RESEARCH ARTICLE

Copyright © 2014 American Scientific Publishers Quantum Matter

All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Vol. 3, 1–5, 2014

Quantum Memory of the Universe

Elmo Benedetto1
∗ and Ignazio Licata2
1
Department of Mathematic, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (Sa), Italy
2
ISEM, Institute for Scientific Methodology, Via Ugo La Malfa n. 153 90146, Palermo, Italy

In this paper, starting from the self similarity structures of the Universe, we analyze the possibility that the
Universe has had a quantum imprinting. This quantum memory could be revealed today through the generalized
Compton wavelength relation and through the cosmological Schrodinger equation. Indeed, thanks to the first
quantization, it is possible to recast the Einstein equations in a Schrödinger-like form. Besides we consider the
possibility that the Universe might not have originated from a true singularity beginning from an infinitely small
volume.

Keywords:

1. INTRODUCTION Schrodinger equation in the case of dust-like matter and, instead,

The enigma of quantum gravity is the most crucial problem of
modern theoretical physics and at present a quantum cosmol-
ogy is not yet fully realized, but we know that gravity induces
quantum effects as, for example, the evaporation of black holes.
Observation shows that the Universe has a structure with scal-
ing rules, where the clustering properties of cosmological objects
reveals a form of hierarchy. If the distribution of galaxies is ran-
dom, with a mean density of n galaxies for unitary volume, the
relative probability to find a near galaxy in a volume dV to a
distance r from any galaxy is dP = ndV . Instead the distribution
is certainly not random and we have1
dP = ndV
1 + r
where the correlation function r characterizes the excess of
probability and the experimental observations show that

1 8
5 Mpc
r =
r
for r < 20 Mpc. For clusters of galaxies we have

1 8
26 Mpc
r =
r
for r < 100 Mpc. Finally Broadhurst et al. found a periodicity in
the three dimensional distributions of galaxy superclusters with
a characteristic scale of 128 Mpc. It seems to exist a regular
network of superclusters and voids with a step size of 128 Mpc
where chains of superclusters are separated by voids of almost
equal size.2 In a previous paper was analyzed the cosmological
∗
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
now we want analyze this equation in the case of radiation era.3 4
In fact, if the Universe has a memory of its quantum origin, the
quantum imprinting has happened when the Universe was domi-
nated by radiation and this could explain, in a very natural way,
the periodic structures of the Universe. It emerges that several
observational quantities can be affected by such a behavior since
oscillations in the cosmological solutions can be easily reduced
to oscillations in the red-shift. The probability of finding super-
clusters of galaxies at a certain epoch or a certain red-shift is
given by the Schrodinger equation which is nothing else but the
quantum counterpart of the classical Einstein first order equation.
Furthermore, the eigensolutions of such an equation, having a
(1) probabilistic meaning, can be connected to the correlation func-
tion which gives the features of the distribution of superclusters.
The paper is organized as follows: we first discuss about Quan-
tum Cosmology in Section 2; Section 3 presents the possibility
of A quantum memory; Section 4 is devoted to the cosmological
(2) Schrodinger equation; conclusions are drawn in Section 5.
2. QUANTUM COSMOLOGY AT A GLANCE
Quantum cosmology is the application of quantum theory to the
(3) universe as a whole. Despite many attempts, such as the Wheeler-
deWitt equation, the field remains a rather speculative branch of
quantum gravity. The current models of cosmology are based on
Einstein’s equations and if we apply this equations to the whole
Universe, we get the relativistic cosmology, in which the cos-
mological principle is postulated and a model of constant spatial
curvature obtained. Predictions, all successful, include the initial
abundance of chemical elements formed in a period of primor-
dial nucleosynthesis and the existence and properties of a thermal
echo from the early cosmos, the cosmic background radiation.

Quantum Matter Vol. 3, No. 3, 2014 2164-7615/2014/3/001/005 doi:10.1166/qm.2014.1124 1

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Despite this, we have to pay close attention to General Relativity,
where, inevitably, the application of Einstein’s equations to cos-
mological problems requires an extreme extrapolation of their
validity to very far regions of spacetime. The principal problems
of the standard relativistic cosmology are the horizon problem
and the flatness problem
The standard theory is unable to explain how regions of the
Universe that had not been in contact with each other since the
Big Bang are observed to emit cosmic background radiation at
almost precisely the same temperature as each other and, besides,
the relativistic cosmology is unable to provide an explanation as
to why the density of the Universe should be so close to the
critical value. It is useful to observe that even though cosmology
accepts General Relativity as a definitive theory of gravitation,
there are still some uncertain aspects due to a baffling pluralism.
Possible universes are numerous and differ from each other sub-
stantially. Due to these facts alternative theories have been con-
sidered and one of these approaches are the Extended Theories
of Gravity that are obtained by modifying the Einstein-Hilbert
action, adding scalar fields or curvature invariants. We emphasize
here that also the cosmological inflationary models if they solve
the flatness and horizon problems, do not solve the initial singu-
larity problem. Probably, many think that all this will be resolved
when we are able to formulate a quantum theory of gravitation.
The usual approach of most quantum cosmology theories con-
siders the whole Universe as a quantum system and the canonical
formalism, including the definition of the wave function of the
Universe, its configuration space and its evolution, is based on
the Wheeler-De Witt equation


2
Gijkl − Rh1/2 + 2h1/2 hij  = 0 (4)
hij hkl
where hij is the spatial metric, R is the scalar curvature of the
intrinsic geometry of the three-surface and
1 tion of the Euclidean 5-dimensional space. The Poincarè group
Gijkl = h−1/2 hik hjl + hil hjk − hij hkl  (5)
2
In non-gravitational physics the approach to quantum theory
that has proved most successful involves mathematical objects
known as path integrals. In the path integrals formulation the
probability that a system in an initial state A will evolve to a
final state B is given by adding up a contribution from every
possible history of the system that starts in A and ends in B.5
Gravity is rather different from the other physical forces, whose
classical description involves fields propagating in spacetime.
The relativistic geometrodynamics description of gravity identi-
fies the gravitational force with the curvature of spacetime itself:
unlike for non-gravitational physics, spacetime is not just the
arena in which physical processes take place but it is a dynami-
cal field. Therefore a sum over histories of the gravitational field
in quantum gravity is really a sum over possible geometries for
spacetime. Let us remember that, in the construction of cosmo-
logical models, it is not possible to deduce the contour conditions
around the outside of the Universe. We can choose many differ-
ent conditions, but we need to calculate their consequences to see
if they agree with the observations. In their approach Hartle and
Hawking eliminated the problem of contour conditions because
their Universe has “no boundary.” 6 In this theory, appealing to
quantum physics, the Universe might not have originated from
a true singularity beginning from an infinitely small volume.
2 − r 2 sin2
d2 (6)
2
Quantum Matter 3, 1–5, 2014
The Hartle-Hawking proposal is to simply do away with the ini-
tial three geometry and that is to only include four dimensional
geometries that match onto the final three geometry. The path
integral is interpreted as giving the probability of a Universe with
certain properties being created from nothing.
In the Hartle-Hawking approach to quantum cosmology, the
initial wave function of the Universe is described by a path
integral for a compact manifold with a single spatial boundary.
The particularity is that time could have been imaginary, sim-
ilar to space, near the Big-Bang. That is, in the proximity of
the Big-Bang, it would be more exact to speak of 4-dimensional
Euclidean space instead of dynamical spacetime. The main
difficulty is to understand in what way real time emerges contin-
uously from imaginary time. A possible way-out from the Hartle-
Hawking mixed topologies is the group approach which allows
to individuate a Universe model where the whole spacetime is
represented by a 4-dimensional surface of a 5-dimensional de
Sitter hypersphere, which exists in its entirety and is immutable.
It is possible to demonstrate that the Hartle-Hawking solution is
a limit case of this approach.7
In the group approach, we find ourselves in a model of the Uni-
verse in which geometry is fixed by to the group that Fantappié
obtained by generalizing Poincaré’s relativistic group. All events,
past, present and future, simply exist in the Universe of imagi-
nary time and by sectioning the sphere with planes orthogonal to
the coordinate lines of imaginary time, one sees that this model
represents a stationary Universe of cyclic imaginary time. By
transforming imaginary time into real time, we obtain the passage
from a spacetime hypersphere of imaginary time, to a hyper-
boloid of real time. Perhaps the imaginary time is the fundamen-
tal structure of the Universe, while real time simply originates
from our senses.
Fantappié has used group theory for studying cosmology
obtaining as symmetry group S(O5 ) and that is the group of rota-
of relativistic physics can be perfected in a unique way by the
Fantappiè group, to write a new group of transformations which
had as limit Poincaré’s group and finally it can be shown that
this group was not able to be the limit of any continuous group
of 10 parameters. That is, by limiting to groups of 10 parameters
and to 4-dimensional spaces, what happened with Galileo’s and
Poincaré’s groups cannot be repeated. For this reason this group
is called the “final” group.8
Fantappié’s group is characterized by two constants: speed
of light c and a radius of space-time r. This group determines
an Universe endowed with a perfect symmetry: de Sitter’s Uni-
verse. Moving from de Sitter geometry, Arcidiacono showed that,
through a flat projective representation, one could obtain a space-
time which generalizes Minkowski’s spacetime and the projective
age of the Universe is constant since the temporal translations are
equal in form to relativistic law of the composition of velocities.
One of the main predictions of General Relativity is the exis-
tence of horizons in many of its solutions. The most popular
solution of the Einstein’s equations is the Schwarzschild one,
which represent the external metric of black-holes


2GM 2 2 dr 2
ds 2 = 1− c dt −
2
c r 1 − 2Gm/c 2 r
− r 2 d
Quantum Matter 3, 1–5, 2014
This line element has a singularity at
2GM
rs =
c2
namely, as is well know, the Schwarzschild radius. The
Schwarzschild metric can be generalized to the Kerr-Newman
solution which describes the most general stationary black hole
exterior and the only parameters appearing in this solution are
the mass M, the angular momentum J and the electric charge Q
of the Black Hole. This result is known in the literature as the
“no-hair” theorem. Hawking has shown that the black hole radi-
ates and this radiation is thermal corresponding to the following
temperature:
hc 3
b = (8) It’s interesting to note that in this theory the cosmological con-
RESEARCH ARTICLE
is identified with the shape of the quantum vacuum.10–14 The
Archaic Universe is based on a Euclidean timeless spatial struc-
(7) ture (the 5-sphere) as a substratum of the ordinary metrics used
to describe the propagation of wavefunctions. In the proposed
geometry, the time variable represents not a local time but a
cosmic time; this not only justifies the assumption of a cosmo-
logical principle and identifies the De Sitter observers class, but
has another physical meaning. Through the Wick rotation and the
emergence of time’s arrow, what we propose here is actually the
transition from a non-local real-time phase to a local imaginary
time one, and therefore a quantum interpretation of the big bang.
In this interpretation, the pointlike singularity is replaced by a
process of nucleation by “flocculation” of R processes (adopting
the Penrose terminology15 ) extended upon the 5-sphere equator.
16 2 GMk
stant has a purely geometrical meaning, deprived of time evolu-
The solution in real time of Einstein’s equations with positive
tion and fixed by the global structure of the de Sitter universe.
cosmological constant in absence of energy and matter is the
The term “archaic” means here not a state “before the big bang”
de Sitter space. This can be included as a hyperboloid in the
but a prespace that has with the local observable space-time a
5-dimensional Minkowski space with metric
projective relationship in the sense of Bohm “golomovement.” 16
1 This approach seems us the most appropriate to justify the idea
ds 2 = −dt 2 + cosh Ht
dr 2 + sin2 rd
2 + sin2
d2  (9) of a quantum memory. In fact, it shows how the quantum phase
H2
concerns not only an ancient era of the universe, but quantum
Setting
= it, we obtain the Euclidian metric in immaginary facets permeates the entire universe today.
time
1
ds 2 = −d
2 + coshH

dr 2 +sin2 rd
2 +sin2
d2  (10) 3. IN SEARCH OF QUANTUM
H2
TRACES AT ALL SCALES
Hawking has shown that the de Sitter space has thermal prop- In Ref. [4] is considered a stochastic self-similar, fractal universe
erty similar to the black hole. He writes the de Sitter metric in a in good agreement with the observations. According to the above
static form9 reflections, ask ourselves the question: does the Universe have
quantum nature at all scales?
ds 2 = −1 − H 2 r 2 dt 2 + 1 − H 2 r 2 −1 dr 2 In 1966 Sakharov indicated that quantum primordial fluctu-
+ r 2 d
2 + sin2
d2  (11) ations should have expanded towards the present epoch lead-
ing first to classical energy-density perturbations and, after the
There is a singularity in r = 1/H, in analogy with the decoupling from the cosmological background, to the observed
Schwarzschild solution’s case, which can be eliminated by a galaxies, clusters and superclusters of galaxies.17 As it is known
change of coordinates. The coordinate of the imaginary time is luminous matter appears segregated at different scale; in particu-
periodic with period  = 2/H and for the observers in de lar, we can distinguish among globular clusters, galaxies, clusters
Sitter Universe it implies the possibility to define a temperature, and superclusters of galaxies through their spatial dimensions.
an entropy and an area of the horizon, respectively given by7 Eddington and later on Weinberg wrote the relevant relationship
between quantum quantities and the cosmological ones:
H 1  2 4 2

D = =  S= 2
=  A= 2
= (12) h  G1/2 m3/2 R1/2 (14)
2  H 4 H 
where h is the Plank constant, G is the gravitational constant,
From previous relations we see that
m is the mass of nucleon, and R is the radius of Universe. By
1 following the Eddington and Weinberg approach, we can write a
S= A (13) general relationship between the radius R of the self-gravitating
4
system and its number of nucleons. While the previous relation-
which is the expression of the t’Hooft-Susskind-Bekenstein ship was written only for the radius of Universe, the authors have
Holographic Principle. We can summarize by saying that introduced a relationship which is scale invariant, so it can be
Hawking has shown that de Sitter space, and all the quantum adopted for all types of self-gravitating systems and also for the
fields in it, behave as if they were at a temperature H/2 entire Universe. In particular, it was observed that the segregated
and we could observe the consequences of it in fluctuations of Universe could is the result of a fundamental self-similar law,
the cosmic radiation. A problem arises since the de Sitter space, which generalizes the Compton wavelength relation
as a solution of the Einstein’s equations, is empty and there is

h
only the cosmological constant in disagreement with what we RN  = N (15)
see. Instead, through the group theoretical approach, we get it Mc
without using the General Relativity but simply as a general- where R is the radius of the astrophysical structures, h is the
ization of Poincaré’s group. A turning point was obtained by Planck constant, M is the total mass of the self-gravitating sys-
the theory of the archaic universe, where the de Sitter Universe tem, c the speed of light, N the number of nucleons within the

3
RESEARCH ARTICLE Quantum Matter 3, 1–5, 2014

structures, and   3/2. Then, we can consider the Compton we obtain

wavelength expression as a particular case of a more general rela-
ä 4G c 2
tion, one which is true for all material structures in the Universe. = − 2  + 3p + (25)
We can evaluate the radius of a particular structure when the a 3c 3

2 2
mass is known. This approach shows a Universe that has mem- ä kc 8G c 2
+ 2 = + (26)
ory of its quantum and relativistic nature at all scales and this a a 3c 2 3
reveals why the astrophysical structures and organic matter have
their particular lengths. Therefore the Universe with its structures By multiplying for 1/2ma2 , finally we rewrite the previous
at all scales (atomic nucleus, organic cell, human, planet, solar (0, 0) Einstein equation as
system, galaxy, clusters of galaxy, super clusters of galaxy) could

1 2 m 8G 1
have a fundamental quantum reason. The Virial Theorem can be mȧ −  + c 2
a2 = − mkc 2 (27)
formalized as 2 6 c2 2
2T + U = 0 (16) Following Rosen, we write
where T is the Kinetic Energy and U the Potential one.
T +V = E (28)
If we consider a test particle we have T = 1/2mv2 and U =
−GmM/r; consequently we obtain the well known expression where T has the role of the kinetic energy, V of the potential
to the speed  energy, and E of the total energy with the following expression
GM

v= (17) 1 m 8G
r T = mȧ2  V a = −  + c 2
a2 
If we consider M = Nmn and v = dr/dt by integrating on the 2 6 c2
range [0 R] the following expression 1
E = − mkc 2 (29)
 R  t 2
r 1/2
dr = Gmn N dt (18)
0 0 The classical equation of mass motion is

where R is the radius of the structure with mass M, we easily dV

mȧ = − (30)
obtain da
R = R̄t 2/3 (19)
By defining the momentum of mass as
with R̄ = 3/22/3 Gmn N 1/3 . Now if we impose that the previ-
ous expression is equal to the scale law relation, we obtain P = mȧ (31)

G = ḠN 1/2 t −2 (20) the Hamiltonian as

P2
H= + V a (32)
2m
where Ḡ = 4/9h3 /mn M 3 c 3 . In other words G is a function
of the time and the number of the constituents of the structures. and by using the standard procedure of first quantization, we
We can evaluate the link between H and G as follows. By sub- obtain the Schrödinger equation
stituting the expression for v coming from the Virial Theorem in 
the Hubble’s law vt = HtRt, we easily get i
= H (33)
t
H = G1/2 M 1/2 R−3/2 (21) where is the wave function. In other words, the structure of
mass m has the probability  2 to be at a given scale factor at.
and therefore  Taking into account the relation between the scale factor and the
2 M 2 red-shift
H= = (22) ȧ ż
3 mn Nt 2 3t =H =− (34)
a z+1
and so
a0
4. THE COSMOLOGICAL SCHRÖDINGER = 1+z (35)
a
EQUATION we can easily obtain the red-shift z to observe the material struc-
Following Rosen, several authors have perfected the cosmologi- tures. To complete this analysis, by using the standard quantum
cal Schrödinger equation derived by Einstein’s equations applied mechanics, the Schrödinger stationary equation
to a quantum mechanical system.3 18–20 In fact, starting from the
well-known gravitational equations and by assuming a standard H = E (36)
perfect fluid matter we can write
has the stationary state of energy E
Tv = p + u uv − pgv (23)
a t = ae−iEt/
(37)
where p is the pressure,  the energy density and u the velocity.
By considering the following Bianchi’s identities Therefore we can write

2 d2

Tv =0 (24) − + V a = E (38)
2m da2
4
Quantum Matter 3, 1–5, 2014 RESEARCH ARTICLE

and the Schrödinger stationary equation can be written in the its primordial phase, when quantum and relativistic laws were
form in comparison with gravity. This scale relation appears inter-
  esting because it allows us to obtain the exact dimensions of
8m2 G 2 mc 2 a2 m2 kc 2
 + a + − =0 (39) self-gravitating systems. Besides, the oscillating solutions of the
3
2 c 2 6
2
cosmological Schrodiner equation in radiation era, can be con-
where the prime indicates the derivative with respect to . Finally nected to the correlation function which gives the features of the
we obtain distribution of superclusters of galaxies.
 +
Aa2−3 + Ba2 + C = 0 (40)
where
Acknowledgment: The authors wishes to thank Professor
A. Feoli and Professor L. Chiatti for the many fruitful discussions
8m2 G m2 c 2 m2 kc 2 about these themes.
A=  a3  B=  C =− (41)
3
2 c 2 0 3
2
2
Remembering that
3H02 c 2 References and Notes
c = (42) 1. H. C. Ohanian and R. Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton &
8G Company (1994).
we obtain 2. T. J. Broadhurst, R. S. Ellis, D. C. Koo, and A. S. Szalay, Nature 343, 726
m2 c 2 a0 M (1990).
A= (43)

2 3. G. Iovane and E. Benedetto, Math. Methods Phys. Methods Simul. Sci. Tech-
nol. 1, 19 (2008).
The thermodynamical state of matter is assigned by giving 4. G. Iovane, E. Laserra, and F. S. Tortoriello, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 20,
 and, since the quantum imprinting there has been during 415 (2004).
the radiaton era, we have  = 4/3. Therefore the cosmological 5. R. P. Feynman, Reviews of Modern Physics 20, 367 (1948).
6. J. Hartle and S. Hawking, Phys. Rev. D 28, 2960 (1983).
Schrodinger equation becomes 7. I. Licata, JTP 3, 211 (2006).
  8. G. Arcidiacono, Projective Relativity, Cosmology and Gravitation, Di Renzo
A
 + 2 + Ba2 + C = 0 (44) editore, Rome (2006).
a 9. S. Hawking and R. Penrose, The Nature of Space and Time, Princeton Uni-
versity Press (1996).
A good match is obtained if a, that is z, has 8 oscilla- 10. I. Licata and L. Chiatti, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 48, 1003 (2009).
tions with periodicity of 128 h−1 Mpc in 2000 h−1 Mpc and that 11. I. Licata and L. Chiatti, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 49, 2379 (2010).
is in a red–shift range from z = 0 to z = 05. 12. L. Chiatti, EJTP 4, 17 (2007).
13. L. Chiatti, The Open Astronomy Journal 5, 44 (2012).
14. E. Benedetto, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 48, 1603 (2009).
15. R. Penrose, The Emperor’s New Mind, Oxford University Press (2002).
5. CONCLUSIONS 16. D. Bohm and B. J. Hiley, The Undivided Universe, Routledge, London (1995).
17. A. D. Sakharov, Soviet Physics JETP 22, 241 (1966).
In this paper we have considered the possibility that the Universe
18. S. Capozziello, A. Feoli, and G. Lambiase, Int. J. Mod. Phys. D 9,143 (2000).
could have a fundamental quantum reason and thanks to the scale 19. A. Feoli, Int. J. Mod. Phys. 12, 1475 (2003).
law we have a link between the actual Universe, as observed, and 20. N. Rosen, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 32, 1435 (1993).

Received: 25 March 2013. Accepted: 20 April 2013.