metals Filler metal is used to supply additional material to the welding zone. They are made of metal compatible with those to be welded.

B. Arc welding
Arc welding is a process that uses an electric arc to join the metals being welded. By applying heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix directly with an intermediate molten filler metal. The arc produces temperature in the range of 30,000 which is much higher than those developed in oxyacetylene welding.

All arc-welding things in Power heat

Basic Welding The arc-welding circuit consists of :

processes have three common: source source shielding

Circuit

1. An AC or DC power source, fitted with whatever controls may be needed, 2. Is connected by a work cable to the workpiece 3. by a "hot" cable to an electrode holder of some type, which makes an electrical contact with the welding electrode.

Arc Shielding Joining metals requires more than moving an electrode along a joint. Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically with elements in the air - oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the molten pool comes into contact with air, oxides and nitrides form which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld joint. Therefore, many arc-welding processes provide some means of covering the arc and the molten pool with a protective shield of gas, vapor, or slag. This is called arc shielding. This shielding prevents or minimizes contact of the molten metal with air. Shielding also may improve the weld.

Types of Arc Welding

1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding

2. Gas metal arc welding

3. Non consumable electrodes

Types of joints

Solid State Welding (Resistance Welding) Resistance welding (RW) covers a number of processes in which the heat required for welding is produced by means of the electrical resistance between the two members to be joined. These processes have major advantages, such as not requiring consumable electrodes, shielding gases, or flux. The heat generated in resistance welding is given by the general expression H =I2 Rt where H = heat generated, in joules (watt-seconds); I= current, in amperes; R = resistance, in ohms; and t = time of current flow, in seconds. The total resistance in these processes, such as in the resistance spot welding is the sum of the following: a) Resistance of the electrodes. b) Electrode-workpiece contact resistance. c) Resistance of the individual parts to be welded. d) Workpiece-workpiece contact resistance The actual temperature rise at the joint depends on the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the metals to be joined. Thus because they have high thermal conductivity,

There are four basic methods of resistance welding, 1. spot, 2. seam, 3. projection, 4. flash welding. Lap joints are used in the first three processes and butt joints in the last two

Soldering and Brazing

Brazing is defined as a group of joining processes that produce coalescence of materials by heating them to the brazing temperature and by using a filler metal (solder) having a melting temperature above (450C). Soldering has the same definition as brazing except for the fact that the filler metal used has a melting point below 450C). Basically, soldering and brazing involve melting a filler material that will flow into a narrow gap and solidify. It is distinct because the base materials should not be melted. 1. Soldering is done at a lower temperature, either with a propane torch, or an electric heater. It is intended for bonds with less required strength, such as electrical and plumbing applications. 2. Brazing is done at higher temperatures with oxyacetylene or gas torches. These bonds tend to be higher and can be used for mechanical strength. Materials include, 1. Solder is often an alloy combination of two of tin, lead, silver, zinc, antimony or bismuth. 2. Brazing metals are typically alloys such as, brazing brass (60% Cu, 40%Zn) manganese bronze nickel silver copper silicon silver alloys (with/without phosphorous) copper phosphorous

METAL FORMING
Industrial material is shaped through plastic deformation. The material is reshaped but not cut away. This is done by causing the material to stretch, compress, bend, or twist.

Forming processes may be classified as follows A. Bulk forming processes. B. Sheet Metal Processes.
A. Bulk Forming processes

1. 2. 3. 4.

forging, rolling, extrusion wire drawing.

1. Forging
a. Free forging b. Die forging The forging is the process by which the metal is shaped by applying compressive force using various dies and tools. The volume of the metal remains constant during the deformation process. Forging refines the grain structure and improve physical properties. Most forging is done while the metal is hot. Hammers or presses produce the required forming forces,

Coining
Is the squeezing of metal while it is confined in a closed set of dies. It is a closed die forging process typically used in minting coins and jewelry.

A comparisons between embossing and coining operations.

2. Rolling
Rolling is the shaping of metal by passing of metal between rollers. The rolled products are flat plates and sheets. Rolling of blooms, slabs, billets, and plates is usually done at temperatures above the re-crystallization temperature (hot rolling). Sheet and strip often are rolled cold in order to maintain close thickness tolerances. Straight and long structural shapes, such as solid bars with various cross sections, channels, I beams and railroad rails, are rolled using section rolling.

Section rolling products examples

3. Extrusion
Is the process in which the material is forced through a die having the shape of the final product.

Long straight metal parts, tubes and many other different types can be produced by extrusion. The extruded product have a constant cross section. Typical products are made by extrusion are doors and windows frames, tubing having various cross sections and structural and architectural shapes.

a. Direct extrusion Is the technique in which the metal is forced through a hollow shaped which is mounted into a pressure chamber, b. Indirect Extrusion Indirect extrusion is also called backwards extrusion and in this process, the die is constant whereas the billet & container move together.

die,

c. Impact extrusion is the process used for the production of rigid or collapsible tubes or cans, e.g. Zinc dry battery cases and toothpaste tubes, In softer materials such as Zinc, Lead and Aluminum. A punch forcing a blank to flow into the die. The punch descends very rapidly and hence the term impact for this form of extrusion.

Impact extrusion steps

4. Wire Drawing
Is the process in which the cross section of a solid rod is reduced or changed in shape by pulling it through a die.

Wire drawing production line ( Multi steps )

5. Tube Drawing The large tube is drawn to a smaller diameter and longer length

B. Sheet Metal Work

In sheet metal work, the thickness of the sheet usually remains unchanged. The operations that carried out on sheet metals are; 1. shearing, 2. bending, 3. drawing, 4. press forming, 5. spinning
1. shearing That is, the sheet is cut by subjecting it to shear stresses a. open shearing b. blanking contour

2. Blanking and piercing

A die set composed of a die and a punch fitted to it.

1-punch.

2-die.

3-sheet.

4-stripping.

5- Blank.

3. Deep drawing In deep drawing, a round sheet metal blank is placed over a circular die opening and is held in place with blank holder.

4. Press Forming Press forming is the shaping of components from sheet metal between a punch and a die.

5. Spinning Is an old process and involve the forming of axisymmetric parts over a mandrel with tool or rollers. 6. Embossing Is one of the stretch forming operations. The sheet is completely clamped on its circumference and the shape is developed entirely at the expense of sheet thickness.

Polymer Forming
Plastic raw materials are available in a variety of forms including Powder , viscous fluids, pellets and granules.

The most important methods are;

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. extrusion, blow molding injection molding compression molding vacuum molding

1. Extrusion This is the process used to make long products

2. Extrusion blow-molding This process is used for making large hollow sections products PVC, polythene are common blow molding materials.

step 1 : Extrusion

step 2 : blowing

step 3 ; Extracting

3. Injection molding This is the process of forming articles by injecting molten plastic into a mould

Polythene, polystyrene, polypropylene and nylon are typical injection molding materials. 4. Compression molding In compression molding, huge forces are used to squeeze between heated moulds a measured quantity of polymer into shape

Compression molding is used for thermosetting plastics

5. Vacuum forming This is one of the processes used to make articles from thermoplastic sheet. The sheet is first cut to size and clamped above a mould. A heater then raises the temperature of the sheet until it becomes soft and rubbery.

MACHINING PROCESSES

BASIC DEFINATIONS
Metal cutting process (machining) is the process of removing layers of metal from a blank by using a hard tool. ADVATAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MACHINING 1. 2. 3. 4. Very high dimensional accuracy, and high surface quality the machining processes are suitable for small as well as large batch production. Costs of machining processes are relatively high. it may be very difficult to machine very complicated shapes or very hard materials.

MECHANISM OF METAL CUTTING(WEDGE ACTION) the cutting process comprises two stages the first is the penetration stage, followed by the separation stage. ELEMENTS OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS Suitable cutting tool must be securely held. Workpiece must be securely clamped. Relative motions between tool and workpiece must be created.

TYPES OF MACHINES Turning machines Drilling machines Milling machines Shaping machines Grinding machines The tasks of all these machines are to clamp the workpieces, hold tools, and create the relative motions between tool, and workpiece.

CUTTING TOOLS
1. Cutting Tool Material tools Material properties for cutting tools HIGH STRENGTH; the tool must withstand the mechanical loads. HIGH HARDNESS; cutting tool must resist wear. TOUGHNESS; this because cutting tool may be subjected to sudden shocks during cutting process. Materials used for cutting tools HIGH CARBON STEEL Hand cutting tools such as; files, saws, chisel, markers, are made from high carbon steel. HIGH SPEED STEEL (HSS) Machine cutting tools such as; twist drill, turning tools, milling tools are made from HSS. CEMENTED CARBIDES TIPS These tips are small pieces manufactured from metals carbides. They exhibit a very high hardness. These tips are mounted on steel shanks, and are used when the cutting speed is very high.

Cutting Tool Geometry

angles that made the wedge shape of the tool and are called rake angle (), clearance angle (), tool angle ()

RAKE ANGLE (): Angle between tool face and the perpendicular to the cutting motion. Its functions are to facilitate chip removal, reduce cutting force, and improve surface finish. CLEARANCE ANGLE (): Angle between tool flank and workpiece. Its function is to eliminate friction between tool and workpiece. TOOL ANGLE (): Angle between tool face and the tool flank. It determines the strength of the tool.

+ + =90 degrees
Cutting Motions
Relative motion between cutting tool and workpiece may be analyzed into three motions; namely, depth of cut motion, cutting motion, feed motion.

Depth of Cut (a)

It is a motion given in the direction perpendicular to the machined surface.

Cutting motion (cutting Speed)

It is the motion, which causes the chip removal.

Feed Motion (Feed Rate)

It is the motion, which copies the cutting action on the machined surface.

setting the cutting motion for shaping plane surface

cutting motions for different cutting operations

Tool wear and tool life cutting tools are subjected to high localized forces, high temperatures, sliding of the chip along the rake face, and sliding of the tool flank along the freshly cut surface. These conditions affect tool life, the quality of the machined surface, its dimensional accuracy, and consequently the economics of cutting operations.

Cutting fluid The purposes of using cutting fluids on machining processes are to cool and lubricate the tool bit and work piece that are being machined, increase the life of the cutting tool, make a smoother surface finish,

Turning Operations
(i)Straight (cylindrical) Turning the straight turning where the tool moves parallel with the center line of the lathe

(ii) Facing the tool follows a path at 90 deg. to thelathe center line. This is achieved through the movement of the cross slide

(iii) Taper Turning

Taper turning can be achieved only when the tool traverse a path not parallel with the lathe centre line

(iv) Drilling & Reaming Drilling and reaming at the centre lathe is achieved by using the tailstock as tool holding device to hold the twist drill , and reamer tool

Threading Threading is a special turning operation that is performed on the lathe. Threading uses a single-point tool that has an identical form as the thread groove

(vii) Knurling

(viii) Chamfering, grooving, and Parting-off

Drilling
Drilling is the operation of cutting holes in the material

Drilling Operations.
These operations include Reaming Countersinking Counter boring Tapping

Reaming operation:
Reamer is a finish tool. The purpose of reaming is to produce a well finished hole of accurate diameter.

Counter boring and counter sinking:

Counter boring and countersinking are two operations to cut recesses in the opening of a drilled hole to accommodate a screw or bolt head

Threading: Tapping is an effective way to create internal threads inside a hole. A tool used to perform these operations is called a tap.

CHAPTER EIGHT Measurement

Measurement are carried in all kinds of engineering aspects linear dimensions, angular dimensions, temperature, current, heat, weights, . Etc. In this section simple dimensional and angular measurement will be, only, considered.

Measuring linear dimensions

simple hand tools may be used.

Calipers ( Verniers)

Micrometers
Micrometers are, also, used to measure internal, external, depth, bore . dimensions. Ordinary micrometers usually has 0.01 mm scale value

Sleeve reads full mm = 12.00

Thimbe reads = 0.16 mm

Sleeve reads 1/2 mm = 0.5 mm

Other Simple Instruments

Screw Pitch Gauge This gauge, shown in Fig 8.7, is used to quickly determine the pitch of the various threads

Radius Gauge
The radius gauge, shown in Fig 8.8, is used for checking radii on corner and against shoulders,

Straight (Knife) Edge

Straight edge, is designed for checking the flatness of surfaces