lifornia

onal
ity

C^

kj^Ay^-^^^

'

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

GIFT OF
Dr. Judd Marmor,

2002

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL

LIBRARY
EDITED BY ERNEST JONES
No. 6

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY

x\o.

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
AND

THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO

BY

SIGM. FREUD, M.

D.,

LU. D.

AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION
BY

JAMES STRACHEY

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL Y LONDON IMCMXXII

PRIf^TlD
t/lf

PRESS EN NA

^r/f/!j/>f/v7"

Copyright 1922

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

A
German
will

comparison of the following pages with the

original {Massenpsychologie

und

Ick-Analyse,
1)

Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, Vienna, 192

show

that certain passages

have been transferred

in

the English version from the text to the footnotes.

This alteration has been carried out at the author's

express desire.
All technical

terms

have

been

translated

in

accordance with the Glossary to be published as a

supplement to the International Jo2irnal of PsychoAnalysis.

J.

s.

CONTENTS

Introduction

....
of the

n
III

Le Bon's Description

Group Mind

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life

Suggestion and Libido
Artificial

IV

V Two
VI

Groups: the Church and the

Army

Further Problems and Lines of

Identification

Work

Vn

Vm
IX

Being

in

Love and Hypnosis

Instinct

The Herd

X
XI
XII

The Group and

the Primal

Horde

Differentiating

Postscript

....
Grade
in the

Ego

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND

THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
I

INTRODUCTION

The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social Psychology, which at a first glance may or Group seem to be full of significance, loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined more closel}^
^

It

is

true

that

Individual

Psychology
explores

is

concerned
paths by

with the individual

man and
certain

the

which he

seeks to find satisfaction for his instincts;

exceptional

but

only rarely and under

is

conditions

Individual Psycholog}' in a position to disregard the

relations of this individual to others. In the individual's

mental
^

life

someone
is

else

is

invariably

involved,

as a

['Group'
rather

used throughout

this translation as equivalent

to

more comprehensive German ^I\fasse\ The author uses this latter word to render both McDougall's 'group', and also Le Bon's ''foule\ which would more naturally be translated
the

'crowd' in English. For the sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this case as well, and has been substituted
for 'crowd'

even

in

the extracts from the English translation of

Le Bon.

Translator?^

Group Psychology and

as

the Analysis of the

Ego

model,

an object,

as a helper,

as

an opponent,
is

and so from the

the

ver}^ first hidividual

Psychology

at

same time

Social

Psychology as well

in

this

extended but

entirely justifiable sense of the words.

The
and to
have
analytic
social

relations of an individual to his parents

and

to his brothers
his

and

sisters,

to the object of his love,

all

physician

in fact

the relations which

hitherto

been

the

chief
to

subject

of

psychoas

research

may
, '

claim
in this

be

considered
they

phenomena; and
'

respect

may be

contrasted with certain other processes, described by

us
as
narcissistic
is

in

which
totall}^

the satisfaction of the

instincts

partially

or

withdrawn
contrast

from the

influence
social

of

other

people.

The

between
call

and
'

narcissistic
'

them
within

autistic

mental
to

Bleuler
acts

would
therefore

perhaps
falls

wholly
is

the

domain of Individual Psychology, and

differentiate
it

not well calculated

or

from

a Social

Group Psychology. The individual in the relations which have already been mentioned to his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the person he is in love with, to his friend, and to his physician comes under the influence of only a single person, or of a very small number of persons, each one of whom has become enormously

important to

him.
it

Now
has

in

speaking

of

Social

or

Group Psychology
relations

become

usual to leave these

as the subject of

on one side and to

isolate

Introduction
inquiry the influencing

of

an

individual

by a

large

number
he
is

of people simultaneously,

people with

whom
Group

connected by something, though otherwise they

in

may

many
is

respects be

strangers

to

him.

Psychology

therefore concerned with the individual

man

as a

member

of a race, of a nation, of a caste, or as a

of a profession, of an institution,
part of a crowd of people
into a

component

group

at

who have been organised some particular time for some definite
once
natural
is

purpose.

When
in

continuity

has

been

severed

this

way,

it

easy to regard the phenothese

special
instinct

mena

that appear under

conditions as
that
is

being expressions
further

of

special

not

reducible,

the

social

instinct

('herd instinct',
light in

'group mind'), which does not come to

other situations.

any
to

Rut

we may perhaps

venture

object that
of

it

seems

difficult to

attribute to the factor

number a
itself
is

significance so great as to

by

of arousing in

that

otherwise
is
:

not

make it capable our mental life a new instinct brought into play. Our extowards

pectation

therefore

directed

two
not

other

possibilities

that the social

instinct

may

be a
of
its

primitive
it

one and insusceptible of dissection, and that

possible to discover the beginnings

may be

development in a narrower circle, such as that of the

family.

Although Group Psychology

it

is

only in

its

infancy,
issues

embraces an immense

number

of separate

4
and
from

Group Psychology mid

offers to investigators

the Analysis of the

Ego
which
of the

countless

problems

have hitherto

not

even been

properly

distinguished

one

another.

The mere

classification

different forms of

group formation and the description

require
of observation
rise to

of the mental

phenomena produced by them

and
a

a great

expenditure

exposition,

and have already given

copious literature.
this
will

Anyone who compares the narrow dimensions of little book with the extent of Group Psychology
at

once be able to guess that only a few points chosen

with here.

from the whole material are to be dealt

And

they

will

in

fact only

be

a
of

few

questions with
is

which

the

depth-psychology

psycho-analysis

specially concerned.

II

LE BOX'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND

Instead

of

starting

from
with

definition,

it

seems
of

more
from

useful to

begin

some

indication

the

range of the phenomena under review,

and to
striking

select

among

them
facts

a
to

few

specially

and

characteristic

which

our
of

inquiry'

can aims

be by

attached.

We

can

achieve

both

these

means work Psychologie des foules}

of quotation from

Le Bon's deservedly famous

again.
If

Let us make the matter clear once

Psychology,
positions, the

concerned
instincts,

with
the

exploring

the

predis-

motives

and the aims of and

his rela-

an individual
tions with

man down to his those who are nearest

task,

actions
to him,

had completely
whole of
it

achieved

its

and had cleared up the

their
itself
it

these matters

with

inter-connections,

would
task

then suddenly find

confronted by
unachieved.

a
It

new
would

which would
^

lie

before

be

The Crowd: a Sttidy of the Popular Mind. Fisher Unwin,

1920.

1 2th. Impression,

Group Psychology mid the Analysis of

explain

the

Ego

obliged to
certain

the

surprising

fact

that under a
it

condition

this

individual
felt,

whom

had come
in

to

understand

thought,
w^hat

and acted
into

quite

different

way from

would have
insertion

been expected.
a
collection

And

this condition is his

of people which has acquired the

characteristic
is

of a

'psychological

group'.

What,
over
is

then,

'group'?

How
a

does

it

acquire the capacity for exercising such

the the

decisive

influence

mental
nature
of

life

of

the

individual?

And what
it

the mental

change which
It
is

upon the "individual ? the task of a theoretical Group Psychology

forces

to

answer these three questions.

is

The best way

of

approaching them

evidently to
in

start with the third.

Observation of the changes

is

the individual's reactions

its

what provides Group Psychology with

a
description

material;

for

every attempt at an explanation must be preceded

of

by

the

thing

that

is

to

be

explained.
I

will

now

let

Le Bon speak
striking
is

for

himself.

He

says:

'The most
individuals

peculiarity

presented by a

psychological group ^
the
that

the

following.
it,

Whoever be
like

compose
of
life,

however
the
fact

or

unlike

be

their

mode

their occupations,

their

character,

or their

intelligence,

that they
in

have been

transformed

into

group puts them

possession of a sort of collective mind

^

which makes

[See footnote

page

i.]

Lc Bon' s
them
feel, feel,

DescriptioiL of the

Group Alind

think,
in

and act
each

in

a manner quite different

of

from that
think,

which

individual
in

them
which

would
do not
into

and act were he and

a state

of isolation.

There are certain ideas

feelings

come

into being, or

do not transform themselves

acts except in the case of individuals forming a group.

The psychological group

combined,
living

is

a provisional being formed

of heterogeneous elements, which for a

moment

are

exactly

as

the

cells

which

constitute a

body form by

their reunion a
ver}^
cells

new being which

from
(p.

displays

characteristics

different
singly.'

those

possessed by each of the

29.)^

We

shall

take

the

liberty

of interrupting

Le
shall
If

Bon's exposition with glosses of our

accordingly
insert
in

own,

and

an
the

observ^ation

at

this point.

the individuals
unity, there

group

are

combined
the
thing

into

must surely be something

precisely

to unite them,

and

this

bond might be

that

is

characteristic of a group.
this

But Le Bon does not answer

question;

which the individual undergoes when

describes
it

he goes on to consider the alteration in a group and

terms which harmonize well with the prove

in

fundamental postulates of our own depth-psycholog}^

'

It

is

easy
of
it

to

how much
differs

the individual
the
isolated

forming part
individual,

a
is

group
less

from

but

easy to discover the causes

of this difference.
^

[References are to

the English translation.

Translator.]

Group Psychology and

'

the Analysis of the

Ego
it

To

obtain at any rate a glimpse of

in

them

is

necessary

the

first

place to

call

to

mind the

truth

established

by modern psychology,
altogether
life,

that

unconscious
part

phenomena play an
not only
in

preponderating
in
life

organic

but also

the

operations

of the intelligence.
of small
scious

The conscious
in

of the
its

mind

is

importance

comparison
analyst,
in

with

uncon-

life.

The most
is

subtle

the most acute

observer,

scarcely

successful

discovering

more

than
that

a very small

number

of the conscious^ motives

determine his conduct.

Our conscious

acts are
in

the

outcome of an unconscious substratum created

consists

the mind in the main by hereditary influences.

This

substratum

of

the

innumerable

common
to

characteristics

handed

down

from
the

generation

generation,

which

constitute

genius

of a race.

Behind the avowed causes of our acts there undoubtedly

lie

secret

causes

that

we do
there

not

avow,

but

behind these secret

causes
of

are

many

others

more
the

secret

still,

which
motives

we

ourselves

are

ignorant.^
result

The
of
'

greater part of our daily actions, are

hidden
30.)

which

escape

our

observation.
^

(p.

reads

'

beiviisstcr'

[The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author, the English translation has 'unconscious'; and
\
"

the original French text

^

inconscients\

Translator.]

a misunderstanding of the

[The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore' Translator.] French word 'ignorees'.

Le

Bo7i's Descriptio7i

of

tJie

Group Mind

Le Bon
of individuals
that in this
racial

thinks

that

the

particular acquirements
in

become way their

what
is

obliterated

group,

and

distinctiveness

vanishes.

The
is

unconscious emerges;
in

what

is

heterogeneous

submerged
that

homogeneous.
shows
such

We

may

say

the
in

mental

superstructure,

the development of
dissimilarities,
is

which

individuals

removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view.
In this

way

individuals in a

group would come

to

show an average character.

But Le Bon believes

which they
seeks
the

that thev also display

new

characteristics

have

not

previously
this
first

possessed,

and

he

reason for
'

in
is

three different factors.

that the individual forming

The

part of

a group acquires, solely from numerical considerations,

power which allows him to yield to instincts which, had he been alone, he would He will be the perforce have kept under restraint.
a sentim.ent of
invincible
less

disposed to check himself from the consideration

a group being anonymous,

that,

and

in

consequence
which

irresponsible,

the

sentiment

of

responsibility

always controls individuals disappears

entirely.' (p. 33.)

so

From much importance

our point of view

to
it

we need

not

attribute

the

appearance

of

new

characteristics.

For us
him

would
is

that in a group

the individual
to

be enough to say brought under conoff the repressions

ditions \\hich allow

throw

lO
of

Group Psychology mid

his

the Analysis of the

Ego

unconscious

instincts.

The

apparently
are
in
in

new
fact
all

characteristics

which
the

he
this

then

displays

the manifestations of
that
is

unconscious,
is

which

evil

in

human mind
can find

contained as a
in

predisposition.

We

no
of

difficulty

underof a
It

standing

the

disappearance
in

conscience

or

sense of responsibility

these circumstances.

has

long been our contention that 'dread of society \soziale

Angst]'
'

is

the essence of what

is

called conscience.^
is

The

second

cause,

which

contagion,
in

also

intervenes to determine

the

manifestation

groups

of their special characteristics, and at the

same time
is

the trend

they

are
it

to take.
is

Contagion

a pheno-

menon

of which
it is

easy

to establish the presence,

It

must be classed among those phenomena of a hypnotic order, which we shall shortly study. In a group every sentiment
but that
not easy to explain.

and act

is

contagious,

and

contagious

to

such

There

is

seme

difference

between Le Bon's view and

ours owing to his concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding

with the one adopted by psycho-analysis.

Le Bon's unconscious
outside the scope of

more
racial

especially contains the

most deeply buried features of the

lies

mind, which as a matter of fact

psycho-analysis.

do not fail to recognize, indeed, that the ego's nucleus, which comprises the 'archaic inheritance' of the human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this we distinguish the 'unconscious repressed', which arose from a portion of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not
to

We

be found

in

Le Bon.

Le

Bo7i*s Description

of the Grotip

Mind

degree that an individual readily sacrifices

interest to the collective interest.

his personal

This

is

an aptitude
a

very contrary to his nature, and of which

scarcely capable,

man

is

except

when he makes

part

of a

group.' (p. 33.)

We
upon
'

shall
last

later

on base an important conjecture

this

statement.
cause,

third
in

and by
quite

far the

most important,
at

determines
racteristics

the individuals of a group special chaare

w^hich

contrary

times
I

to

those

presented

by the
is

isolated

individual.

allude

to that suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion

mentioned above
'

only an effect.
this

To understand
mind

phenomenon

it

is

necessary

to bear in

certain recent physiological discoveries.

We
ual

know to-day that by various processes an individmay be brought into such a condition that,
the suggestions of the operator
it,

having entirely lost his conscious personality, he obeys

all

who
utter

has deprived
contradiction

him of
with
his

and commits acts

character

in

and

habits.

The

most

careful

investigations

mersed

for

seem to prove that an individual imsome length of time in a group in action

himself

soon finds

either
much

in

consequence
are

of

the

magnetic influence given out by the group, or from

some other cause of which we

special
state,
in

ignorant the

in

a
of

which

resembles

state

fascination

which the hypnotised individual finds

Group Psychology and

in

the Analysis of the

Ego
. .

himself

the

hands of the
has
lost.

hypnotiser.

The
will

conscious

personality

entirely

vanished

and discernment
are

are

All

feelings

and thoughts

bent

in

the

direction

determined

by

the

hypnotiser.

'Such

also

is

approximately

the

state

of the

individual forming part of a psychological group.

is

He
as

no longer conscious
the

of his acts.

In

his

case,

in

case of the hypnotised subject,

at

the

same

time that certain faculties are destroyed, others

may

be brought
the
influence

to

high

degree

of exaltation.

Under
imin

of a suggestion, of
certain

he
the

will

undertake the
irresistible

accomplishment
petuosity.

acts
is

with

This impetuosity
of

more

irresistible

the

case

groups than

in

that of the hypnotised

subject,

from the fact

all

that,

the suggestion being the

it

same
'

for

the individuals of the group,

reciprocity.'
(p.

gains in

strength

by

34.)

We

see,

then,

that

the

disappearance

of the

conscious
conscious
gestion

personality,

the

predominance of the unturning

personality,

the

and

contagion

by means of sugof feelings and ideas in an

identical direction, the

tendency to immediately transof the individual forming

form the suggested ideas into acts; these, we see, are

the principal
part
of a
characteristics

group.

He
35.)

is

no longer himself, but has

to

become an automaton who has ceased

by
his will.'
(p.

be guided

Le Bon' s
I

Description of ike Group

this

Mind
in

have quoted
it

passage so

fully

order to

make
and

quite clear that

Le Bon

explains the condition

of an individual in a group as being actually hypnotic,

does

not

merely make a comparison between

the two

states.
at

We
the
in

have no intention of raising any

but
last
v.'ish

objection
the
fact

this

point,

only to
of

emphasize
individual

that

two

causes

an

becoming altered
since the contagion

a group (the contagion and the

heightened suggestibility) are evidently not on a par,

seems

of the suggestibility.
factors

be a manifestation Moreover the effects of the two

actually to
in

do not seem to be sharply differentiated

of

:he

text

best
v-.ith

Le Bon's remarks. We may perhaps interpret his statement if we connect the contagion the eftects of the individual members of the
for

group upon one another, while \ve point to another

source
those manifestations
of suggestion
in

the

group whicli are put on a

of

level wdth the

phenomena

hypnotic

influence.

But
one

to

what source?

We
of

cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency

when we

notice

that

of the

chief elements

the comparison, namely the person

who
is

is

to replace

the hypnotist in the case of the group,

in

not mentioned
dis-

Le Bon's

exposition.
this

But

he

nevertheless

tinguishes

between

influence of fascination which

remains plunged in obscurity and the contagious effect

which the individuals exercise upon one another and

by which the

original suggestion

is

strengthened.

14

Gro7ip Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

Here
'

is

yet another important consideration for

helping us to understand the individual in a group:

Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms part of

a

an organised group,

man descends
Isolated,
is

several

rungs

in the ladder of civilisation.

he may be a
a barbarian

cultivated individual; in a crowd, he

that
is,

a creature acting

by

instinct.

He

possesses

the

spontaneity,

the violence,

the
of

ferocity,

and

also

the

enthusiasm

and

heroism

primitive

beings.
in

(p. 36.)

He

then dwells especially upon the lowering

intellectual ability

which an individual experiences when

in

he becomes merged
the group mind, as
It

a group.^
individual,

Let us now leave the

it

and turn to

has been outlined by

Le Bon.
deriving

shows not a
find
its

single feature
difficulty
in

which a psycho-analyst
placing

would
from

any

or in

source.
to
its

Le Bon

himself shows us the

the

way
of

by pointing

similarity with

mental

life

primitive people

and of children
impulsive,

(p.

40).

A
It
is
^

group

is

led almost exclusively

changeable and irritable. by the unconscious.^ The

Compare

Schiller's couplet:

Jeder, sieht

man

ihn einzeln,

ist

leidlichklug und verstandig;

Sind
[Ever^'^one,

sie in corpore, gleich

wird euch ein

Dummkopf daraus.

seen by himself,

is

passably shrewd and discerning;

then straightway you'll find
he's an ass.]

When
^
'

they're in co7-pore,

descriptive sense,

Unconscious is used here correctly by Le Bon in the where it does not only mean the repressed
'

'

'.

Le Bon' s
impulses

Description of
a

tJie

Group Mind

which

group
so

obeys
imperious

may
that

according

to

circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly,

but

they

are always

no personal

interest,
itself felt

not even that of self-preservation, can

(p. 41).
it

make
this

Nothing about
desire
long,

it

is

premeditated.
yet

Though
is

may
for

things
for
it

passionately,
is

never

so
It

incapable
delay
it

of perseits

verance.
desire

cannot

tolerate

any

between
It

and the
of

fulfilment

of what

desires.

has

sense

omnipotence; the notion of impossibility

in

disappears for the individual

a group. credulous
faculty,
It

A
to

group

is
it

extraordinarily

and open
and
(just

influence,

has

no

critical

the

improbable does not exist

for

it.

thinks in images,
as

which

call

one

another

up by association
in states

they arise with individuals

of free imagination),
is

and whose agreement with

reality

never checked

by any reasonable function

a group
ated.

\Instanz\?'

The

feelings of

are

always
a

very

simple and very exagger-

So

that

group

knows

neither

doubt

nor

uncertainty.^

Allmacht der Gedanken.'

Compare Totem tmd Tabu, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und [Totei/i and Taboo. New York, Moffat, 191 8. London, Kegan Paul, 1919.]
^

[See footnote p. 69.]

In

the

interpretation

of dreams,

to

which,
life,

indeed,

we

owe our best knowledge of unconscious mental

we

follow a

technical rule of disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative

Group Psychology mid the Analysis of

It

the

Ego
is

goes directly to extremes;

it is

if

suspicion

expressed,
certainty;

instantly

changed

into
is

an incontrovertible

a trace
56).^

of antipathy

turned into furious

hatred

(p.

Inclined

as

it

itself

is

to

all

extremes, a group

can only be excited by an excessive stimulus. Anyone

who wishes
logical

to

produce an
in

effect

upon

it

needs no

adjustment

his

arguments; he must paint

and of treating every element of the manifest We attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that the primary dream-thoughts are not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical processes. They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part of the content of the day's residue which leads to the dream. (See Die Tratimdeutung, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. \The Interpretation of Dreams. Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 191 3,
of the

dream,

dream

as

being quite certain.

p. 409.])
^

The same extreme

is

and

unmeasured
life.

intensification
life

of

every emotion

also

a feature of the affective

of children,

and

it

is

present as well in dream

Thanks

to the isolation

of the

single

emotions
will

in

the

unconscious,
a

a slight annoyance
as a wish for the

during the day

impetus
to

express

itself in

dream

offending person's death, or a breath of temptation

the

may

give the

dream of a criminal action. Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this point: 'If we try to discover in consciousness all that the dream has made known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we need not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the
portrayal
in

the

microscope

of

analysis

now reappears

as

an infusorium.' {Die

Trauvidettttmg, S. 457. [Translation p. 493.])

Le Bon' s
in

Dcscriptioji of the
colours,

Group Mhid
must
thing

the

most

forcible

he

exaggerate,
again

and
again.

he

must

repeat

the

same

and

Since a group
stitutes truth
its

is

in

no doubt as
is is

to

what conas

or error, and
strength,
authority.
it

conscious, moreover, of
as
intolerant
it

own
be

great
to

is

obedient
only

It

respects

force

and
which

can
it

slightly

influenced
as

by kindness,
of

regards

merely
its

form
is

weakness.
or

What
fear

it

demands of
It

heroes

strength,

even violence.

wants to be ruled and oppressed

and to

its

masters.

Fundamentally

it

is

entirely
all

conservative,

and

it

has a deep aversion from

innovations and
for

advances
(p.

and

an

unbounded

respect

tradition

62).

In order to

make

a correct judgement upon the

into

morals of groups,
the
fact
all

one must take

individuals

consideration

the.t

when

group
the

their individual inhibitions

come together in a fall away and all

instincts,

cruel,
in

brutal

and destructive

w^hich

lie

dormant

individuals as relics of a primitive

epoch,

are stirred

up to find

free gratification.

But under
also

the influence of suggestion

of high

groups
the

are
of

capable

achievements

in

shape

abnegation,

unselfishness,

and

devotion to an ideal.
personal
with
interest
it

While with
almost
the

isolated

individuals
force,
It
is

is is

only

motive

groups

very

rarely

prominent.

possible to

speak of an

individual

Gro^ip Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego
(p.
is

having his moral standards raised by a group

65).

Whereas
far

the intellectual capacity of a group

individual,
his
its
it

always

below that of an
rise
it.

ethical

conduct

may

as

high

above
features

as

may

sink

deep

below

Some
show
in

other

in

Le Bon's
is

description

a clear light

how

well justified

the identi-

fication of the

group mind with the mind of primitive

side

people.

In

groups the most contradictory ideas can

exist side

by

and tolerate each

from
this is

other,

without

any conflict

arising

the

logical

contradiction
in

between them.
conscious mental

But
life

also the case

the un-

of individuals, of children and of

neurotics, as psycho-analysis has long pointed out.^

^

In

young
long

children,

for

instance,
to

ambivalent

emotional

attitudes towards those

who

are nearest
either

side for a

time,

without

them exist side by of them interfering with

the

expression

of the other and

contrary one.
it

eventually a

conflict

breaks out between the two,

a

is

often

settled

by

the

change of object and displacing one of the ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The history of the develchild

making

opment of a neurosis
pressed emotion

in

an

adult

will

also

show

that a sup-

may

frequently persist

for

long time in un-

conscious or even in conscious phantasies,

naturally runs directly counter
to

the content of which

some predominant tendency,

result in
it

and yet that this antagonism does not on the part of the ego against what
phantasy
is

any proceedings

has repudiated.
until

The

tolerated for quite a long

time,

suddenly one
cathexis

day, usually as a result of an increase in

[see footnote

the

affective

between

it

page 48] of the phantasy, a conflict breaks out and the ego with all the usual consequences. In the

Le Bon's

Description of the Groiip

is

Mind

19

A
power
stilling

group, further,

subject to the truly magical

of words; they can evoke the most formidable

in

tempests

the group mind, and are also capable of

(p.

them

117).

'Reason and arguments are

w^ords
in

incapable of combating certain

and formulas.
presence of

They

are uttered

with

solemnity

the

groups,

and as soon as they have been pronounced

is

an expression of respect
tenance,

visible

on
as

every counthey

and

all

heads

are bowed.
forces,

By many
in

are considered

as

natural
It
is

supernatural
this

powers.'

(p.

117.)

only

necessary

con-

nection to

remember

the

taboo
^

upon names among

primitive people and the magical powers w^hich they

ascribe to

names and words.

finally,

And,
truth.

groups

have

never

thirsted

after

They demand

illusions,

and cannot do without

a mature adult there
its
is

process of a child's development into

more and more extensive

have grown up
process
as
the
in the in

integration of

personality,

a co-

ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and desires which

him independently of one another. The analogous domain of sexual life has long been known to us
all

co-ordination of

the sexual instincts into a definitive

genital organisation. (Drei

\Three Contributions
Disease
of the
that

to

Abhandlungen zicr Sexiialtheorie, 1905. the Sexual Theory. Nervous and ^Mental
No.
7,

Monograph
ego
libido
is

Series,
is

1910.])

Moreover, that the

as that

unification of the

liable to

the

same interferences
familiar
their
faith

shown by numerous

instances, such as
in

of

men

of science
like.

who have preserved

the

Bible,
^

and the

See Totem

tmd Tabu.

20

Group Psychology and

the Analysis oj the

Ego

them. They constantly give what

over what
is

is

unreal precedence
as strongly inis

real;
is

they

are

almost

fluenced by what

untrue as by what

true.

They

have an evident tendency

the two (p.
"j"]^.

not to distinguish between

We
the
life

have pointed out that

of the

this

predominance of
born
of

of phantasy and

illusion

an

unfulfilled

wish

is

the ruling factor in the psychology

of neuroses.
are guided

We
is

have
not

found

that

what

neurotics
reality
is

by

ordinary

objective

but

psychological reality.

hysterical

symptom
in

based

upon phantasy instead of upon

neurosis
is

the repetition of real

experience, and the sense of guilt

an

obsessional
intention
as in

based upon the

fact

of an

evil

was never carried dreams and in hypnosis,

which
of a group
things
falls

out.
in

Indeed,

just

the

mental
the

operations
reality of

the
into

function

for

testing
in

the

background

comparison with

the strength of wishes with their affective cathexis.^

What Le Bon
groups
is

says on the subject of leaders of

less

exhaustive, and does not enable us to

make

out

an

underlying

principle

so

clearly.

He

thinks that as

soon
certain

as

living

beings

are

gathered

together

in

numbers,

no

matter

whether

they are a herd of animals or a collection of

beings, they place themselves instinctively

human
the

under

[See footnote p. 4S.]

Lc

Bo7i's Dcscriplion of tJw

Group Mind
gi'oup
is

authority of a chief
ient
It

(p.

134).

A
live

an obed-

licrd,

which could never

thirst

without a master.
that
it

has such a

for

obedience

submits
master.

instinctively to

anyone who appoints himself

in

its

Although
it

this

w'ay the needs of a group carry

leader, yet he too
qualities.

half-way to
it

meet the

must
an

fit

in

with

in

his personal

He must
faith
(in

himself be
idea) in

held

in

fascination

by a strong
will,

order to awaken the group's

faith;

he

must possess
from him.

a strong and imposing

has no
will

which the group, which

accept

of

its

own,

can

Le

Bon then

discusses the different kinds of leaders, and

the means by whicli they work upon the group. the whole he believes that the leaders
felt

On

make themselves

by means of the ideas

in

which they themselves

are fanatical believers.

Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to

the leaders a mysterious and irresistible power, which

he

calls

'

prestige

'

Prestige

is

a sort of domination

exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea.

It

entirely paralyses our

critical

faculty,
It

and
in

fills

us
to

with

astonishment

and respect.
that

would

seem

arouse a feeling
(p.

like

of

fascination

hypnosis

148).

ficial

He distinguishes between acquired or artiand personal prestige. The former is attached

name, fortune and reputart,
it

to persons in virtue of their

ation,

and to opinions, works of

Since
in

etc.,

in

virtue

of tradition.

everv

case

harks

back to

22
the

Group Psychology and

past,
it

the Analysis of the

Ego

cannot be of

much

help to us in under-

standing this

puzzling influence.

Personal prestige
leaders

is

attached to a

few people,
it

who become
effect of

by

means of it, and thing obey them

magnetic
magic.

has

the

making everyalso

as though

by the operation of some

however,
lost in
is is

All

prestige,

dependent upon
failure
(p.

success, and

the

event of

159).

We

cannot

feel

that^Le Bon

has

brought

the

function of the leader and the importance of prestige

completely into harmony with his ^brilliantly

picture of the group mind.

executed

ni

OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE MENTAL LIFE

We
way
our

have

made

use

of

Le Bon's
it

description
in

by
lays

of introduction,

because
in

fits

so well with
it

own Psychology

the
life.

emphasis which

upon unconscious mental

But we must now add

that as a matter of fact none of that author's state-

ments bring forward anything new. Everything that he

says to the

detriment and depreciation of the mani-

festations of the group mind had already been said by others before him with equal distinctness and equal hostility, and has been repeated in unison by thinkers, statesmen and writers since the earliest periods of literature.^ The two theses which comprise the most important of Le Bon's opinions, those touching upon the collective inhibition of intellectual functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups,
Kraskovic jun.

B.

Translated [into German] from

Posavec.

Vukovar,

191

5.

Die Psychologie der Kollektivitdten. the Croatian by Siegmund von See the body of the work as well as

the bibliography.

24

Group Psychology and

the A?ialysis of the

Ego

had been formulated

bottom,
all

shortly before

by

Sighele.*

that

is

left

over as being peculiar to

At Le

Bon
the

are

the two

notions

of the unconscious and of

comparison

with

the

mental

life

of

primitive

people,

and

even

these

had

naturally

often

been

alluded to before him.

But, of the

what
the

is

more, the description and estimate

group mind as they have been given by Le

rest

Bon and
of the

have not by any means been

is

left

undisputed.

There

no doubt that

all

the

phenomena

group mind which have just been mentioned

correctly observed, but
it

have been
to

is

also possible

distinguish

other

manifestations
in

of

the

group

formation, which operate

a precisely opposite sense,

and from which a much higher opinion of the group

mind must necessarily follow. Le Bon himself was prepared

certain

to admit that in

circumstances

the

morals of a group can be

it,

higher

than those of the individuals that compose

only
collectivities

and

that

are

capable

of a

high

dem-ce
isolated

of

unselfishness

and devotion.
interest
it

'While
is

with
the

individuals
force,
(p.

personal

almost

only

motive

with

groups

is

very

rarely

prominent.'
that
it

is

Other writers adduce the fact only society which prescribes any ethical
65.)
:

See Walter Moede

'Die Massen- und Sozialpsychologie im

Meumann and Scheibner's Zeitschrift fiir piidagogische Psychologie und experivientelle Pddagogik. 191 5, XVI.
kritischen Oberblick.'

Other Accoimts of Collective Mental Life

standards
rule fails
at
in
all

25
as
to

for

the

individual,

while

he

a
its

one way or

another to

come up

high demands.

Or they
there
of

point out that in exceptional

arise
in

circumstances

ma\'

communities
has

the the

phenomenon

enthusiasm,

which

made

most splendid group achievements

possible.
it

As
indeed,

regards
that

intellectual

work

remains a

fact,

great decisions in the realm of

thought

and momentous discoveries and solutions of problems

are only possible to an individual, working
in

solitude.
in

But even the group

intellectual creation,
itself,

mind

is

capable

of

genius

It

as is shown above all by language by folk-song, folk-lore and the like. remains an open question, moreover, how much

as

well as

the individual thinker or writer owes to the stimulation of the group in which he
lives,

or whether he does
in

more than

perfect a mental

work

which the others

have had a simultaneous share.

In face of these completely contradictory accounts,
it

looks

as

though the work

to

of

Group Psycholog\'

were bound
is

easy

to

dilemma.

come to an ineffectual end. But it find a more hopeful escape from the number of very different formations have
*

probably been merged under the term

group

'

and

may

require

to

be distinguished.
the

The

assertions of

Sighele,

Le Bon and

rest relate to

groups of a
interest has

short-lived character, which

hastily

some passing

agglomerated out of various sorts of individuals.

26

Group Psychology and

characteristics

the Analysis of the

Ego
and

The

of

revolutionary

groups,

especially those of the great

French Revolution, have

unmistakably influenced their descriptions.

posite

The opin

opinions [owe their origin to the consideration

stable

of

those

groups

or

associations

which
in

mankind pass
in

their lives,

and which are embodied

first

the institutions of society. Groups of the

the

kind stand

same

sort

of relation to those of the second

swell.

as a high but

choppy sea to a ground

in

McDougall,
starts

book on The Group Mind^ out from the same contradiction that has just
his

been mentioned,
the
'

and finds a solution

for

it

in

the

factor of organisation.

In the simplest case,

all

he says,
or one

group

'

possesses no organisation at

scarcely jdeserving the name.

He

describes a group

of this

kind
of

as

'

crowd
all

'

But he admits that a

hardly
the
in

crowd
without

human beings can

at

come

together
of

possessing

events

rudiments
these

an organisation,

and

that

precisely

simple

groups many of the fundamental facts of Collective

Psychology can be observed with special ease

Before the

(p. 22).

members

of a
in

random crowd

of people

can constitute something

the nature of a group in

the psychological sense of the word, a condition has

to
in

be

fulfilled;

these individuals must have something

common
^

with

one another, a

common

interest

in

Cambridge University

Press, 1920.

Other Accounts of Collective

A'Ie7ttal

Life

27

an object, a similar emotional bias

or
other,

in
I

some
should

situation
like

and
'

('consequently',

to

interpolate)
(p.

some
the

degree
the

of

reciprocal
of

influence

23).

The
,
'

higher

degree
readily

'this

mental

homogeneity

more

do

the

individuals

form a psychological group, and the more striking

are the manifestations of a group mind.

The most remarkable and

portant
'

also

the

most imis

result

of the

formation
of

of

group
'

the

exaltation

or

intensification

emotion
In
in

produced

in

every

member
they

of

it

(p.

24).

McDougall's
a group to a

opinion
pitch

men's emotions

are

stirred

that

seldom or never
it

attain

under other
for

conditions;

and
are

is

pleasurable

experience

those

who
in

concerned to surrender themselves so

their

unreservedly to

passions

and thus

to

become

merged
limits

the

group and to lose the sense of the

individuality.

The manner in which individuals are thus carried away by a common impulse is explained by McDougall by means of what
of their

he

calls

the

'

principle of direct induction of emotion

by way of the primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25), that is, by means of the emotional contagion with
which

we

are

already familiar.
the
signs

The
an

fact

is

that the
state
is

perception
calculated
in

of

of

emotional

automatically to

arouse the same emotion

the person

who

perceives them.
in

number

of people

whom

the

The greater the same emotion can

28

Group PsycJiology and

the Analysis of the

Ego
this

be simultaneously observed, the

automatic compulsion grow.

stronger

does

The

individual loses his

slip

power of criticism, and lets himself same emotion. But in so doing he

excitement of the
this

into

the
the

increases

other

people,

who had produced

by
at

effect

upon him, and thus the emotional charge

of

the

individuals

interaction.

becomes intensified Something is unmistakably

compulsion
in

mutual

work

in

the nature of a
others,
to

to

do the same as the

harmony with the many. The coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to
remain
spread through a group
in

this

way

(p.

39).

This mechanism for the intensification of emotion

is

favoured by some other influences which emanate

from groups.
a
sense
of

A
the

group impresses the individual

w^ith

unlimited

power and of insurmountable

it

peril.

For

moment
which
is

replaces

the
of

whole

of

human

society,

the

wielder

authority,
for

whose punishments the

clearly perilous
for

individual fears,

and

whose
It
is

sake he has submitted to so

many

inhibitions.
in

him to put himself

safer to

opposition

to

it,

and
In

it

will

be

follow the
'

example of

those around him

and perhaps even

conscience
attraction

hunt with the

pack'.

obedience to the new authority he

'
'

may

put

his

former

out

of

action,

and so
in-

surrender to the
that
is

of the increased pleasure

certainly

obtained
whole,

from the removal of

therefore,
it

hibitions.

On

the

is

not

so

OtJicr Accounts of Collective Meiital Life

29
in

remarkable

that

we

should

see
things

an individual

group

doing

or
in

approving

which

he
life;

would
and
little

have avoided
this

the normal conditions of

to

in

way we may even hope

mystery

clear

up a

of
the

the

which
does

is

so

often

covered
the

by
as

enigmatic word 'suggestion'.

McDougall
the
(p.

not

dispute
of

thesis
in

to

collective

inhibition

intelligence

groups

41).

He

says that the minds of lower intelligence

brincr
level.

down The
in

those
latter

of
are

higrher

order
in

to

their

own

obstructed

their

activity,

because
creates

general

an

intensification
for

of

emotion

unfavourable conditions

sound

intellectual

work,
idated

and further because the individuals are intim-

by the group and their mental activity is not free, and because there is a lowering in each
individual

of his

sense

of responsibility

for

his

own
sums

performances.

The judgement
nised
'

with

which

McDougall
'

up the psychological behaviour of a simple

group
is

unorgathat

no

more
'

friendly
is

than

of

Le Bon.
impulsive,

Such a
violent,
in

group
fickle,

excessively

emotional,

inconsistent,

irresolute

and

extreme
tions

action,

displaying only
refined
in

the

coarser emo-

and

the

less

sentiments;

extremely
in

suggestible,

careless

deliberation,

hasty

judg-

ment,

incapable

of

any

but

the

simpler

and
led,

imperfect forms of reasoning;

easily

swayed and

30

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and

of sense of responsibility, and apt to be carried

away
it

by

the

consciousness
to

of

its

own

force,

so

that

tends

produce
of
its

all

the

manifestations

we have
absolute

learnt to expect

any

irresponsible
is

and

power.

Hence

behaviour

like that of

an unruly

child or an untutored passionate savage

situation,

in a strange

rather than like that of

it is

its

average member;

and

in

the worst cases

like that of a wild beast,

rather than like that of

human

beings.'

(p.

45.)

Since

McDougall contrasts
shall

the

behaviour

of a

highly organised group with what has just been described,

in

we
it

be

particularly

interested to

learn

what

this
is

organisation

consists,

and

by

what
live

factors
'

produced.
'

The author enumerates

for

principal

conditions

raising

collective

mental

life

to a higher level.

The
the the

first

and fundamental condition

is

that there
in

should be some degree of continuity of existence

group.
former,
for

This
if

may be
same

either

material or formal:
persist
if

the

individuals

in

the
is

group

some time;

and

the

latter,

there

developed within the group a system of fixed positions which are occupied by a succession of individuals.

The second

condition

is

that

in

the

individual

member
formed

of the group
of

some
so

definite

idea

should be

the

nature,

composition,
that

functions
this

and

capacities of

the group,

from

he

may

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life

develop
whole.

31
as

an

emotional

relation

to

the

group

The

third

is

that the

group should be brought

into interaction

(perhaps
to

in the
it

form of
differing

rivalry)

with
it

other groups similar

but

from

in

many respects. The fourth

traditions,

is

that

the

group

should

possess

customs and habits, and especially such as

the
relations

determine
another.

of

its

members

to

one

The

fifth

is

that the group should have a definite

in

structure, expressed

the specialisation
its

and

differ-

entiation of the functions of

constituents.
if

According
are
fulfilled,

to

McDougall,

these

conditions

the

psychological

disadvantages
collective

of the

group formation are removed. The

ing
of
intellectual
ability
is

lower-

avoided by withdrawing

the performance of intellectual tasks

from the group

of
it.

and reserving them

It

for individual

members
'

seems
can
with

to

us

that as

the

condition
'

which
of

McDougall
group
another way.
cure for
the

designates

the

organisation

more justification be described in The problem consists in how to proprecisely

group

those

features

which
group. group,

were

characteristic

of the

individual

and

which are

extinguished in him by

the formation
the
his

of the

For the

individual,

outside
continuity,

primitive

possessed his

own

self-consciousness,

32
his

Group Psychology
traditions

a^id the Analysis of the

his

Ego
funcrivals.

and customs,

own
apart

particular

tions

and

position,

and

kept
'

from
'

his

Owing

to his entiy into an

unorganised
If

group he had
thus recog-

lost this

distinctiveness for a time.

we

nise that the

aim
the

is

to

equip

the

group

with

the

attributes

of

individual,

we

shall

be

reminded
bio-

of a valuable

remark of

Trotter's,^ to the effect that

is

the tendency towards the formation of groups

logically a continuation of the

multicellular

character

of

all

the higher organisms.

Instincts

of the Herd

m Pence andWar.

Fisher Unwin, 1916.

IV

SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO

We
to

started

from

the
is

fundamental

fact
its

that

an

individual in a

group

subjected through
alteration

influence

what

is

often a profound

in his

mental
inten-

activity.
sified,

His emotions become extraordinarily

while his intellectual ability

becomes markedly
evidently
in

reduced,

both

processes

being

the

direction of an approximation to the other individuals

in

the group;

and

this

result

can only

be reached
his

by the removal of those

which are peculiar
to

inhibitions

upon

instincts

each

individual,

and
that

by

his

resigning those expressions

of his

inclinations

which
these

are especially his own.

often

We

have

heard

at least

unwelcome consequences are to some extent of the organisation prevented by a higher

'
'

group;
fact

but

this

does not contradict

the fundamental

of

Group Psychology
intellect

the

two

theses

as

to

the intensification
of the

of the emotions and the

inhibition

in primitive

groups.

Our

interest
3

is

34

G^'oup Psychology a?id the Atialysis of the

Ego

now
ation

directed to discovering the psychological explanof this mental change which

is

experienced by

the individual in a group.

It
is

clear

that rational factors (such

as

the

in-

timidation of the individual

which has

already

been

mentioned,

that

is,

the action of his

instinct of self-

preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena.

Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation by authorities upon Sociology" and Group Psychology
is

always the same,

even though

it

is

given various
'suggestion'.

names,

and that
calls
it
'

is

the
'

magic
;

word

Tarde

imitation

but

we

cannot
that

help

agreeing with

writer

who

protests

imitation

comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in Le Bon traces back all the fact one of its results.^ puzzling features of social phenomena to two factors:
the mutual suggestion of individuals and the prestige
of leaders.

But prestige, again,

for

is

only recognizable

by

its

capacity

evoking

suggestion.
that
'

McDougall
his

for a

moment
'

gives us an impression

prin-

ciple of

primitive induction of emotion

might enable

us to do without the assumption of suggestion.

But

on

further

consideration
says

we
no
'

are forced

to

perceive
familiar
,
'

that this
assertions

principle

more than the

or
'

about

'

imitation

contagion

except

Brugeilles: 'L'essence
191 3,

du phenomene

social: la suggestion.'

Revue philosophique,

XXV.

Suggestion and Libido

for

35

decided
is

stress

upon
that

the

emotional factor.
exists
in

There
which,
tion
in

no

doubt

something

us

when we become aware ot signs someone else, tends to make us

often

of an
fall

emo-

into the

same emotion; but how

oppose
it,

do we not and react

are
that

successful!}
in

resist

the

emotion,
therefore,

quite an

opposite way?

Why,

do we invariably give
in

way to this contagion when we Once more we should have to say

pels us to

a group?

what comand what

suggestive
jNIcDougall

obey

this

tendency
in

is

imitation,

induces the emotion

influence.

us

is

the

group's
this,

Moreover, quite apart from

us
to

does not enable

evade

suggestion;

we

hear

from him as well as from other writers

that

groups

are distinguished by their special suggestibility.

We

shall

therefore be prepared for the statement

(or

that suggestion

more

correctly

suggestibility)

is

actualh^ an

irreducible, primitive
in

phenomenon, a
of man.

fun-

damental fact

the

mental

life

Such, too,

was the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishingarts I was a witness in the year 1889. But I can

remember even then

this

feeling

muffled

hostility

to

patient who a the shout: with met showed himself unamenable was 'What are you doing? Voiis voiis co7itresuggestionnez!\ to myself that this was an evident injustice I said and an act of violence. For the man certainly had

tyranny

of suggestion.

When

a right

to

counter-suggestions

if

they were trying to

3*

36

Group Psychology and the Analysis

of the

Ego

subdue him with suggestions.

suggestion,

Later on

my

resistance

took the direction of protesting against the view that

which explained everything,

was

itself

to
I

be preserved

from

explanation.
^
:

Thinking

of

it,

repeated the old conundrum

Christoph trug Christum,

Christus trug die ganze Welt,

Sag'

wo

hat Christoph
hin

Damals

den Fuss

gestellt?^
sustulit

Christophorus Christum,

sed Christus

orbem:

Constiterit pedibus die ubi Christophorus?

Now

that

once more

approach the riddle of

suggestion after having kept

thirty years,
I

away

from
in

it

for

some
ex-

find there
I

is

no change

the situation.
a single
it

To

this

statement
I

can

discover

only

ception, which

need not mention,

efforts

since

is

one
to

which bears witness to the influence of psyciio-analysis.

1

notice

that

particular

are

being

made

formulate
is,

the

concept

of

suggestion

correctly,

that
this

to fix the conventional use of the name.^

And

Konrad Richter:

'Der
I.

deutsche

S.

Christoph.'

Berlin,

1896, Acta Germanica, V,

^[Literally: 'Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the

whole

world; Say, where did Christopher then put

^

his foot?']

Thus,

McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.'

Psychopaihology,
1

Journal of

Netirology

and

920, Vol.

I,

No.

I.

Suggestion and Libido

is

37

by no means superfluous, for the word is acquiring a more and more extended use and a looser and looser meaning, and will soon come to designate
any sort
ot

influence
'

whatever, just
'

as
'

in

English,

where

'

to suggest

and
nature

suggestion

correspond to

our 7iaJiclegcn and Anregung. But there has been no

explanation
of the

of suggestion,

that

is,

of

the conditions under w^hich influence without adequate

logical

foundation

takes

place.

should

not

avoid

the task of supporting this statement by an analysis of

the
literature

of the

last

thirty years,
inquir}^
is

if

were not
this

aware that an exhaustive

close at

being undertaken

hand which has

in

view the fulfilment of

very task.
Instead of this
I

shall

make an attempt
the

at using

the
light

concept

of libido

for

purpose of throwing

Group Psychology, a concept which has done us such good service in the study of psychoupon
Libido
is

neuroses.

an expression taken from the theory

of

the

emotions.
as

We

call

by

that

name

the energ\'

(regarded
at

quantitative

magnitude,
of

though

not

present

actually

mensurable)
all

those

instincts

which have to do with

under
the

word
love
called

'love'.

may be comprised The nucleus of what we

that

mean by commonly
in

naturally consists
love,

(and

this

is

what
But

is

and what the poets sing

its

of)

sexual love with

sexual union as

aim.

we

38

Grotip Psychology

and
this

the Analysis of the

Ego

do not separate from

share
in

what
for

in

any case has a

the

name
other,

'

love

'on

the one hand, self-love,

and

on

the

love
for

parents
in

and

children,

friendship

and love

humanity
objects

general, and also

devotion to

concrete
lies

and to abstract ideas.

these tendencies
activities;

Our
an

justification

in

the fact that psycho-analytic

that
all

research has taught

us

are
in

expression

of

the

same

instinctive

relations

between the sexes these

sexual union, but
in

instincts

force their

way towards
they
are

other circumstances
are

diverted
it,

from
though

this

aim or

prevented

from reaching
of their
nizable

always

preserving

enough
for

original
(as

nature to keep their identity recog-

in

such

features

as

the

longing

proximity, and self-sacrifice).

We
out

are of opinion, then, that language has carried

entirely
justifiable
'

an

piece
its

of

unification

in

creating the
that

word

love

'

with

numerous
it

uses,

and
well.
let

we

cannot
scientific

do better than take

discussions
this

as the basis

of our

and expositions as

By coming
loose

to

decision,

psycho-analysis has
it

a storm of indignation, as though

had been

guilty of an act of outrageous innovation.

Yet psychoand relation

analysis
this

has

done nothing
In
'

original

in

taking love in

'wider' sense.
sexual love, the
exactly

its

origin, function,
'

to

Eros
the

of the love

philosopher Plato
the libido, of
in

coincides

with
as

force,

P-^VCho-analysis,

has

been

shown

detail

by

Suggestion and Libido

39
P^aul,

Nachmansohn and
in

Pfister;^

and when the apostle

the
in the

his

famous
all
'

epistle

to

Corinthians, prizes love

it

above
'

else,

he certainly understands

same
even

wider

sense. ^

But
their

this

only

shows that men do

seriously,

not

always

take

great

thinkers

when they
the

profess most to admire them.

then,

Psycho-analysis,

gives

these

love

instincts

name

of sexual instincts, a potio7'i and by reason

of their origin.

The
this

majority

of

'

educated
an

'

people

have

regarded

nomenclature

as

insult,

and

have taken

their

revenge by retorting upon psycho'

analysis with the reproach of

vv'ho

pan-sexualism

'.

Anyone

considers

sex

as

something mortifying and hu-

miliating

of the
I

to human nature is at liberty to make use more genteel expressions 'Eros' and 'erotic'.
first

might have done so myself from the

avoid

and thus
I

have spared myself much opposition.

But

did not
to
faint-

want

to,

for

like

to

concessions

heartedness.
lead one;

One can never tell where that road one gives wav first in words, and then
substance too.
of
I

ma}'
little

by

little

in

cannot see any merit

in

being
^

ashamed

sex;

the

Greek

word 'Eros',

Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der

Platos'.
Ill;

Eroslehre
1915,
ibid.,

Internationale
'Plato
als

ZeitscJirift fiir

Psychoanalyse,

Bd.
1

Pfister:

Vorlaufer

der Psychoanalyse',

92 1, Bd. VII. ['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'.

III.]

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 1922, Vol.

^

'Though
I

speak with the tongues of

men and

of angels, and

have not love,

am

become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'

40

Group Psychology and

is

the Analysis of the

is

Ego

which

to

soften the affront,

translation

in

the end nothing

more than a
[love];

and

finally,

German word Liebe he who knows how to wait need

of our
fortune,

make no concessions.

We
position

will

try

our

then,
(or,

with
to

the
a

sup-

that

love

relationships

use

more

neutral

expression,

emotional

ties)

also constitute the

essence of the group mind.

the authorities

Let us remember that

of any such relations.
is

make no mention
the shelter,
finds

What would
cealed behind

correspond to them
support

evidently

con-

the screen, of suggestion.

in

Our

hypothesis

the
that

first

instance

from two passing thoughts.

clearly

First,

group

is

held together by a power of

some

kind: and

to

what

power
Secondly,
in

could

this

feat

be better ascribed
in

than to Eros,

who

holds
if

together everything

the
his

world?

that

an individual gives up
its

distinctiveness

a group and lets

it

other

members
im-

influence

him
that
in

by suggestion,
he does
it

gives

one the
feels the

pression
of being
position
it

because he

need

to

harmony with them rather than in opthem so that perhaps after all he does

''ihnen

zu Liebe'}
'for their sake'.

[An idiom meaning

Literally: 'for love

of them'.

Translator.\

TWO

ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE

CHURCH

AND THE ARMY

We
their

may

recall

from

what
it

we

know

of

the

morphology of groups that

development.

is

possible to distinguish
lines
in

very different kinds of groups and opposing

There

are

very

fleeting

groups

and extremely lasting ones; homogeneous ones,

up of the same
sorts

made

of individuals, and
artificial

unhomogeprimitive

neous ones; natural groups, and

groups,
structure.

ones, requiring

an external force to keep them together;

and

highly
for

organised
reasons
like

ones

with

a yet

definite

But

which

have

to

be

explained

we

should
to

to lay particular stress

upon
rather

distinction

which

the
I

authorities
refer
to

have
that

given

too

little

attention;

between

leaderless

groups

and those with leaders.

simple

And,

in

complete opposition to the usual practice, we

not

shall

choose
point
of

relatively

group formation as
begin with
highly

our

departure, but

shall

organised,

lasting

and

artificial

groups.

The most

42

Gronp PsycJiology and

the Analysis of

tJie

Ego

interesting

example of such structures are churches communities of believers and armies.

A
is,

church and an army are

external
force
is

artificial

groups, that
to prevent

certain

employed

them from
rheir

disinteerating

and to check
is

alterations in

structure.

As

a rule a person
as to

not consulted,

or

is

given

no
a

choice,

whether he wants to
at

enter
usually

such

group;

any

attempt

leaving

it

is

met with persecution or with severe punishor has quite definite conditions attached to
quite
it.

ment,
It
is

outside

our

present

interest

to

enquire

why

these
are

associations

need such special safeguards.

are
far

We
that

only

attracted by one circumstance, namely

certain
cases,

facts,

which
groups

more concealed
in

in

other
highly

can be observed very clearly

those

organised
in

which
that

are protected

from

dissolution
In

the

manner
(and
as

has been mentioned.

with advantage take
as
well
as
in

church

we may
a
the

the

Catholic

Church

type)

in

an

army,

however

different
illusion

two may be
Christ,
all

other

respects, the

same
the

holds good of there being

a
its

head
the

in

Catholic

Church
equal
if
it

in

an army

Commander-in-Chief
group
with
this

who
an

loves

the individuals

in

love.

Everything

depends upon
then both

illusion;

were to be dropped,
dissolve,
to.

Church and army would

so

far

as the external force permitted

them

This equal

love

was expressly enunciated by

Christ:

'Inasmuch

Tiijo Artificial

Groups: the C/nnrh and tlic

it

Army 43
of these

as

ye have done
brethren,

unto one of the

it

least

my
to
in

ye have done

unto me.'

He
he

stands

the the

individual
relation

members
kind
the
All

of the group of believers elder brother;

is

of a

their

father

surrogate.

demands
derived
character

that

are

made
of

upon
the

the

individual

are

from

this

love

Christ's.

A
is

democratic
for

runs

through
Christ

Church,

the

very

reason that before

eveiyone
share
that
in

equal,
love.

and that everyone has an equal

It
is

his

not without a deep reason

the

similarity

between the Christian community

invoked,
in

and

family

is

and
Christ,

that that

believers
is,

call

themselves

brothers
love

brothers

through
is

the

which

Christ
tie

has

for

them. There
unites

no

doubt
with

that

the
is

which
the

each
tie

individual

Christ

also

cause

of

the

which unites them with one another.

The

like

holds
is

good
father

of

an

army.
all

The
his

Commander-in-Chief
and

who

loves

soldiers equally,

for that

reason

they
differs

are

comrades among themselves.

from
the

The
being

army
built
is,

structurally
series

Church

in

up of a
it

of such groups.

Every captain

as

were, the Commander-in-Chief and the father

of his
officer

company,
of
his

and so
section.

is

every non-commissioned
is

It

true
in

that

similar
it

hierarchy has been constructed

the Church, but

for does not play the same part in it economically; more knowledge and care about individuals may be

44

Gro2ip Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

attributed
Chief.'
It
is

to Christ than to a

human Commander-inin

to

be noticed that
is

these two
libidinaP

artificial

groups each individual

^

bound by

ties

on

An

objection will justly be raised against this conception

of the

libidinal [see

next foot-note] structure of an army on the

has been found in
it

ground

that

no
in

place

for

such ideas as

those of one's countn,% of national glory, etc., which are of such

importance
that
is

holding an army together.

tie,

a different instance of a group

one;
for

The answer is that and no longer such a

like

simple

the

examples of great generals,

ideas

Caesar,

Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such

are

not indis-

pensable to the existence of an army.

We

shall presently

touch

upon
leader

the

possibility

of a

leading idea being substituted for a

and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of an army, even when it is not the only factor operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but also a practical danger. Prussian militarism, which was just as unpsychological as German science, may have had to suffer the consequences of this in the great war. We know that the war
this libidinal factor in

neuroses which ravaged the German army have been recognized

pected to play
191 8),

being a protest of the individual against the part he was exin the army; and according to tlie communication of E. Simmel {Kriegsnetirosen unci Psychisches Trauma\ Munich,
as
""

the hard treatment of the

men by

their superiors

may be
If

considered as foremost
the

among

the motive forces of the

disease.

importance

of the

libido's

claims on this score

had been
believed
in

better appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American President's

fourteen points would probably not have been

so easily, and the splendid instrument

the hands of the
^

would not have broken

German

leaders.

as

an

[Here and elsewhere the German ^libidinos' is used simply Libido' adjectival derivative from the technical term
^

T7V0 Artificial Groups : the Church

the

and
the

the

Army

45

one hand to the leader

(Christ,

Commanderthe

in-Chief)

and

on

the

other

hand
these

to

other
are

members
related

of the

group.

How

two

ties

to each other,

whether they are of the same

kind and the same value,

and how

thev

are

to

be be

described
resei'ved

psychologically
for

these
mild

questions

must
shall

subsequent enquiry.
a

But we

venthe the
the
for

ture even
authorities

now upon
for not

reproach

against

having sufficiently appreciated

leader
in

importance of the
group,
while our

the
of

psychology
a
first

of

own

choice

object

investigation
position.
It

has

brought us into a more favourable

would
of

appear as

though

we were on
individual's

the right road towards an explanation of the principal

phenomenon
lack

Group
a

Psychology
group.
If

the

of freedom in
in

each

individual

is

bound
tie,

two directions by such an intense emotional

no
difficulty
in

we

shall find

attributing

to that

circumstance the alteration and limitation which have

been observed

in his personality.

A
a group
to

hint
lies

to the
in in in

same

effect,

that

the
in

essence of
it,

the libidinal ties existing

the

is

also
is
if

be found
studied
of

phenomenon
groups.

of panic,

which
arises

best
a

military

A
the

panic

group

that

kind

becomes

disintegrated.
translation
in

Its

'libidinal' is

accordingly introduced in
highly-coloured

order
'libi-

to avoid

the

connotation

of

the

English

dinous'.

Translator.^

46

Group Psychology and the Analysis of

are are
that

the

Ego
given

characteristics

none
only

of

the

orders
to,

by
that

superiors

any
is

longer

listened

and

each

individual

solicitous

on
for

his

own
rest.

account,

and without any consideration

ties

the

The mutual
point, again,

have ceased to
[Angst]
is

exist,

and a gigantic
free.

and senseless
that

dread
the

set

objection

w^ill

naturally

At this be made

it

is

rather the other

way round;

and that the

for others.

dread has grown so great as to be able to disregard

all

ties

and

all

feelings
(p.

of

consideration

McDougall has even

instance of that

24)

made
of

use of the case

as

of panic (though not of military

intensification

panic)

typical

emotion

by conlays

tagion

('primary induction')

upon which he
inadequate.
is

so

much

emphasis.
is

But

nevertheless this rational

quite

of explanation

here

method The very

danger
faced

question that needs explanation

why

the dread has

become
falls

so

gigantic.

The

greatness

of

the

cannot be responsible, for

a victim great
it

the same army which novr

to

panic

may

previously

have

equally

or of

greater

danger
essence

with
of panic

complete
that
it

success;

is

the

very

bears no relation to the

often
If

danger that
the

threatens,

and

breaks

out
in

upon

most
he

trivial

occasions.

an individual

panic dread begins to be solicitous

only

on

his

own
the

account,

bears witness
ties,

in

so

doing to the fact that the emotional

hitherto

which have

made

danger seem

small

to him,

have

Two

Artificial Groups: the CJrarck

and the Army

in

47

ceased to

exist.

Now
may

that he

is

by himself
it

facing
fact

the danger, he
is,

surely think

greater.

The

therefore, that panic dread presupposes a relaxation

in
it

the libidinal structure of the group

in

and reacts to
contrary view
are

a justifiable
libidinal
in

manner,
ties

and
the

the

that the

of

group

destroyed

owing to dread
refuted.

the

face

of the

danger can be
group
of
is

The contention
ed
to

that dread in a

increas-

enormous proportions by means

is

induction

(contagion)

not

in

the least contradicted

by these
entirely

remarks.

McDougall's view meets the case

is

when
are

the danger

a really great one and

ties

when

the

group has no strong emotional

fulfilled,

conditions
But the

which
in

for instance,

when a

fire

breaks out

theatre

or

place

of

amusement.
that

really

instructive case

and the one which

is

can be best emin

ployed for our purposes

mentioned above,

which a body of troops breaks into a panic although

the danger has not increased
is

bevond a
usage
of

degree that
It
is

usual and has

often

been previously faced.

that

not to
'

be
'

expected

the

the

word
deter-

and unambiguously Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even dread in an individual when it exceeds all bounds, and often the name seems to be reserved for cases in which the outbreak
panic

should be clearly

mined.

of dread

is

not warranted

by the

occasion.

If

we

48
take

Group Psychology and

the

the Analysis of

tJie

Ego

word
an

'

panic

'

in

the a

sense

of

collective

dread,

we can
in

establish
is

far-reaching
either

analogy.

Dread

by the greatness of a danger or by the cessation of emoindividual

tional ties (libidinal cathexes^ [Libidobesetzunge?i\)] the
latter
is

provoked

the

case

of
arises

neurotic
either

dread. ^

In

just

the

same way panic

of the

owing

to

an increase

common danger
latter case
is

or owing to the disappearance together;

of the emotional ties which hold the group

and the
dread.^
^

analogous

to that

of neurotic

['Cathexis',

from

the

Greek

'Katexcu',

'I

occupy'.

The

German word
in the

^Besetzung' has

become

of fundamental importance

exposition of psycho-analytical theory.

is

Any attempt

at a short

be misleading, but speaking \e.r\ loosely, we may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy of an electric charge, and that it means the concentration or accumulation of mental energy in some particular channel. Thus, when we speak of the existence in someone of a libidinal cathexis of an object, or, more shortly, of an object-cathexis, we mean that his libidinal energy is directed towards, or rather infused into, the idea {Vorstellung) of some object in the outer world. Readers who desire to obtain a more precise knowledge of the term are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus and the essays on metapsychology in Kleine Schriften
definition or description
likely to
'

zur Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge.

^

Translator?^

XXV,
^

See Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in die Psychoanalyse. 3. Auflage, 1920. [Introductory Lecttircs on Psycho- Analysis.

Lecture

XXV. George
Compare Bela

Allen and Unwin, 1922.]

fantastic

v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. Imago, 1920, Bd. VI.

Two

Artificial

Groups :
like

tJie

Church and the

(1.

Army

49

Anyone who,
a
'

McDougall
plainest

c),

describes

panic

as
'

one
,

of

the

functions

of

the

group mind

arrives

at the paradoxical position that

itself
is

this

group mind does away with

striking

in

one of

its

most

manifestations.

It

impossible

to

doubt that panic means the disintegration of a group;

it

involves

the

cessation

of

all

the

feelings

of

con-

sideration which the

members

of the group otherwise

show one another. The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic

is

very

much
cries

as

it

is

represented

in

Nestroy's parody

of Hebbel's
soldier

play
out:
all

about Judith

and Holofernes. A 'The general has lost his head!'

and thereupon
of misgivings
panic,

the xA^ssyrians take to flight.

The
birth

loss of the leader in

some sense
brings

or other,

the

about him,

on

the

outbreak of

though the
ties

danger remains

the

same;
the
dust,
tie

the
dis-

mutual
appear,
their

between the members of the group

as a rule, at the

same time
vanishes
is

as
in

with
a

leader.
flask

Bologna

The group when its top

like

broken

off.
is

The

dissolution of a

religious

group

not

so
into

easy to observe.

short time ago there

came
the

my

hands an English novel of Catholic origin, recomthe

mended by

Bishop
It

of

London,

with

title

When
bility

It

Was Dark.
its

gave a

clever and,

as

it

seems to me, a convincing picture of such

and
consequences.

a possi-

The

novel,

which

is

50

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

supposed to relate to the

the
Christian
to
is

present

day,

tells

how
for

conspiracy of enemies of the figure of Christ

faith

and of
a
this

succeed

in in

arranging
Jerusalem.

sepulchre sepulchre

be

discovered
in

In

an inscription,
that

which Joseph
reasons
of

of Ari-

mathaea
secretly

confesses

for

piety
its

he

removed
spot.

the

body
its

of Christ

from

grave
it

on the third day

in
this

after

entombment and buried

of
Christ and
of,

The
by

resurrection
this

his

divine nature are

means disposed
is

and the

result of this archaeological discovery

in in

a convulsion

European
all

civilisation

and an extraordinary increase

crimes and acts of violence, which only ceases

the forgers' plot has been revealed.

when

The phenomenon which accompanies

lution that
is

the

disso-

here supposed

to

overtake

a
is

religious

group

is

not dread, for which the occasion

it

wanting.

Instead of

ruthless

and

hostile

impulses

towards

other people

make

their appearance, which,

owing to

the equal love of Christ,

they

had

previously the

been

unable

kingdom ot Christ those people who do not belong to the comto

do.^

But

even

during

munity of believers, who do not love him, and

whom

he does not
^

love,

stand

outside this

tie.

Therefore
after the

Compare
Die

the

explanation of similar
authority
of the
Gesellschaft.

phenomena
sovereig^n

abolition
P.

of the paternal
vaterlose

given

in

Federn's

Vienna,

Anzengruber-

Verlag, 1919.

Two

Artificial Groups: the

Church and the Aryny

the
religion

a religion,

even

if

it

calls

itself

of love,

must be hard and unloving to those who do not Fundamentally indeed every religion is belong to it.
in

this

same way
it

religion

of love
cruelty

for

all

those

whom

embraces;

while

and
to
it

intolerance

towards those who do not belong

to every religion.
personally,

are natural
find
it

However
not
to

difficult

we may

we ought
so

reproach believers too

severely on this account; people

or indifferent are
in this respect.
If

who

are unbelieving

much

better

off psychologically

to-day that

intolerance
as
in

no longer
cen-

shows
turies,

itself

so violent and

cruel

former

we can
in

scarcely conclude that there has been

a softening in
to

human manners.
libidinal
tie

The cause
which
the
tie

is

rather

be found

the undeniable weakening of religious

ties

feelings

and the
If

depend
place

upon
of
to

them.
relicrious

another group

takes

the

one

and
doing

the
so

socialistic

succeeding

in

seems
will

be
the

-,

then

there

be

same
the

intolerance towards outsiders as in

the

age of

Wars

of

Religion;

and

if

differences

between

scientific

opinions

could
the

ever attain a similar signifiresult

cance for groups,

repeated with
this

same

would again be

new

motivation.

VI

FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK

We
and

have have

hitherto

considered
they
are

two

artificial

groups

found
ties.
all

that

dominated by two

emotional

One

of these, the tie with the leader,

seems
the

(at

events for these cases) to be

more of

a ruling factor than the other, which holds between

members of Now much

in

the group.
else

remains

to

be examined and

described

the morphology of groups.

We
we

should

have to

start

from the ascertained

is

fact that a

mere

collection of people
ties

not a group, so long as these

in
it;

have not been established

in

but

should

have to admit that

tendency
easily

any collection of people the

to

form
to

psychological

group

may

very

become prominent.
the

We

should have to give

our attention
or less stable,

different kinds of groups,

more

that arise spontaneously,

and to study
distinction

the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution.

We

should above

all

be concerned with the

Further Problevis and Lines of Work

53

between groups which have a leader and leaderless We should consider whether groups with groups.
leaders

may
in

not be the
the others
for

more
the

primitive and complete,

whether
not be
to

an idea,

an abstraction,

may
head,
ten-

substituted

leader

(a state of things

which religious groups, with

their

invisible

form a transition stage), and whether a

dency, a wish a
share,
in

common

which a number of people can have

not
in

may
This

the

same way serve

again,
in

as

substitute.

abstraction,

might be more
figure

or

less

completely embodied
call

the

of what

we

might

secondary leader,

and interesting

varieties

w'ould

arise

from the relation between the

idea and the leader.

The
or

leader or the leading idea

might
a

also,

so to speak, be negative; hatred against

particular

person

institution

might

operate
call

in

just

the

same

unifying way,
ties

and might
as

up the

same kind of emotional Then the question would

is

positive attachment.

also arise

whether a leader
of a group

really

indispensable to

the

essence

and other questions besides. But

have
all

these
dealt

questions,

which may, moreover,

in

been

with
will

in

part

the
in

literature

of

Group Psychology,
interest

not

succeed

diverting our

from the fundamental psychological problems

us
in

that

confront

the structure of a group.

And
way

our attention

will first

be attracted by a consideration
in

which promises to bring us

the most direct

54
to

Group Psychology and

a

the Analysis of the

ties

Ego

proof that

libidinal

are

what characterize

a group.

Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the

emotional relations which hold between

men

in general.

According to Schopenhauer's famous

approach to
his neighbour.^

simile

of

the

freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate

The evidence
which
lasts

of psycho-analysis shows that almost

every intimate emotional relation between two people

for

some time
parents

marriage,
and

friendship, the

relations

between
to

children^ leaves
hostility,

sediment of feelings of aversion and

which
is

have
less

first

be eliminated by repression.
in

This

disguised

the

common

wrangles

between

business partners or in the grumbles of a subordinate

'A

company
one

of

porcunines
winter's

crowded
so
as

themselves
to
profit^

very

close

together

cold

day

by one

another's

death.

warmth and so save themselves from being frozen to But [soon they felt one another's quills, which induced

them to separate again. And now, when the need for warmth brought them nearer together again, the second evil arose once more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from one trouble to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance at which they could most tolerably exist.' {Parerga und Paralipomena, II. Teil, XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)
^

Perhaps
to

with the solitary exception of the relation of a

son,

mother

her

which

is

based upon
is

narcissism,

is

not

disturbed by subsequent rivalry, and

reinforced

by

a rudimentary

attempt at sexual object-choice.

Fu7-ther Problems
at
his

and Lines of IVork

thing happens
units.

55

superior.

The same
in

when men
time

come
families

together

larger

Every
or
of

two
birth

become connected by
itself

marriage,

each of

them
than
is

thinks

superior

to

better

the

other.

Of two neighbouring towns each

rival;

the

other's

most jealous
keep
one

every

little

canton
Closely
length;

looks
related

down upon
races

the others with contempt.

another

at

arm's

the South
the

German cannot endure

ever}'^

the North German,

of aspersion

Englishman casts

kind

upon

the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese.

We
such

are no longer astonished that greater differences

should
as

lead
the

to

an

almost

insuperable
feel

repugnance,
.

Gallic

people

for the

German, the
for the

Ar}'an

for

the

Semite,

and the white races

directed
against

coloured.

When
who
of
feeling;

this

hostility

is

people

are otherwise loved

we

describe
the

it

as ambivalence

and

we

explain

fact,

probably

far too rational

a manner,
conflicts

is in what by means of the

numerous
arise

occasions
in

for

of

interest

which
hi

precisely

such

intimate

relations.

the

undisguised
feel

antipathies

and

aversions

which

people
to

towards

strangers with

whom

they have
of

do

we

may

recognize

the

expression

self-love

of

narcissism.

This self-love works for the self-assertion

of the

individual,

and behaves as though the occurfrom

his

rence

of

any

divergence

own

particular

56
lines

Group Psychology and

of

the Analysis of the

Ego
of

development
sensitiveness
details
in

involved

criticism

them

and a demand

for their alteration.

We
but

do not know
unmisgive

why such
just

should have been directed to

it

these

of differentiation;
this

is

takable

that

whole

connection

men

evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness,

the
is

source

of which

is

unknown, and to which one

tem-

tempted

to ascribe an elementary character.^

this intolerance vanishes,

But the whole of

of

porarily or permanently, as the result of the formation

group,

and

in

group.
it

So long

as a

group

formation persists or so far as

extends, individuals

behave as though they were uniform, tolerate other

people's peculiarities, put themselves on an equal level

with them,

and have no

feeling of aversion

towards

them.
to

Such a
a

limitation of narcissism can, according

our theoretical views,

libidinal
tie

factor,

be produced by one Love for with other people.

only

oneself
for

knows only one barrier love for others, love objects.^ The question will at once be raised
In a recently ^published study,

yenseits des Lustprinzips

International

(1920)

{Beyond

the

Pleasure

Principle,

Psycho-

Analytical

Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the polarity of love and hatred with a hypothetical opposition between
instincts

of

life

as the purest

and death, and to establish the sexual instincts examples of the former, the instincts of life.

^See 'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus', 1914. Kleine Schrifteu znr Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 1918.

Further Problems and Lines of Work

whether community of
addition
toleration
interest
in
itself,

57

without any

of libido,

must not necessarily lead to the of other people and to considerateness for

them.

This objection

may be met by
limitation
this

the reply that

narcissism
is

nevertheless
effected
persist
in

no
this

lasting

of

way,

since

tolerance

does not

longer than the immediate advantage gained from the other people's collaboration. But the practical

importance
supposed,

of the
for

discussion

is

less

than
in

might be
cases of

experience has shown that

libidinal
ties

collaboration

are

recrularlv

formed besolidify

tween the fellow-workers which prolong and

the
is

relation

between them
as
in

to a point

beyond what

merely profitable.
relations

social

The same thing occurs in men's has become familiar to psychothe

analytic

research

course of the

development
itself

of the individual libido.

The

libido

props

upon

the satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as

its

first

objects the people

who have
love

a share in that

process.

And
just

in

the
in

development of mankind as a
alone
it

whole,
the

as

individuals,
in

acts

as

civilizing

factor

the

sense

that

brings
is

change
both
are
of

from
the

egoism to
sexual
it

altruism.
for

And

this

true

love

women, with

all

the

obligations which

involves

of sparing

what women

fond

of,

and

also of the desexualised, sublimated

for

homosexual love

other men,

which springs from

work

in

common.

58

Gro2ip Psychology
If

and

the Analysis of the

narcissistic

Ego
is

therefore
to

in

groups

self-love

subject

limitations
is

which do not operate outside

a

them,

that

cogent evidence that the essence of a

consists
in

group
ties

formation
the

new kind

of libidinal

among

members of the group. But our interest now leads us on to

to
in

the pressing
ties

question as
w^hich
exist

what may be the nature of these

groups.
In

the

psycho-analytic study

of neuroses

we have

hitherto

been occupied almost

exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those

love instincts which

still

pursue directly sexual aims. In

are concerned here with love
their original
less

groups there can evidently be no question of sexual

aims of that kind.
instincts

We

which have been diverted from

account.

aims,

though they do not operate with

energy

on

that

Now^ we

have

already

observed

within

the

range of the usual sexual object-cathexis

[Objektbesetzting]

phenomena which represent a

instinct

di-

version

of

the

from

its

sexual

aim.
in

We
love,

have

described

them

as

degrees
they

of being
involve
shall

and
our

have

recognized

that

certain

encroachment
attention
in

upon

the

ego.
to

We
these

now

turn

more
in

closely

phenomena of

being

love,

the

firm

expectation of finding in

them conditions which can be transferred to the ties that exist in groups. But we should also like to

know whether this kind of object-cathexis, as we know it in sexual life, represents the only manner

Further Problems and Lines of Work

of

59

emotional

tie

with

other

people,

or

whether we

must take other mechanisms of the

sort into account.

As
that
ties,

a matter of fact
there

we

learn

from psycho-analysis
for

do

exist

other mechanisms
identifications^

emotional

the

so-called

insufficiently-known

processes

and hard to describe, the investigation of

which

will

subject of

some time keep Group Psychology.

for

us

away from the

VII

IDENTIFICATION

Identification
earliest

is

known
a
part

to

psycho-analysis
tie

as

the

expression of an emotional
It

with

another

person.

plays

in

the early history of the

will

Oedipus complex.
interest
in his

little

father;

boy he would

exhibit a special

like to

grow

like

him

and be

like

him, and take his place everywhere.

We

may

say simply that he takes his father as his ideal.

This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or

feminine
attitude

towards
it

his

father

(and

towards
typically

males

in

general);
It fits

is

on

the
well

contrary with
the

masculine.

in
it

very

Oedipus

complex,

for

which

helps to prepare the way.

as this identification with his

At
father,

the
or a

same time
little

boy has begun to develop a true object-cathexis towards his mother according
later, the

to

the

anaclitic

type

\Anlehnungstypus\}

He

then

[Literally, leaning-up-against type

'

';

from the Greek' dYouc>.{vcu

'I

lean

up

against'.

In

the

first

phase of their development the

Identification
exhibits,

6
distinct
ties:

therefore,

two psychologically
sexual
object-cathexis
identification

straightfor\vard

towards

his

mother and a typical

towards

his father.

The two

subsist side

by

side for a time without any

In

mutual influence or interference.

consequence

oi

the irresistible advance towards a unification of mental

life

they

come
complex
his

together

at

last;

and
their

the

normal

Oedipus

originates

from
his

confluence.
in

The way

little

boy notices
mother.

that

father

stands

his
his

with

His

identification

with

father then takes

identical

on a
as

hostile colouring

and becomes
in

with the wish to replace his father

regard
is

to

his

mother

well.

Identification,
first;
it

in

fact,

ambivalent from the

very

can

turn

into

an

expression of tenderness as easily as into a wish for

someone's removal.
the
in
first

It

behaves

like

derivative

of

oral phase of the organisation of the libido,

which the

object

that

we
is

long for and prize

in that

is

assimilated
as such.

by eating and
cannibal, as

way

annihilated

The

we know,

has remained at

sexual instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction;

they do so by propping themselves upon or Meaning up against'

the
self-preservative
is

instincts.

The

individual's first choice of a

sexual object
this

said to be of the 'anaclitic type'

is,

when

it

follows

path;

that

when he choses
anaclitic

as his first sexual object the

same person who has

full

satisfied his early

non-sexual needs. For a

t^^es
of
object-

discussion of the

and

narcissistic

choice compare *Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus'.

Translator?^

62
this

Group Psychology and

standpoint;

the Analysis of the

Ego
for his

he has a devouring affection

devours
people
of

enemies
fond.^

and

only

whom

he

is

the
that
that

The subsequent history father may easily be lost

the
the

of this identification with

sight of.
It

may happen
and

Oedipus
father
is

complex
from

becomes
the

inverted,

taken as the object of a feminine

attitude,
instincts

an

object

which

directly

sexual

look for satisfaction;

the father has

in that

event the identi-

fication with

an object

tie

with the

become the precursor of father. The same holds good,

with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter

as well.
It
is

easy to

state

in

a formula the distinction with

the
father
In the

between

an

identification

and
first

the

choice of the
one's father
is is

father as an object.

case
the

what one would what

is,

like to be,
like

and
have.

in

second
taches

he

one would
or
to

to

The
tie

distinction,

that

depends upon whether the

the

at-

to

the
is

subject

object of the ego.

The former

therefore

already possible before any

It is

sexual object-choice has been made.

much more

^ See Drei Abhandhmgen znr Sexualtheorie, and Abraham's ^Untersuchungen iiber die friiheste pragenitale Entwicklungs-

stufe

der Libido', Iittcrnationate Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse,

(Internationale

1916, Bd. rV; also included in his Klinische Beitrdge zzir Psycho-

analyse
1921).

psychoanalytische

Bibliothek.

Nr.

10,

IdentiJi.catio7i

63

difiicult

to give a clear metapsychological representa-

tion

of

the

distinction.

We
to

can

only

see

that

identification

endeavours

mould a person's own

one that has been taken
as

ego
as a

after the fashion of the

'

model

'.

Let us disentangle
the
structure

identification

it

occurs
its

in

of a neurotic

symptom from
for the

rather
girl

complicated connections.
(and
the the

Supposing that a
present)

little

we

will

keep to her

develops

same painful symptom as her mother for instance, same tormenting cough. Now this may come about in various ways. The identification may come
from
a
the

Oedipus complex;
desire
place,

in
girl's

that

case

it

signifies

hostile

on

the the

part to

take

her her

mother's
object a

and

symptom
father,

expresses
brings

love

towards

her
the
to

and
of

about
of

realisation,

under
desire
to as

influence

sense

guilt,
'

of

her

take

her

mother's

place:
3^ou
is

You

wanted
complete

be your
far

mother,
pain

and
goes'.

now

are
the

anyhow

as

the

This

mechanism of the structure of a hysterical symptom. Or, on the other hand, the symptom may be the same as that of the person

who
'

is

loved

(so,

for

instance,

Dora
only

in

the

Bruchstiick

einer
in

Hysterieanalyse'^
that

imitated

her

father's

cough);

case

we can

describe

\Klei7ie Schriften

zur Neiiroscniehre. Zweite Folge.]

64
the

Group Psychology and

state

the Analysis of the

Ego

of

things
oj

by saying

that identification has

appeai'ed

instead

object-choice,

and

that

object-

choice has regressed to identification.

We

have heard

that

identification
tie;
it

is

the earliest and original form of

that

emotional
ditions
in

often happens

under the conis,

which symptoms are constructed, that

is

where there
of

repression and where the mechanisms

are

the

unconscious

dominant,

object-choice
ego, that
It is
is,

is

turned back into identification

the

as-

sumes the
the person

characteristics of the object.

noticeable

that in these identifications the

ego sometimes copies

us
that

who

is

not loved and sometimes the one

who
cases

is

loved.

It

must

also
is

strike
partial

in

both

the

identification

and
trait

extremely

limited

one and only borrows a single

from the

person

who

is

its

object.
third

There
portant

is

a
of

particularly

frequent
in

and imthe

case

symptom

formation,

which

identification leaves

any object relation to the person

entirely out of account.

who

is

being

copied

Sup-

posing, for instance, that one of the girls in a boarding

school has had a letter from

is

secretly

in

someone with whom she love which arouses her jealousy, and
to
it

that

she

reacts

with

fit

of hysterics;
it

then

some
the

of her friends
as

who know about

will

contract

by means of mental infection. The mechanism is that of identification based upon the possibility or desire of putting oneself in the same
fit,

we

say,

Identification

65
to

situation.

The

other

girls

would
the

like

have a secret

love affair too, and under the influence of a sense of

guilt

they

also

accept
to

pain

involved

in

it.

It

would be wrong
S3^mptom
out
only
of

suppose that ^they take on the sympathy. On the contrary, the

out
fact

sympathy
this
is

arises

of the

identification,

and

proved by the

that infection or imitation

of this kind takes place in circumstances where even

less

pre-existing

sympathy

is

to

be

assumed than

usually exists

between

friends in a girls' school.

significant

One
similar

ego has perceived a

analogy

w'ith

another

upon

one

point
for

in

our

example
and,
is

upon
is

readiness

emotion;
this

an identification

thereupon

constructed
of
the

on

point,

under the influence

displaced

pathogenic situation,
the

on to the

symptom which
identification

one

ego

has

produced.

The

by means of the symptom has thus become the mark of a point of coincidence between the two egos which has to be kept repressed.

What we have
may be summarised
is

learned from these three sources

as
follows.
First,
tie

identification

the original form of emotional

with an object;

secondly, in a regressive
for a libidinal object tie,

way
as
it

it

becomes a substitute were by means of the

the

introjection
it

of the object

into

ego;

and

thirdly,

may

arise with every

quality shared with

object

of the

new perception of a common some other person who is not an sexual instinct. The more important
5

66
this

Gronp Psychology and

the Ajialysis of the

Ego

common

quality

is,

the

more
tie.

successful
it

may

this

partial

identification

become, and

may

thus repre-

sent the beginning of a

new

We
emotional
this

already begin to divine that the

mutual

tie

between members of a group is in the nature of an identification of this kind, based upon an important

the
are

common quality; and we may suspect that common quality lies in the nature of the tie with Another suspicion may tell us that we leader.
far

from having exhausted the problem of

identi-

fication,

and that we are faced by the process which

calls
'

psychology

empathy [Einfiikhing]
our
to our

'

and which
of what

plays the largest part in

is

understanding
in

inherently foreign
shall

ego
to

other people. But

we
side

here

limit

ourselves

the immediate
shall leave
life.

emo-

tional

effects of identification,

and

on one
already

its

significance for our intellectual

Psycho-analytic

research,

vv'hich

has

occasionally attacked the

more

difficult

problems of
exhibit

the

psychoses,
to

has
in

also

been able

to

iden-

tification

us

some other cases which

I

are not

immediately
these

comprehensible.
in

shall

treat
for

two

of

cases

detail

as

material

our

further

consideration.

The
class

genesis of male

homosexuality

in

large

of

cases

is

as

follows.

young
fixated

man
upon

has
his

been

unusually long
in

and
of

intensely

mother

the

sense

the

Oedipus complex.

But

Identification
after the

67

at last,

end of
his

his

puberty, the time comes

for

for

exchanging

mother
his

some
but
into

other

sexual

object.

Things take a sudden turn:

mother,

the

young man
and no.v
his

does not abandon

with her;

identifies himself

he transforms himself
for

her,

looks

about

objects

which

can

replace

ego

for him,

and on which he can bestow such love and

This
is

care as he has experienced from his mother. a frequent process,

as one likes,

which can be confirmed as often

is

and which
force

naturally quite independent

as
to

of any hypothesis that

cranic

may be made
motives

the or-

driving

and the
scale;

of the
this

sudden
identificin

transformation.
ation
is

striking thing
it

about

its

ample

remoulds the ego

in
its

one

of

its

important

features

sexual

character

upon the model of what has hitherto been the object,

hi this process the object itself entirely
is

renounced
outside

whether
only
in

or in the sense
is

of being

preser\'ed

the

unconscious

question

the
that

present
is

discussion.

Identification
lost

with an object
it,

re-

nounced or
this

as a substitute for
is

introjection of

object into the ego,

us.

indeed no longer a novelty

kind

to

process

of the
in

may sometimes be

directly

obser\'ed

small
this

children.

short
in

time
the

ago an obser^^ation of

sort

was published

l7zter?iationale Zeitschrift fiir

Psychoanalyse.
kitten

child

who was unhappy over the loss of a straight out that now he himself was

declared

the kitten,

and
S*

68

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

piccordingly crawled about

at table,
etc.^

on

all

fours,

would not eat

of

Another
cholia,

such

instance

of

introjection

the

object has been provided by

the

analysis

of melan-

an

affection
its

which

counts

among

the

most

remarkable of
nal
loss

exciting causes the real or emotio-

of a loved object.
is

leading characteristic
of the ego
bitter self-

of these cases

a cruel self-depreciation

combined with

relentless self-criticism

and

reproaches. Analyses have shown that this disparage-

ment and these reproaches apply at bottom to the object and represent the ego's revenge upon it. The shadow of the object has fallen upon the ego, as I have
said elsewhere.^

The

introjection of the object

is

here

unmistakably clear.

But these melancholias

else,

also

show us something
for

which

may be

of importance

our later
fallen

dis-

cussions.

They show us
is

the

ego divided,

into

two pieces,

one of which rages against the second.

the one w^hich has been altered
the
cruelly
lost
is

This second piece

by

introjection

and which contains

so

object.

But the piece which behaves

not un-

known
^

to

us

either.

It

comprises the conscience,

zum

Marcuszewicz
'

'Beitrag

Kindern.
Bd. VI.
^

Internationale

Zeiischrifi

autistischen Denken bei fur Psychoanalyse, 1920,

['Trauer und Melancholie.' Kleine Schrifien zur Neurosen191 8.]

lehre, Vierte Folge,

Identification

69
which even

critical
in

facultv

\l7tstanz\-

within the ego,

critical

normal times takes up a

attitude

towards
unjusti-

the ego,
fiably.

though never so relentlessly and so

previous occasions
that

On

we have been
faculty
off

driven to
in

the hypothesis^

some such
itself

develops

our
the

may cut ego and come into

ego
which
it

from the rest of

it.

conflict

with

We
the

have
moral

called

the

'ego

ideal',

and by way of functions

self-observation,

we have
conscience,

ascribed

to

it

the censorship of dreams,

and the chief

it

influence in repression.
heir

We

have said that

in

is

the

to

the

original

narcissism
it

which the

childish

ego found
which
that

its

self-sufficiency;
ot the

gradually

gathers up

from the influences

environment the demands

environment makes

upon

the

ego

and

which the ego cannot always

rise to;

so that a man,

when he cannot be
nevertheless
ideal

satisfied with his

ego
out

itself,

may
ego.

be able which has been

to

find

satisfaction

in

the ego

differentiated

of the

In delusions of observation, as

we

have further shown,

the disintegration

of this
its

faculty has
origin
in

become

patent,

and has thus revealed

the influence of

\^Instanz'

instance'

was

like

'instance'

in

the phrase
It is

'court

of

first

originally a legal term.

now used

in the sense

of one of a hierarchy of authorities

^

or functions.

Translator.]

'Zur Einfiihrung

des

Narzissmus',

'Trauer und Melan-

cholie

'.

yo

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

all

Ego
But we

superior powers,

and above

of parents.^

have not forgotten to add that the amount of distance

between
able

this

ego ideal and the

real

ego

is

very vari-

from

one individual to

another,
within

and that with

the

many

people this differentiation

ego does
for

not go further than with children.

But

before

we can employ
libidinal

this

material

understanding the

organisation of groups,

we

must take into account some

other

examples of the

mutual relations between the object and the ego.^

'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus.'

We

are very well aware that

we have

not exhausted the

nature of identification with these examples taken from pathology,

and

that

we have consequently

left

part of the riddle of group

more fundamental and comprehensive psychological analysis would have to inter\'ene at this point. A path leads from identification by way of imitation to empathy, that is, to the comprehension of the mechanism by means of
formations untouched.
far

which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all towards another mental life. Moreover there is still much to be explained in the manifestations of existing identifications. These result among other things in a person limiting his aggressiveness towards those with whom he has identified himself, and in his sparing them and giving them help. The study of such identifications, like
those, for instance,

which

lie

at

the

root

of

clan feeling,

led

Robertson Smith
recognition of a

to the surprising result

that they rest

upon the
1885),
in

common

substance \J\inship

and Marriage,

and may even therefore be brought about by a meal eaten

common.

This feature makes

it

possible to connect this kind of

identification with the early history of the

human

family which

constructed in Totem

und Tabu.

VIII

BEING

IN

LOVE AND HYPNOSIS

Even
true

in

its

caprices

the

usage
reality.

of language

remains
the

to

some
'

kind
'

of
a

Thus

it

gives

name
as
this

of

love

to

great

many
it

kinds of emotional

relationship

which
but

we

too group together theoretically

again
feels

love;

then

doubt

whether
hints
at

love

is

real,

true,

actual

love,

and so

a whole scale

of possibilities within the range of the

shall

phenomena of love. We making the same discovery

In

have no
love

difficulty in

empirically.

one

class

of cases

being

in

is

nothing

m.ore

than

object-cathexis

on the part of the sexual

instincts

with a view to directly sexual satisfaction, a

cathexis

which expires, moreover, when

this
is

this

aim has
sensual

been reached;
love.

what

is

called

common,

But,

as

we know,
It

the libidinal

situation rarel}'

remains so simple.
certainty

was possible

to calculate with
just
first

upon the
and
this

revival of the

need which had

expired;

must no doubt have been the

72

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

motive for directing a lasting cathexis upon the sexual

object and
as well.
for
'

loving

'

it

in

the passionless intervals

To

this

must ,be added another factor derived

is

from the astonishing course of development which

pursued by the erotic

years
love
in

life

of man. In his

first

phase,
is

which has usually come to an end by the time he

five
his

old,

a child has found the

his

first

object for

one or other of

parents,

and

all

of

his

sexual instincts with their

this

demand
object.

for satisfaction

have been united upon

which
greater

The
to

repression

then

sets

in

compels

him

renounce the
aims,

number
parents.

of these

infantile

sexual

and
to

leaves behind a profound modification in his relation

to
his

his

The
by

child
instincts

still

remains

tied

parents,

but

which

must be

de-

scribed as being 'inhibited in their aim \zielgehem7nte\'

The emotions which he

feels

henceforward towards
tendencies
in

these objects of his love are characterized as 'tender'.

known remain more or

It
is

well

that the earlier

less

'

sensual

'

strongly preserved

the

un-

conscious, so that in a certain sense the whole of the

original current continues to exist.
^

At puberty,

as

we know,

there set

in

new and
In

very strong tendencies with directly sexual aims.

unfavourable cases they remain separate, in the form

Cf.

Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie,

I.e.

Being
of
a
sensual

in

Love and Hypnosis

from the
'

73
'

current,

tender

emotional

trends which persist.

the

We
a

are then faced

certain

two
kind

aspects

of

which

by a picture movements in

literature
this

take
will

such delight

in idealising.

man

of
for

show

sentimental

enthusiasm

women whom he
excite him

deeply respects
activities,

but

who do
will
'

not

to sexual

and he

only be
love
often,

potent with other

women whom
of or

he does not

but

thinks

little

even despises.^
in

More

however,

the

adolescent succeeds

bringing

about

a certain degree of S3'nthesis between the unsensual,

heavenly love and the sensual,

relation

earthly love,

and

his

to

his

sexual

object

is

characterised by the

interaction
inhibited
is

of

uninhibited

instincts

and
to

of

instincts

in

their

aim.

The depth
with
the

which anyone
purely
sensual

in

love,

as

contrasted

his

desire,

may be measured by

size

of the

share

taken by the inhibited instincts of tenderness.

In connection with this question of being in love

we

have always been struck by the phenomenon

over-estimation

of sexual

the

fact that the loved

object enjoys

a certain amount of freedom from criticism, and that

all its

characteristics are valued

more

highly than those

its

of people
at a

who time when

are not
it

loved,

or than

own were
the sensual

itself

was not loved.

If

'

'Uber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.

Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 191 8.

74

Group Psychology and

are

the Analysis of the

Ego

somewhat more effectively repressed or set aside, the illusion is produced that the object has come to be sensually loved on account of its spiritual merits, vvhereas on the contrary these merits may really only have been lent to it by its sensual
tendencies

charm.

The tendency which

respect
easier
is

falsifies

judgement
But
this

in

this
it

that

of

idealisation.

makes

for

us
is

to

find

our

way
in

about.
the
in

We

see that
as our

the

object

being treated

same way

own
It
is

ego, so that

when we
in

are

love a considerable

amount of

narcissistic libido overflows

on to the object.

even obvious,

many forms

of love choice, that

the object sei'ves as a substitute for

some unattained
for

ego ideal of our own.

perfections

We

love

it

on account of the
our
like to

which we have striven to reach

own
in

ego,

and which we should now

procure

this

roundabout way as a means of

the

satisfying our

narcissism.
If

sexual

over-estimation

and the being

in

love

increase
picture

even

further, then the interpretation of

the

The becomes still more unmistakable. tendencies whose trend is towards directly sexual satisfaction may now be pushed back entirely, as regularly happens, for instance, with the young man's sentimental passion; the ego becomes more and more unassuming and modest, and the object more and more
sublime and precious,
until

at

last

it

gets possession

Being in Love and Hypnosis

of the entire self-love of the ego,

75
self-sacrifice

whose
ego.

thus
has,

follows

as

natural

consequence.
the

The object
Traits

so

to

speak,

consumed
case

of
self-

humilitv, of the
injury

limitation

of narcissism,

and of

occur

in

every

of being in love; in the

intensified,

extreme case
result

they

are

onl}^

and

as

of the
in

withdrawal

of the

sensual

claims they

remain

solitary

supremacy.
especially
easily

This happens

with love that

for
in

is

unhappy
evervthing
reduction
with this
is

and

cannot

be

satisfied;

spite

of

each

sexual satisfaction always involves a

in
'

sexual over-estimation. Contemporaneously

'

devotion

of the

ego to the object, which

no longer to be distinguished from a sublimated

devotion to an abstract idea, the functions allotted to

the ego ideal entirely cease to operate.

The
and

criticism

exercised by that faculty

object

is

silent;
is

everything that the

blameless.
is

does

and

asks

for

right

Conscience has no application to anything that

for

done

the

sake of the object;

is

in

the blindness of love

remorselessness

carried to the pitch of crime.

The
in

whole situation
formula:
ideal.
It
is

can be completely summarised

object

TJie

has

taken

the place of

the

e<^o

now

easy to define the distinction between

identification
in

and such extreme developments of being

described as fascination or infatuaitself

love as

may be

tion,

hi the

former case the ego has enriched

76

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

it

Ego

with the properties of the object,

has

'

introjected
it.

the object into

itself,
is
it

as Ferenczi expresses
it

In the
itself

second case
to the

it

impoverished,

has surrendered
its

object,

has substituted the object for

most

important constituent.
it

Closer consideration soon makes

this

plain,

however,
of

that

kind of account creates

that

an

illusion

contradistinctions
is

have

no

real

existence.

Economically there
or

no question of impovis

erishment

enrichment;

it

even
in

possible

to

describe an extreme case of being

in

love as a state
itself.

which the ego has introjected the object into

distinction
is

Another

perhaps
the

better
In

calculated

to

meet
it

the

essence
the

of

matter.

the

case

of

identification
is

object

has been lost or given up;

inside the ego,

then

set

up again
In
is

and the ego

makes a
the
lost

partial

alteration in itself after the

model of
object
it

object.

the a

other

case

the

is

retained,

and there
at

hyper-cathexis of

by the

ego

and

the

ego's
itself.

expense.
Is
it

But here again a

has

difficulty tification

presents

quite certain that iden-

presupposes

that

object-cathexis
identification

been
a dis-

given

up?

Can

there

be no
before

with the

object retained?
cussion
of this

And

we embark upon

delicate question, the

perception

may

already be beginning to
alternative

dawn on
real
is

us that yet another

embraces the

essence of the matter,

namely, zvhether the object

ego or of the ego ideal.

put

in the place of the

Being

in

Love niid Hypnosis

love
to

yj
is

From
only

being
step.

in

h3^pnosis
in

evidently

short

The

respects
is

which the two

agree are obvious.

jection,
criticism,

the

same humble subsame compliance, the same absence of

There
the

towards the hypnotist just as towards the

loved object.

There

is

the

same absorption of one's

ideal.
It
is

own
has

initiative;

no one can doubt that the hypnotist

even clearer and more intense

stepped into the place of the ego

is
it

only that everything

in

hypnosis,

so

that
in

would be more
hypnotist

to the point

to

explain being

love

by means of hypnosis than

is

the other
iind
tiiat

way round.
is

The

the sole object,

no attention

paid to any but him.

The

fact

the ego experiences in a dream-like

he
to

may

request or assert reminds us

way whatever that we omitted

mention among the functions of the ego ideal the

business of testing the reality of things.^

that the
is

No wonder
if

ego takes a perception

for

for real

its

reality

vouched

by the mental

faculty

which ordinarily
are unin-

discharges

the

duty of testing the reality of things.

of tendencies which

The complete absence

the

hibited in their sexual aims contributes further towards

extreme purity of the phenomena.

is

The hypnotic
in

relation

the

devotion

of

someone

love

to

an

unlimited degree but with sexual satisfaction excluded;

^ Cf. 'Metapsychologische Erganzung zur Traumlehre. Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 1918.

78

Group PsycJiology and

in

Ike Analysis of the

in

Ego
kind of

whereas
in the

the
is

case

of being

love

this

satisfaction

only temporarily kept back, and remains

as a possible

background

aim

at

some

later time.

But on the other hand we may

the hypnotic
sible)
is

also
is

say that

relation

is

(if

the expression

permis-

a group formation with two members. a

Hypnosis

not

good object
it

for

comparison with a group

it

formation, because
cal

is

truer to say that

is

identi-

with
it

it.

Out of the complicated

one element
the
for us

fabric

of the

group

isolates

the

behaviour
is

of the individual to

leader.

Hypnosis

distin-

guished from a group formation by

this limitation of

number,
respect
It

just as

it

is

distinguished from being in love

In this

by the absence
it

of directly sexual tendencies.

occupies a middle position betw^een the two.

interesting to see that
it

is

is

precisely those

sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims which

achieve such lasting ties between men.

easily

But

this

can

be understood from the

which
are
uninhibited
in

fact

that they are not

capable of complete satisfaction, while sexual tendencies their

aims

suffer

an
of
is

extraordinary

reduction

through

the
is

discharge
attained.
It

energy every time the sexual aim

the fate of sensual love to
it

become extinguished when

to last,
it

is

satisfied;
first

for

it

to

be able

must from

the with
it

be mixed with purely tender components

that
is,

such,

as are inhibited in their aims

this

-or

must

itself

undergo a transformation of

kind.

Being

in

Love and Hypnosis

79
libidinal
if it

Hypnosis would solve the riddle of the

constitution

of groups for us straight away,

itself

were
are

not

that

it

exhibits

some

features

which

not met by the rational

explanation we have hitherto

of being
in

given

of

it

as

state

love

with
is

the
a

directly

sexual tendencies excluded.

in
it

There

still

great

deal

which we must recognise as unexIt

plained and mystical.

contains an additional element

of paralysis derived from the relation between

someone
without
transition

with

superior

power

and someone who

is

power

and helpless

which
it

may

afford

a
in
its

to the hypnosis of terror which

occurs

animals.
relationin

The manner
ship

in

which

is

produced and

to

sleep are not clear;

and the puzzling way

it,

which
resist

some people are subject to completely, points to some it

is

while

others
un-

factor

still

known which
makes
libido

realised in

it

and which perhaps alone

of
is

possible

the

purity
It

the

attitudes

of the

which
is

it

exhibits.

noticeable that, even

in

w^hen there

complete suggestive compliance

other

respects, the moral conscience of the person hypnotized

may show
fact

resistance.
in

But
it

this
is

may be due
what
is

to

the

that

hypnosis as

usually practised
that

some

knowledge may be retained

is

happening

only

game,
after the

an

untrue reproduction of another

to
life.

situation of far

more importance
to

But
in

preceding discussions
give

we
the

are quite
libidinal

a position

the

formula

for

8o

Gi'oup Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

constitution of groups: or at least of such groups as

we have
'

hitherto considered, namely, those that have

a leader and have not been able by

organisation
'

means of too much

this

to acquire secondarily the characteristics

of an

individual.

primary group of

kind

is

7LU77iber

the

same

object

of individuals who have substituted one and for their ego ideal and have conse-

quently identified thefnselves with one another in their

ego.

This condition admits of graphic representation:

Object

Outer
Object

IX

THE HERD INSTINCT

We
is

cannot for long enjoy the

illusion

that

we have
It

solved the riddle

of the group with this

formula.

impossible to escape the immediate and disturbing

all

recollection that
shift

we have

realty

done has been to

the question on to the riddle of hypnosis, about

which so many points have yet to be cleared up.

And
ties

now

another objection shows us our further path.

It

might be said that the intense emotional

which

we

observe

in

groups

are

quite

sufficient

to

explain one of their characteristics

the

lack of indesimilarity

pendence and
in

initiative in their
all

members, the
individuals.

the reactions of
to
it

of them, their reduction, so to

speak,

the

level

of group

But

if

we

look
this.

at

as a whole,

a group shows us

more than

Some

of

its

features

the weakness of intellectual

the incapacity

ability,

the lack of emotional restraint,

for

moderation
limit
in

and delay, the

inclination to

exceed

every

the expression of emotion and to

work
6

82
it

Groiip Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego
similar

off

completely

in

the form of action

find

^these

and

features,

which

we

so

impressively described in
picture of a regression

Le Bon, show an unmistakable

surprised to find

of mental activity to an earlier stage such as

we

are not

among savages

or children.

A regression
in

of this sort

is

in particular

an essential characteristic of

common
and
an

groups, while, as

we have

heard,

organized

artificial

groups

it

can to a large extent be checked.

We
lectual

thus have an impression of a state in which

individual's

separate
too

emotion and personal

to

intel-

act

are

v/eak

come

to

anything by
till

themselves and are absolutely obliged to wait

are

they

reinforced
in

through

being

repeated

in

similar

way

the

other

reminded of
society, of

members of the group. how many of these phenomena

little
it,

We

are

of depen-

dence are part of the normal constitution of human

how

originality

and personal courage

every individual

are to .be found in

is

of

how much

ruled

by those
themselves

attitudes of the group

in

mind which
influence

exhibit

such forms as racial character-

istics, class

prejudices, public opinion, etc.

The

of suggestion

becomes a greater
it

riddle

for us

when

we

admit that

is

not exercised only by the leader,

but by every individual upon every other individual;

and we must reproach ourselves with having

unfairly

emphasized the relation to the leader and with having

kept the other factor of mutual suggestion too
in

much

the background.

The Herd
After this

Instinct

83
shall

encouragement to modesty, we

be
a

inclined to listen to another voice, which promises

us an explanation based upon simpler grounds.

one

is

to

be found
instinct,

in

Trotter's

thoughtful

Such book

upon the herd

is

concerning which

my

only regret

that

it

does not entirely escape the antipathies that

were

by the recent great war.' Trotter derives the mental phenomena

set loose
in
is

that

are

described as occurring
Cgregariousness'), which
as in other species

groups from a herd

innate in

instinct

human

beings just

of animals.
to
it.

Biologically this gremulticellularity

gariousness
it

is

an analogy

and as

were a continuation of
libido

From

the standpoint of

the

theory

it

is

a further manifestation of the

libido,

inclination,
is

which proceeds from the

and which

by all living beings of the same kind, to combine in more and more comprehensive units.^ The individual if he incomplete is alone. The dread shown feels
felt
' '

by
is

small

children

would seem already

from

to

be an extherefore

pression of this herd instinct.

as

Opposition to the herd

it,

good

as

separation

and

is

anxiously
anything

avoided.
that
is

But the herd turns

or
unusual.

awa}^

from

new

The herd

instinct

W.

Trotter:

Instincts

of

the

Herd

in Peace

and War.

Fisher Unwin, 1916.

^

See

my

essay Jenseits des Lustprinzips.

6*

84

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

would appear to be
'which cannot be
Trotter
considers
nutrition,
split

something
up'.
the
list

primary,

something

gives

as

of instincts

which he
of
often

as

primary

those

of

self-preserv^ation,

of sex,

and of the herd.

feelings of comes into opposition with the others. guilt and of duty are the peculiar possessions of a

The The

last

gregarious animal. Trotter also derives from the herd

instinct

the

repressive
to
exist
in

forces

which

psycho-analysis

has

shown

the

ego,

and from the same

treatment.

source accordingly the resistances which the physician

comes up Speech owes

understanding
fication
rests.

against
its

in

psycho-anal3tic
its

importance to
the
herd,

aptitude for mutual

it

in

and upon
with

the

identi-

of the

individuals

one

another

largely

While Le Bon
transient
associations.
interest

is

principally

concerned with typical

group formations, and McDougall with stable

Trotter

has chosen as the centre of his

in

the

most generalised form of assemblage

.T:o>aTiK6v,

which man, that Jdiov

gives us
its

passes his

life,
is

and he
under
for

psychological basis. But Trotter

no necessity of tracing back the herd

characterizes
it

instinct,

he

as primary and not further reducible.

to

Boris Sidis's attempt,

which he

refers,
is is

at

tracing

the herd

instinct

back to
is

suggestibility

fortunately

superfluous as far as he
ation

concerned;

it

an explan-

of

familiar

and unsatisfactory type, and the

TJie

Herd
^that

Instinct

85
is

converse proposition
of
far

the

herd
light

instinct

suggestibility would seem to

open

a derivative
to

me

throw

more

on the subject.
to the objection that

But Trotter's exposition, with even more justice

than the others',
too
little
is
it

takes

account
incline

of

the
to

leader's

part

in

group,

while
that
it

we
is

rather

the

opposite judgement,
if

impossible to grasp the nature of a group

is

the leader

disregarded.
for

The herd
he
is

instinct leaves

no
in

room
along
too,

at

all

the
herd,

leader;

merely thrown
it

with
that
for

the

almost by chance;

follows,

no
a

path

leads

from
is

this

instinct

to

the

need

God; the herd

this

without a herdsman.

But besides

Trotter's
;

exposition
is

can be undersay,
it

mined psychologically

that

to

can

be
is

made

at

all

events probable that the herd instinct

it

not irreducible, that

is

not

primary

in

the

same

sense as the instinct of self-preservation and the sexual

instinct.
It
is

naturally no easy matter to trace the onto-

genesis

of

the

herd

instinct.

The

dread which
left

is

shown by small children when they are

of the instinct, nevertheless suggests

alone,

and

which Trotter claims as being already a manifestation

more

readily an-

other interpretation.

The dread

relates to the child's

it

mother, and later to other familiar persons, and

is

the expression of an unfulfilled desire, which the child

does

not

}et

know how

to

deal

with

in

any way

86

Group Psychology and the Analysis

^

of the

Ego

except by turning it into dread. Nor is the child's dread when it is alone pacified by the sight of any haphazard 'member of the herd', but on the contrary it is only brought into existence by the approach of a stranger of this sort. Then for a long time nothing in the nature
'

of herd instinct or group feeling

children.

is

to

be observed
of
all,

in

Something

like

it

grows up

first

in

nursery containing

many

children, out of the children's

relation to their parents,

and

it

does so as a reaction

to the

initial

envy with which the elder child receives

one.
its

the
like
it

younger
to

The

elder

child

would
aside,
it

certainly to

put

successor
parents,
face

jealously

keep
all

away from the

but
in
all

and to rob
the
is

of
this

its

privileges;
(like

of

fact

that

child
in

that

come

later)
in

loved by the parents

just the
sibility

same way, and

of

consequence of the imposhostile

maintaining
itself,
it

its

attitude

without
with

damaging

is

forced into identifying

itself

So there grows up in the troop of children a communal or group feeling, which is then further developed at school. The first demand made by this reaction-formation is for justice, for equal
the other children.

treatment for

all.

We

all

know how
at
all

loudly and implacIf

ably this claim

is

put forward at school.

oneself,

one cannot

be the favourite

events nobod}^ else

See the

remarks

upon Dread

in

Vorlesungen zur Ein-

filhrTing in die Psychoanalyse.

XXV.

The Herd
shall

histinct

87

be the

favourite. This transformation

the replac-

by a group feeling in the nursery and classroom might be considered improbable, if the same process could not later on be observed
ing

of jealousy

again in other circumstances.

of the troop of
in

We
girls,

have only to think

all

women and

of

them

in

love

an

enthusiastically

sentimental

way,

who crowd
It

round a singer or pianist after

his

performance.

would
of the

certainty
rest;

be easy
in

for

each of them to be jealous

of their

but,

face

consequent impossibility of
their

their reaching the

it,

numbers and the aim of

instead of pulling

love,

they renounce
hair,

and,

out one

another's

the}^

act as a united group,

their

do homage to the hero of the occasion with

common
a share

actions,

and would probably be glad

flowing
in

to

have
they

of his

locks.

Originally

rivals,

have

succeeded

identifying

themselves
love
for

with
the

one

another
object.

by means of a

similar

same

When,
is

as

is

usual,

a situation in the field of

the instincts

capable of various outcomes,

if

we need

not be surprised

outcome is one w^hich involves the possibility of a certain amount of satisfaction, while another, even though in itself more
the actual

obvious,

is

passed over because the circumstances of

its

Hfe prevent

attaining this aim.

in
^

What
of

appears later on
esprit
its

society

in

the shape
etc.,

Gemeifigeist^

de corps

'group

spirit',

does not belie

derivation from what

was

originally

88
envy.

Group Psychology and the Analysis of

the

Ego

No one must want

means
others
is

to

put

himself forward,

every one

must be the same and have the same.

that

Social justice
things

we deny
to
thing,

ourselves

many

so

that

may have
same

do without them

as well, or, to

what

the

may

not be able
is

ask

for

them.

This

demand
in

for

equality

the
It

root

of social
itself

conscience and the sense of duty.

reveals

unexpectedly
people,

the

syphilitic 's

dread

of infecting

other
to

which psycho-analysis has

taught
these

us

understand.

The dread exhibited by

to
their

poor

wretches

corresponds

violent

struggles against the unconscious wish to spread their

infection

on

to

other

people;
off

for

why

should they

alone

be infected and cut

from so much? why

the

not other people as well?

be found
Solomon.
shall

not
is

woman

Thus what was

tie

same germ is to in the pretty anecdote of the judgement of If one woman's child is dead, the other have a live one either. The bereaved recognized by this wish. social feeling is based upon the reversal of
first

And

a hostile feeling into a positivel3^-toned

of the nature of an identification.

So

far as

we

have hitherto been able to follow the course of events,

this reversal

appears to be effected under the influence

tender
tie

of a

common

with

a person outside the

group.

We

do not ourselves regard our analysis of

as

identification

exhaustive,

but

it

is

enough
to

for
this

our

present

purpose that we should

revert

one

TJie

Herd
that

Instirict

89
shall

feature

its

demand

equalization

be conin

sistently carried through.

We

have already heard

that

the discussion of the two

artificial

groups, church and

is

army, that their preliminary condition

all

their

members should be loved

person, the leader.

in
let

the

same way by one

its

Do

not

us forget, however, that

the

demand for equality in members and not to the

to

a group applies onl)' to

leader.

All

the
all

members
want
to

must be equal

one another, but they

person.
with

be ruled by
identify

one
to

Many
all

equals,

who can
single situation

themselves
superior
find

one another,

and a
the

person
that

them

that

is

we

realised in groups which are capable of

subsisting.

Let us venture, then, to correct Trotter's

that

pronouncement
that he
in
is

man

is

a herd animal and assert

rather a horde animal, an individual creature

a horde led by a chief.

THE GROUP AND THE PRIMAL HORDE

In

191 2

took up a conjecture of Darwin's to the

the
primitive

effect

that that

form

of

human

society

was

of

a
I

horde ruled over despotically by a

attempted to show that the fortunes
left

powerful male.

of this horde have

history

indestructible traces

upon the
that
in

of

human

descent;

and,

especially,

the
itself

development of totemism, which comprises

tion,

the beginnings of religion, morality, and social organisais

connected with the

killing

of the

chief

by
is

violence and the transformation of the paternal horde

into

community of
hypothesis,

brothers.^

To be
others

sure, this

only

like

so

many
,
'

with

which
of

archaeologists

endeavour to lighten the

darkness

prehistoric times

'

Just-So Story
critic

as

it

was amusingly
I

called
is

by a not unkind

(Kroeger); but
if
it

think

it

creditable to such a hypothesis

proves able to

Totem 2ind

Tabti.

The Group and the Pri7nal Horde

bring

91

coherence

and

understanding

into

more and
the
familiar

more new

regions.

Human
troop

groups

exhibit

once again

picture of an individual of superior strength

of similar
in

among
is

companions, a picture which

idea of
the

also

contained

our

primal

horde.
it

The

psychology of such a group, as

descriptions to which

we know

from the

we have

so often referred

the

dwindling of the conscious individual personality, the

focussing
direction,

of

thoughts

the

and feelings into a common predominance of the emotions and of

life,

the unconscious mental

the tendency to the im-

mediate carrying out of intentions as they emerge

all

this

corresponds

to

state

of regression

to

primitive

mental

activity,

of just

such a sort as

we

should be
^

inclined

to

ascribe to the primal

horde.

What we have
mankind
of

just described in

our general characterisato

tion

of
will

must

apply

especially

the

primal horde.

The

was too weak; he did not venture upon action. No impulses whatever came into play except collective ones; there was only a common will, there were no single
the individual

ones.
it

An

idea did not dare to turn

reinforced

itself into
its

a volition unless

felt

itself

by

'a

perception of
to

general diffusion.

This weakness of the idea

the

is is

be explained by the strength of

all

emotional

tie

which

shared by
assist in

the

members
life

of the

horde; but the similarity

in the

circumstances of their

and the

absence of any private property

of their individual mental acts.

determining the uniformity

observ'e with children

As we may
is

and

soldiers,

common

activity

not excluded even in the exis

cremental functions.

The one

great exception

provided by the

92

G7'oiip

Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

to

Thus the group appears

the

us as a revival of

primal

horde.

Just

as

primitive

man

virtually

survives in every individual, so the primal horde

arise

may

once more out of any random crowd;

in

so far

men are habitually under the sway of group formation we recognise in it the survival of the primal
as

horde.

We
is

must conclude that the psychology of the

group

the oldest
as

human psychology; what we have

psychology,

isolated
all

individual

by
since

neglecting

traces

of the

group,

has

only

come

into

prominence out of the old group psychology, by a

gradual process which
as

may
shall

still,

perhaps, be described

incomplete.

We

later

venture

upon

an
this

attempt at specifying the point of departure of

development.
Further
spect
this

reflection

will

show

us

in

what

re-

statement

requires

correction.

Individual

psychology must,

on the contrary, be just as old as

for

group psychology,

from the

first

there were two

kinds of psychologies, that of the individual

members

of the group and that of the father, chief, or leader.

The members of the group were subject to ties just as we see them to-day, but the father of the primal
horde was
free.

His intellectual acts were strong and

is

sexual act, in which a third person

in the

at the best superfluous

and

extreme case
the

is

condemned

to a state of painful

expectancy.

As

to

reaction of the sexual need (for genital gratification)

towards gregariousness, see below.

The Group and

independent even
reinforcement
in

tJic

Primal Horde
and
his will

93

isolation,

needed no
us
to

from
his

others.

Consistency
libidinal

leads

assume that

ego had few

ties;
in

he loved
so far as

no one but himself, or other people only

they served his needs.

To

objects his ego gave aw^ay

no more than was barely necessary.

He,
mankind,

at

the

very

beginning

of

the

history

of

was

the

expected from the

Superman whom Nietzsche only future. Even to-day the members

by
their leader;

of a group stand in need of the illusion that they are

equally and justly loved

but the leader

of a masterly

himself need love no one else, he

nature,

may be

absolutely

narcissistic,

but self-confident and

independent.
narcissism,

We
it

know
this

that love puts a

check upon

and
in

would be possible
way,
it

to

show how,
a
factor

by

operating

became

of

civilisation.

The primal
immortal,
died,

father
later

of

the

horde was not yet

deification.
If

as

he

became by

he

was probably taken by a youngest son, who had up to then been a member of the group like any other. There must
he had to be replaced;
his place

therefore

be a

possibility of transforming

group psychoeasily

logy

into

individual

psychology; a condition must be

is

discovered under which such a transformation

accomplished, just
of necessity to
into a worker.

as

it

is

possible for bees in case

turn a larva into a queen instead

of

One can

imagine only one possibility:

94

Group Psychology a?id the Analysis of the Ego

the primal father had prevented his sons from satisfying their directly sexual tendencies; he forced
into
ties

them

abstinence

and consequently

into

the emotional

with him and with one another which could arise

inhibited
to

out of those of their tendencies that were

in

their

sexual

aim.

He

forced them,

so

speak,
intol-

into

group psychology. His sexual jealousy and

in

erance became
psychology.'

the last resort the causes of group

Whoever became
means
offered a

his

successor was also

given

the possibility of sexual satisfaction, and was by that

way out

of the conditions of group

psychology.

The

fixation of the libido to

woman and

the possibility of satisfaction without any need for delay

or accumulation

made an end
his

of the importance of

those
their

of his sexual tendencies that were inhibited in

aim,
full

and allowed
height.

narcissism always to rise

in

to

its

We

shall return

a postscript to

this

connection between love and character formation.

We
trivance

may
the

further
relation

emphasize,
that

as

being specially

instructive,

holds between the conartificial

by means of which an
and
l^the

group
primal

is

held

together

constitution

of

the

horde.
this

We

have seen that with an army and a church

^ It may perhaps also be assumed that the sons, when they were driven out and separated from their father, advanced from identification with one another to homosexual object love, and in this way won freedom to kill their father.

The Group and

contrivance
is

the

Primal Horde
all

95
of

the illusion that the leader loves

the individuals equally and justly.

But

this

is

simply
in

an

idealistic

remodelling of the state of

affairs

the

primal horde,

where

all

of the sons

knew

that they

were

equally

persecuted

by the primal
,'up

father,

and

feared him
all

equally.

This same recasting upon which

is

social

duties

are built

already presupposed

by the next form of human

clan.

society,

the totemistic

The

indestructible

strength of the family as a

rests

natural

group formation
presupposition

upon the
the

fact that this

necessary

of

father's

equal

love

can have a real application

in

the family.
this
It

But we expect even more of

the

derivation of

group from the primal horde.

us
to

ought also to

help

understand what
in

is

still

incomprehensible

and

mysterious

group

formations

all

that

lies

hidden behind the enigmatic words hypnosis and suggestion.

And

think

it

can succeed

in

this

too.

Let

us recall that hypnosis has something positively uncanny

about
gests

it;

but the characteristic

of uncanniness sug-

something old and familiar that has undergone

repression.^

Let us consider how hypnosis

asserts

is

induced.

The
will,
it

hypnotist

that

he

is

in

possession of a

mysterious power which |robs the subject of his

or,

own

which

is

the

same

thing, the subject believes

of him.

This mysterious

power (which

is

even now

'Das Unheimliche.' Imago, 1919, Bd. V.

g6
often

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

described popularly as animal magnetism) must

is

be the same that

looked upon by primitive people

same that emanates from kings and chieftains and makes it dangerous to approach them {mana). The hypnotist, then, is supposed to be in possession of this power; and how
as the source of taboo, the

does he manifest

it?

By
it

telling

the subject to look

him
is

in

the eyes; his most typical

his

method of hypnotising
sight

by

look.
is

But
later

is

precisely the

of the

chieftain that

dangerous and unbearable for primitive

that

people,
mortals.

just

as

of

the

Godhead

is

for

Even Moses had

his

to act as an intermediary

betw^een

people

and Jehovah, since the people and when he

shone

could

not

support the sight of God;

returned from the presence of

God

his face

some
just as

of the

7nana had been transferred on to him,

happens with the intermediary among primitive

true
for

people.^
It
is

that

hypnosis

can also be evoked

fixing

in

other ways,

instance

by

the eyes upon a

bright object or

by

listening to a

monotonous sound.
inadfact

This

is

misleading

and

has given occasion to

equate physiological
these

theories.

As
to

matter
divert

of

procedures

merely
it

serve

conscious
situation
is

attention

and to hold
as
if

riveted.

The

the

same
^

the hypnotist had said to the subject:

See Totem unci Tabu and the sources there quoted.

The Gro7ip and

'

the

Primal Horde

97

Now

concern yourself exclusively with

is

my
'

person
It

the rest of the world

of course
to

quite uninteresting.

would

be
his

technically

inexpedient for a hypnotist

it

make such

away from
the

would tear the subject unconscious attitude and stimulate him

a

speech;

to conscious opposition.

The

hypnotist avoids directing

subject's

conscious

thoughts

towards

his

own
he
is

intentions,

and makes the person upon

sink
into

whom
which

experimenting

an

activity

in

the

is bound to seem uninteresting to him; but at same time the subject is in reality unconsciously concentrating his whole attention upon the hypnotist,

world
the

and

is

getting

into

an attitude of rapport, of trans-

ference

on to

him.

Thus
of

the the

indirect

methods

of

hypnotising,

like

many

technical
effect

procedures
of checking

used

in

making jokes, have the

distributions

certain

of mental

energy which

would

interfere with the course of events in the unconscious,

and they lead eventually to the same

direct
stroking.^
^

result as the

methods of influence by means of

staring

or

This situation,

in

which the subject's attitude

the
hypnotist,

is

uncon-

sciously

directed towards

while he

is

consciously

occupied with monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a

the events of psycho-analytic treatment, which be mentioned here. At least once in the course of every analysis a moment comes when the patient obstinately maintains that just now positively nothing whatever occurs to his mind. His free associations come to a stop and the usual
parallel

among
to

deserves

98

Group Psychology and

Ferenczi has

the Analysis of the

Ego

made
the

the true discovery that

when
is

a hypnotist
often

gives

command
of the

to

sleep,

which
is

done
in

at the beginning of hypnosis,

he

putting

himself

the

place
sorts

subject's

parents.
to

He

thinks that

two

of hypnosis

are

be

distin-

guished
siders

one coaxing and soothing, which he conmodelled upon

which
to
is

is

the

mother,

and

another

threatening,

derived from the father.^

in

Now

the

command
less

sleep

hypnosis

means
all

nothing
interest

more nor
of the
subject;

than an order to withdraw

it

from the world and to concentrate

hypnotist.
for
in

upon the person

interest

And
the

it

is

so

understood by the
of

this

withdrawal

from the
of
of

outer
sleep,

world

lies

psychological

characteristic
Jstate

and the kinship between sleep and the

is

hypnosis

based upon

it.

incentives for putting

them

in

motion
at
last

fail in

their effect.

As

a result
is

of pressure

the

patient

is

induced to admit that he

thinking

of the

view from

the

consulting-room window, of the

wall-paper

that he sees

before him, or of the gas-lamp hanging

from the ceiling.

into

Then one knows

the transference and that he

unconscious thoughts relating to

once that he has gone off engaged upon what are still the physician; and one sees the
at
is

stoppage in the patient's associations disappear, as soon as he has

been given
^

this explanation.

Ferenczi:
1

'

Introjektion

und Ubertragung.'
\Contributions
II.]

Jahrbuch der

Psychoanalyse,

909,

Bd.

I.

to

Psycho-Analysis.

Boston, Badger, 1916, Chapter

TJie Grotip a?id the

Primal Horde
takes, then,

99
the

By
notist

the measures that

in

he

hyp-

awakens
his

the subject a portion of his archaic

inheritance

which had also

parents

made him compliant

had
relation

to-

wards

and

which
in
is

experienced
to
his

an

individual

re-animation

his

father;

what
and
will

is

thus

awakened

the

idea

of a

paramount

dangerous personality,
is

towards
possible,

passive-masochistic attitude

whom only a to whom one's

be alone with
hazardous
that
as this

has to be surrendered,
in

while

to

him, 'to look him

enterprise.
It
is

the

face', appears a

only in

some such way

we can
of the

picture the relation of the individual

primal

horde to the primal

father.

member As we
reviving
that in

know from other reactions, individuals have preserved

a variable

degree of personal

aptitude

for

old situations of this kind.

spite of everything hypnosis
tive

Some knowledee
is

only a game, a decep-

renewal of these

old

impressions,
that

may however
is

remain behind and take care

ance
against

there

resist-

any

too
will

serious
in

consequences

of the

suspension of the

hypnosis.

The uncanny and

formations,

coercive characteristics of group

which

are

shown
with
their

in

their

suggestion

phenomena,
back
horde.
to

may
fact

therefore
of

justice

be
the

traced
primal

the

origin
is

from
still

The

leader of the group

still

the dreaded

primal father; the group

wishes to be governed

by unrestricted

force;

it

has

an extreme passion for

7*

OO Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

in

authority;

obedience.

Le Bon's The primal

in

phrase,
father

it

has
the

thirst

for

is

group

ideal,

which governs the ego

the place of the ego ideal.

Hypnosis has a good claim to being described as a

group

of

two;

there

remains

as
is

definition

for

suggestion

conviction

which

not

based

upon

perception and reasoning but upon an erotic

seems

tie.^

It

to

me

worth emphasizing- the

fact that

the dis-

cussions in this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's

conception

of hypnosis
to

and go back
all

to

the naif earlier one.

According

Bernheim

hypnotic phenomena are to be traced

to the factor of suggestion,

which

is

not

itself

capable of further
that

explanation.

We

have come

to the conclusion

suggestion

is

a partial manifestation of the state of hypnosis, and that hypnosis

is

solidly

founded upon a predisposition which has survived

in the

unconscious from the early history of the

human

family.

XI

A DIFFERENTIATING GRADE

IN

THE EGO

If

we

survey

the
in

life

of

an

individual

man

of

to-day, bearing

mind the mutually complementary

accounts of group psychology given by the authorities,

we may
that

lose the courage, in face of the complications

are

revealed,

to

attempt
is

comprehensive ex-

position.

Each

individual

component

part

of

numerous groups, he is bound by ties of identification in many directions, and he has built up his ego ideal upon the most various models. Each individual therefore has a share in numerous group minds those of his race,
of his class, of his creed, of his nationality, etc. and

he can also
of

raise himself

above them to the extent

and
originality.

having
stable

scrap

of independence

Such

and

lasting

group formations, with

are less
striking

their

uniform and constant

effects,

to

an

observer than the rapidly formed and transient groups

from which Le Bon has made

logical character sketch of the

his

brilliant

psychoit

group mind.

And

is
it

just in these noisy

ephemeral groups, which are as

02

Grotip Psychology

and the Analysis of the Ego

others, that

were superimposed upon the

temporary,

we

are

met

by the prodigy of the complete, even though only

disappearance
of

exactly

what we have
as

recognized as individual acquirements.

We
tutes
leader.
for

have interpreted

this

prodigy

meaning
substiin

that the individual gives

it

up

his

ego ideal and

as

the

group

ideal

embodied
of
in

the

And we must add by way

is

correction

that the prodigy

In

not ^equally great

the

every case.

many

individuals
ideal
is

separation between the

ego

and the ego

still

not very far advanced; the two

the ego has often preserved
its

coincide readily;

earlier self-complacency.
is

The
by

selection of the leader

this

very

much

facilitated

circumstance.

He

need only possess the

uals

typical qualities of the individclearly

concerned
form,

in

a particularly

marked and
of
in

pure

and

need

only

give

an

impression
libido;

greater force and of

that case the

more freedom of

and

need

for a strong chief will often

meet

him half-way and invest

him with a predominance to

which he would otherwise perhaps have had no claim.

The
in

other
not,

members

of the group,
this,

would
his

apart from

whose ego ideal have become embodied

correction,

person

without

some

are

then
that
is

carried
to

away with the rest by 'suggestion', say, by means of identification. We are aware that what we have been
towards
the

able to
libidinal

contribute

explanation

of

the

A
structure

Differentiating Grade in the

Ego

103

of the

groups

leads

back
ego

to

the

distinction

between
fication,
ideal.

ego
tie

and
which

the
this

ideal

and
for

to

the

double kind of

makes

possible

identi-

and substitution of the object

the

ego
an

The assumption
\Stufe\
in

of this kind of differentiating

grade

the

ego

as

first

step

in

analysis of the

ego must gradually establish

its justifi-

cation in the

most various regions of psychology.

'

In

my

paper

'

Zur Einfiihrung des Narzissmus

have put

together

all

the pathological material that could at the

separation.

moment be used in support of this may be expected that when we

into
will

But

it

penetrate
its

deeper

the

psychology of the psychoses

far greater.
in

significance
reflect

be discovered to be

Let us

that the ego

now appears
all

the relation of an object

to
it,

the

ego ideal which has been developed out of

the interplay between an outer object

and that

and the ego as a whole, with which our study of the neuroses has made us acquainted, may possibly be
repeated upon
In
this

this

new scene
I

of action inside the ego.

place

shall

only follow up

one of the
point of
a

consequences which seem possible from

view,

this

thus
I

resuming

the
to

discussion

of

problem

which

was obliged

leave

unsolved
that

elsewhere.

Each of the mental differentiations become acquainted with represents a fresh

of the
^

we

have

,aggravation
increases
its

difficulties

of mental functioning,

'Trauer und Melancholie.'

04

Group Psychology and the A7ialysis of the Ego

and may become the starting-point
is,

instability,

for

its

breakdown, that

for the onset of a disease.

Thus,

by being born we have made the step from an absolutely self-sufficient

narcissism to

the perception of

a changing outer world and to the beginnings of the

discovery of objects.
fact that for long,

And

with this

is

associated the

we
that

cannot endure the

new

state

of things
it,

we

periodically revert from

in

our

sleep,

to

our former condition of absence of stimulIt

is

ation

and avoidance of objects.

this

true,

however,

that in

we

are following a hint from the outer

world,

which, by means of the periodical change of

night, temporarily

day and
which
to

withdraws the greater part

of the stimuli that affect us.

is

The second example,

is

pathologically

more important,
In

not subject
of

any

such

qualification.

the

course

our

development
mental

we have
into

effected

a separation

of our
into

existence

coherent

ego and
is left

an

unconscious and repressed portion which

it;

outside
acquis-

and we know that the

is

stability of this

new

ition
in

exposed to constant shocks. In dreams and neuroses what is thus excluded knocks for admission
in

at the gates,

and
the

guarded though they are by resistances; our waking health we make use of special
for allowing

artifices

what
for

is

repressed to
it

circumvent

resistances

and

receiving

temporarily into

our ego to the increase

of our

pleasure.
in

Wit and
general.

humour, and to some extent the comic

A
with
the

Differ en Hating Grade in the

in

Ego

105

may be regarded
similar

this

light.

Everyone acquainted
neuroses
will
I

psychology of
less

the

think

of

examples of
I

importance; but
in

hasten on

to the application
It
is

have

view.

quite conceivable that the separation of the

ego ideal from the ego

either,

cannot

be borne

for

long-

and

has

to

be temporarily undone.

In

all

renunciations

and limitations imposed upon the ego

is

a periodical infringement of the prohibition

this

the rule;

indeed
in

is

shown by the
are

institution

of festivals,
less

which

origin

nothing

more

nor

than

excesses provided by law and which

character
Saturnalia
to

owe
they

their cheerful

the

release

which

bring. ^

The
of

of the
this

Romans and our modern

feature
usually

carnival

agree

in

essential

with

the
in

festivals

primitive

people,

which

end

debaucheries
at

of every kind

and the transgression of what are

other times the most sacred

commandments. But the

of
all

ego ideal
the

comprises the

sum

the limitations in

which the ego has to acquiesce, and for that reason

abrogation of the
festival

ideal

would necessarily be a
ego,

magnificent

for

the

which

might

then

once again
^

feel satisfied

with

itself.^

Totem mid Tabu.

Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct.
into
I

'

It

is

a translation of this a contradiction

another form of expression rather than

say in

when

my

'Einfiihrung des Narzissmus'

ideal
is

that on the part of the ego the construction of an

the

condition of repression.

06 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

There
is

alwa3^s

feeling

of

triumph

when
ideal.

something

in

the

ego coincides with the ego

of
guilt

And

the

sense

(as

well

as

the

sense

ot

inferiority)

can also be understood as an expression

of tension between the ego and the ego ideal.

It is

well

known

that there are people the general

oscillates periodically

colour of whose

mood

from an

excessive depression through

some kind of intermediate

These
oscill-

state to an exalted sense of well-being.

ations

appear
is

in

very different degrees of amplitude,

from what
Yi/'hich,

just noticeable to those

extreme instances

in

the shape of melancholia and mania,

disturbing
In

make
life

the most painful or

inroads
typical

upon the
cases

of

the

person

concerned.

of this

cyclical

depression outer exciting causes do not

as

seem
in

to

play any decisive part;

regards inner motives,

is

nothing more (or nothing different)

these patients than in
all

to

be found
as

others.

It

has consequently

become

the

custom to consider these cases

not

being psychogenic.

We
easily

shall

refer later

on to those
to

other exactly similar cases of cyclical depression which

can

nevertheless

be

traced

back

mental

traumata.

Thus the foundation of these spontaneous oscillations of mood is unknown; we are without insight into the mechanism of the displacement of a melancholia by a mania. So we are free to suppose that
these
patients

are

people

in

whom

our

conjecture

Differentiating Grade in the

Ego

107

might find an actual application their ego ideal might

be temporarily resolved
previously ruled
it

into

their

ego

after

having

with especial strictness.

is

Let us keep to what

analysis of the

clear:

On

the basis of our

in

ego ego

it

cannot be doubted that

cases

of

mania

the

and

the

ego
in

ideal

have

fused

together,

so that the

person,

mood
his

of triumph

and

self-satisfaction, disturbed

by no
his

self-criticism,

can
of
It

enjoy

the

abolition

of his

inhibitions,

feelings

consideration for
is

others,

and

self-reproaches.

not so obvious, but nevertheless very probable, that

is

the misery of the melancholiac

the expression of a

sharp conflict between the two faculties of his ego,

a
conflict
in

which the

ideal,

in
its

an excess of sen-

sitiveness,

relentlessly exhibits

condemnation of the
for the

ego

in

delusions of inferiority and in self-depreciation.

is

The
the

only question

whether we are to look

periodic
rebellions,

causes of these altered relations between the ego and

ego

ideal

in

the

which

we
or

have postulated above, against the new

them.

institution,

whether we are to make other circumstances responsible for

A
sion.

change

into

mania

is

not

an

indispensable

feature of the

symptomatology of melancholic depresin

There are simple melancholias, some

in

single
this

and some

recurring attacks, which never

show

development.
in

On

the other hand there are melancholias

which the exciting cause clearly plays an aetiological

08 Gro7tp Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

part.

They

are those which occur

after the loss of

a loved object, whether by death or as a result of

circumstances which have necessitated the withdrawal

of the libido from the object.
cholia

psychogenic melan-

of this sort can end in mania, and this cycle

in

can be repeated several times, just as easily as

case

which

appears

state of things

few

forms

be spontaneous. Thus the is somewhat obscure, especially as only and cases of melancholia have been
to

submitted to psycho-analytical investigation.^

So

far

we
is

only understand

those
it

cases

in

which the object

itself

given up because
It
is

has shown

unworthy of

love.

then

set

up again inside the ego, by and severely condemned by

means of

identification,

the ego ideal.

towards the

The reproaches and attacks directed object come to light in the shape of
this

melancholic self-reproaches.^

A
ening

melancholia of

kind

may
is

also

end

in

change to mania; so that the

represents

possibility of this

happ-

feature

which

independent of

the other characteristics in the symptomatology.

^ Cf. Abraham: 'Ansatze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung und Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 191 2, in

Klinische Beitrdge zur Psychoanalyse, 1921.

^

To speak more
fixity,

accurately, they conceal themselves behind

the reproaches directed towards the person's

them the

tenacity,

own ego, and lend and imperativeness which characterize

the self-reproaches ot a melancholiac.

A
the
factor

Differentiating Grade in the

I

Ego
assigning

109
to

Nevertheless
of

see

no

difficulty

in

the

periodical

rebellion
in

of

the

ego

against the

ego

ideal

a share

both kinds of mel-

ancholia, the psychogenic as well as the spontaneous.

In

the

spontaneous
is

Idnd

it

may be supposed
in
its

that

the ego ideal

'vhich

inclined to display a peculiar strictness,

then

results

automatically

temporary

suspension.

In the psychogenic kind the ego would

be
its

incited to rebellion
ideal

by

ill-treatment on the part of

an

ill-treatment

which

it

encounters when

there has been identification with a rejected object.

XII

POSTSCRIPT

In

the

course

of the

enquiry

which has just been

pursuing
the

brought to a provisional end we came across a number

of side-paths which
instance but
in

we avoided

in

first

which there was

us promises of insight.

We

much that propose now to

left

offered

take up

a few of the points that have been

in

on one side

this

way.

A.

The

distinction

between

identification of the

ego with an object and replacement of the ego ideal

by an object finds an interesting illustration in the two great artificial groups which we began by studying, the army and the Christian church.
It
is

obvious that a soldier takes

his

superior,

that

is,

really,

the leader of the army, as his ideal,

while he

identifies himself with his equals,

and derives
which
if

community of giving mutual help and

from
this

their

egos the obligations for

for sharing possessions

comradeship implies.

But he becomes ridiculous

himself
with
the
general.

he

tries

to

identify

The

Postscript
soldier
in

Wallensteins Lager laughs at the sergeant

for this very reason:

Wie

er rauspert unci wie er spuckt,

ihr

Das habt
It
is

ihm
in

gliicklich

abgeguckt

!^

otherwise
loves
all

the Catholic Church.

as
his

Every
himself

Christian

Christ

ideal

and
tie

feels

united with
ation.

other Christians by the

of identific-

But the
to

Church requires more of him.

and love

He
all

has

also

identify himself with Christ

other Christians as Christ loved them.

therefore,

At both

points,

the

Church requires that the position of

is

the libido which

given by a group formation should

Identification has to be added be supplemented. where object-choice has taken place, and object love where there is identification. This addition evidently

goes beyond the constitution of the group.

One can

be a good Christian and yet be him an all-embracing love

of the
Saviour's
this
in

far

from the idea

of putting oneself in Christ's place and of having like

for

mankind.

One need
is,

not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one

largeness

of soul

and strength of
in

love.

But

further

development
is

the distribution
factor

of libido

the

group

probably the

upon

which Christianity bases

higher ethical level.

its

claim to have reached a

that

[Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he you have cleverly copied from him.']
^

spits,

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

B.

We

have said that

in

it

would be possible to

specify the point

at

the

mental development of

man

which the advance from group to individual psycho-

logy

was For

also

achieved

by the individual members

return for a
father

of the group.
this

purpose

we must

moment
primal

to

the

scientific

myth of the
later
justice,

of

the

horde.

He was

on exalted
for
first

into the creator of

all

the world,
the sons
ideal

and with
each

he had produced
group.
at

who composed
one
of

the

He was
feared

the

of

them,

once

and

honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo.

These many
together, of
if

individuals eventually

banded themselves
in

killed

him and cut him

of victors
did,

pieces.
his

None
or,
until

the

group

could

take

place,

one of them
understood
heritage.

the battles began afresh,

they

that

they

must
with

all

renounce

their

father's

They then formed the

all

totemistic
rights

community
united

of

brothers,

equal

and
to

by

the

totem

prohibitions

which

were

preserve and to expiate the

memory

of the murder.

But the
still

dissatisfaction

with what had

been achieved

became the source of new developments. The persons who were united in this group of brothers gradually came towards a revival
remained,

and

it

of an

What follows at this point was written under the influence exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.

Postscript
of

the

old

state

of

things

at

new

level.

Man

became once more the chief of a family, and broke down the prerogatives of the gynaecocracy which had become established during the fatherless period. As
a

compensation

for

this

he

may

at

that

time have

acknow^ledged the mother

deities,

whose

priests

were

castrated for the mother's protection, after the example

that

had

been

given

by

the

father

of the

primal

was only a shadow of the old one; there were numbers of fathers and each one was limited by the rights of the others. It was then, perhaps, that some individual, in the exigency of his longing, may have been moved
horde.
yet the
family
to
free

And

new

himself from
part.

the

group and take over the

this

father's

He who

did

was the
lies

first

epic

poet; and the advance was achieved in his imagination.

This poet disguised the truth with

with his longing.

in

accordance

He

invented the heroic myth.

slain the

The
father

hero was a

the
boy's
father's
ideal.

father

man who by himself had who still appeared in

Just
in

the

totemistic
first

monster.
ideal,

as

the father

myth as a had been the

to the

so

the hero

who
hero

aspires

place

the

poet

now
to

created

the

first

ego

The

transition

the

was

probably

afforded by the youngest son, the mother's favourite,

whom
who,
father's

she had protected from paternal jealousy, and

in

the era of the primal horde, had been the

successor.
In

the

lying

poetic

fancies
8

of

1 1

4 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

prehistoric times the

of battle

woman, who had been the prize and the allurement to murder, was probably
claims to have acted alone in accom-

turned into the seducer and instigator to the crime.

The hero

plishing the deed, which certainly only the horde as a

whole would have ventured upon.

the facts which were
in

But, as

Rank has

observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of

disavowed.

them

that

the

hero
a

who has
youngest

to

For we often find carry out some

son,

difficult

task

(usually

and not
to

in-

frequently
father

one who has represented himself to the

as

surrogate

being
find,

stupid,

that

is

say,

harmless)

we

often

then,

that

this

hero can
..

carry out his task only

small
animals,

such
in

as

by the help of a crowd of bees or ants. These would

insects

be the brothers

the primal horde, just as in the

or

same
as

way

in

dream symbolism
and
sisters

vermin
tasks
as

signify brothers

(contemptuously, considered

babies).

Moreover
fairy

every
is

one

of

the

in

myths

and

tales

easily

recognisable

substitute for the heroic deed.

The
individual

by which emerges from group psychology. The

myth,
then,
is

the

step

the
first

myth was
later.

certainly the psychological, the hero

myth;

the explanatory nature myth must have followed

much

The poet who had taken this step and had in this way set himself free from the group in his imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further

Postscript

115
to
it

obsen^ed) to find

his

way back

in

reality.

For
deeds

he goes and relates to the group

which he has invented.

his

hero's

one but
of

himself.

At bottom this hero is no Thus he lowers himself to the level

his

reality,

and

raises
his

hearers

to

the

level

of

imagination.

But

hearers

understand

the

poet, of

and,

in

virtue

of their

having the same relation

longing towards the primal father,

they can identify

themselves

w^ith
lie

the hero.^
heroic

The
deification

of the
the

myth culminates
the the
to

in

the

of

hero.
earlier

Perhaps
than

deified

hero

may have been may have been

Father

God and
of
the

a precursor

the
series

return

primal father as a deity.

The

of gods, then,

Father God.
never

would run chronologically: Mother Goddess Hero But it is only with the elevation of the
forgotten

primal father that the deity acquires

the features that

we

still

recognise

in

him to-day.^

C.
directly

great deal has been said in this paper about

sexual instincts and those that are inhibited

'

Cf.

Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Ta^raume

held at the

*,

summary

made by

the lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-

analytical Congress,

Hague

in

1920.

InternationaU
in
I.]

Zeitschrift

fur Psychoanalyse,

1920,

Bd. VI.

[*Day-Dreams
1920, Vol.

Common'. International Jotiinal of Psycho-Analysis,

^

In this brief exposition

have made no attempt to bring

in legends,

forward any of the material existing

the history of manners,
etc.,

myths, fairy

tales,

in

support of the construction.

8*

1 1

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

and
it

in

their aims,

will

not

meet with
if
it

may be hoped that this distinction too much resistance. But a

be out of
to a great

detailed discussion of the question will not

place,

even

only

repeats

what has

extent already been said before.

The development of the libido in children made us acquainted with the first but also the
example of sexual
aims.
All the
instincts

has
best

which are inhibited

in their
its

feelings

which a child has towards

look after
it

parents and those

transition

who

pass by an easy

into

the

wishes w^hich

give

expression

to

the child's sexual tendencies.

The
the
kiss

child claims

from

these

objects
it

of

its
it it

love

all

signs

of

affection

which

knows
at

of;

wants to
is

them, touch them,

genitals,

and look

them;

curious to see their

and to be with them when they perform

excremental functions;
or
nurseit

their intimate
its

promises to marry

mother
that;
it

whatever
itself

it

may
its

understand

by

proposes to

to bear

father a child, etc. Direct

observation, as well as the subsequent analytic investi-

gation
as

of the

residue

of childhood,
fusion

leave

no doubt
jealous

to

the

complete
of

of

tender

and

feelings

and

sexual

intentions,

and

show

us

in

what a fundamental way the child makes the person

it

loves into the object of

all

its

incompletely centred

sexual tendencies.^

Cf.

Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie.

Postscript

This

first
is

configuration of the child's love, which in

typical cases

co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex,

succumbs, as we know, from the beginning of the period

of latency onwards to a
it

wave of
itself

repression.
as

Such

ot

as

is

left
tie,

over shows

purely

tender

emotional
is

which relates to the same people, but

to

no longer

be described
in

as 'sexual'.

Psycholife,

analysis,

which illuminates the depths of mental

difficulty

has no
the

showing that the sexual

childhood
It

ties

of

earliest

years

of

also

persist,

though

repressed
assert that
it

and unconscious.
successor
the
to
in

gives

us

courage to
feeling

wherever we come across a tender

a completely
'sensual'

is

the

object
that

tie

with

person

question
imago).

or
It

rather with

person's

prototype

(or

cannot

indeed

disclose to us without a special

in

investigation whether

a given case
exists

this

former complete sexual current

it

still

under repression or whether

has already
it

been exhausted.
quite
certain
that
possibility,

To
it

put
is

it

still

more

precisely:

is

still

there

as

form

and

and can always be charged with cathectic

put
into
activity
is

energy

and

again

by
it

means of

regression; the only question

(and

cannot always

be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative force it still has at the present moment. Equal care

must be taken
of the

in this

connection to avoid two sources

of error the Scylla of under-estimating the importance

repressed

unconscious,

and the Charybdis of

1 1

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

of the

judging the normal entirely by the standards

pathological.

A
the

psychology which
of
as

will

not or cannot penetrate regards

depths

what

is

repressed

tender

emotional
tendencies

ties

being invariably the expression of

which
derived

have no sexual aim, even though

from tendencies which have such have been
of such
to

they

are

an aim/

We
diverted
is

are justified in saying that they

from these sexual aims, even though there

difficulty
in

some

giving

representation
will

diversion

of

aim
are

which

conform
their

the

requirements
instincts

of

metapsychology.
inhibited
in

Moreover,
aims

those

which

always

preserve

some few
the
physical
is

of their original sexual aims; even

an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer,

desires

proximity

and the

sight

of the

person
If

who

we
a

choose,

now loved only in we may recognise

of the

the 'Pauline' sense.

in this

diversion of

ciim

beginning

subthnation

of

the

sexual
limits

instincts,

or on the other hand

at

we may
distant

fix the

of sublimation

some more
advantage
they
are

point.

Those
are

sexual instincts which are inhibited in their aims have

a

great

functional

over
not

those

which
of

uninhibited.

Since

capable

really

Hostile feelings,

their construction, offer

which are a no exception

little

more complicated

in

to this rule.

Postscript

complete

satisfaction,

they are especially adapted to

create permanent ties; while those instincts which are

directly sexual incur a loss of energ}^ each time they

are
fresh

satisfied,

and must wait to be

of sexual
libido,

renewed
so
that

by a

accumulation
the

mean-

while

object
instincts

may have
are

been
of

changed.

The
of
trans-

inhibited

capable

any
can

degree

admixture with the uninhibited; they

be

formed back
them. develop
character,
It
is

into

them, just

as

they

arose
erotic

out of
wishes
friendly

well

known how
emotional

easily

out

of

relations

of

based upon appreciation

and

admiration,

(compare Moliere's 'Embrassez-moi pour I'amour du

grec'),

between a master and^ a

listener,

pupil,

between

a
in

performer and a delighted

the case of
ties

and especially

women,
kind,

hi fact the
their

growth of emotional
to sexual object-

of this

with

purposeless beginnings,

provides a
choice,

much frequented pathway

,in

Frdmmigkeit dcs Grafen von Zinzendorf) has given an extremely clear and certainly
Pfister,
his

not

an

isolated
religious

example
tie

of

how
to
it

easily

even

an

intense

can

revert

ardent

sexual

excitement.

On

the other hand

is

also very usual

for directly sexual tendencies, short-lived in themselves,

to

be transformed

into a lasting

and purely tender

tie;

[Schri/ten zur

angewandten Seelenkunde. Heft

8.

Vienna,

Deuticke, 1910.]

20 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage

rests to

a large extent
shall naturally

upon

this process.

We
outer

not be surprised to hear that

the sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims

arise out of the

directly

sexual

ones when inner or aims

unattainable.
is

obstacles

make
during

the
the

sexual

The

repression

period of latency
rather one

an

inner obstacle of this kind

or
to

which has

become
the

inner.

We
his

have assumed that the father of

primal

horde
all

owing
sons
ties

his

sexual
abstinent,

intolerance

compelled
forced

to
that

be

and
in

thus
their

them

into

were inhibited

aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual

enjoyment and
the
ties

in this

way remained without

ties.

All

upon which a group depends are of the

character of instincts that are inhibited in their aims.

But here nve have approached the discussion of a

new

subject,

which deals with the relation between

directly sexual instincts

and the formation of groups.

will

D.
able
to

The
the

last

two remarks

have prepared us
the
history of
also,
it

for finding that directly sexual tendencies are unfavour-

formation of groups.

In

the
is

development of the family there

true,

have
love

been group
but
the
for the ego,

relations

of sexual

(group
love

marriages);

more

important
it

sexual

became
required

and the more

to

developed the

characteristics of being in love, the

to

be

limited

two

people

more urgently it una cum

Postscript

uno

as

is

prescribed by

the

nature

of the

genital
to

aim.

Polygamous

inclinations

had to be content

find satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.

Two

people coming together for the purpose of

sexual satisfaction, in so far as they seek for solitude,

are making a demonstration against the herd instinct,

the group feeling.

The more they

suffice

are

in

love, the

more completely they

for
is

each

other.

The
in the

rejection of the group's influence

manifested

shape of a sense of shame.

feelings

of jealousy

are

The extremely violent summoned up in order to

is

protect the sexual object-choice from being encroached

upon by a group
that
is,

tie.

It

only

when
it

the tender,
gives

the personal, factor

of a

love

relation
is

place entirely to the sensual one, that

for

possible
in

two

people

to

have sexual intercourse

the

presence of others or for there to be simultaneous

sexual acts
in

a group as occurs at an org}^

But
love

at

that point a regression

has taken place to

at

an early
as

stage in sexual

relations,

which being
all

in

yet

played
to

no

part,

and

sexual

objects
in

were
effect

judged
that

be of equal value, somewhat

in

the sense

of Bernard

Shaw's malicious aphorism to the

love

being

means

greatly

exaggerating

the

between one woman and another. There are abundant indicatioijs that being in love only made its appearance late on in the sexual
difference
relations

between

men

and

women;

so

that

the

22

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

is

opposition between sexual love and group ties

a
late

also

development.

Now
it

it

may seem
after
all

as

though

this

assumption were incompatible with our myth of

the primal family.

for

For
and

was
sisters

by

their love

their

mothers
was,
as
it

that

the

troop
driven

of
to

brothers
parricide;

we
is

have

supposed,

and

difficult

to imagine this

love as
is,

being anything but unbroken and primitive

as an intimate union of the

that

tender

and the sensual.

objection
into

But further consideration resolves

a confirmation.

this

One
the
of

of the reactions to the parricide

of
totemistic
relation

was
the

after

all

institution

exogamy,
with

prohibition

any

sexual

those

women

of the

family

since childhood.

In this

who had been tenderly loved way a wedge was driven in

feelings,

between a man's tender and sensual

firmly fixed in his erotic
this
life

one

still

As a result ot exogamy the sensual needs of men had to be satisfied with strange and unloved women.
to-day.^
In the great artificial groups, the church

and the

army,
object.

there

is

no

room

The

love relation

woman as a sexual between men and women

for

remains

outside

these

organisations.

Even

where

groups are formed which are composed of both

men

and

women
part.

the
is

distinction

no

There
Ober

between the sexes plays scarcely any sense in asking whether

See

'

die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'

Postscript

23

the libido which keeps groups together

is

of a
it

homois

sexual

or

of

heterosexual

nature,

for

not

differentiated according to the sexes,

and particularly

shows a complete disregard

organisation of the libido.

for the

aims of the genital

Even
absorbed
preserve
a

in

a person a

who
his

has

in

other respects

become
If

in

group the
of

directly

sexual tendencies
activity.

little

individual

they

become
motives

too

strong

they

disintegrate

every

group

formation.
for

The Catholic Church had the best of recommending its followers to remain
for

unmarried and
but
falling
in

imposing celibacy upon

has
often

its

priests;

love

driven even priests to

for

leave the church.

In the

same way love

ties

women
and
love
it

breaks

through

the

group
the

of race,
class

of national

separation,

and

of

social

system,
factor in

thus produces important effects

zation.
far
It

as

civiliis
it

seems
shape
fact,

certain

that

homosexual
ties,

more compatible with group

of uninhibited

even when

takes the

sexual tendencies

remarkable
us
far.

the explanation of which might carry

The

psycho-analytic

investigation

of the psychoto

neuroses has taught

us

that

their

symptoms are

be traced back
are repressed but
this
in

to

directly

sexual
active.

tendencies which

still

remain
it:

We

can complete

formula by adding to

or, to

tendencies inhibited

their aims,

whose

inhibition

has not been entirely

24

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

or

successful

has

made room
It
is

for

return

to

the
this

repressed sexual aim.

that

in

accordance with
victim
asocial

a neurosis

should

make

its

and
dis-

should remove him from the usual group formations.

It

may be

said
effect

that

a neurosis

has
as

the

same
in

integrating

upon a group
it

being

love.

On
may

the other hand

appears that where a powerful

impetus has been given to group formation neuroses

diminish and at
all

events temporarily disappear.

Justifiable

attempts have also been

made

to turn this

antagonism between neuroses and group formation to

therapeutic account.

Even those who do not

illusions

regret the
civilized

disappearance of religious

from the
so

world

of
in

to-day
force

will

admit

that

long

as

they

were

they

offered

those

who were bound

against

by them the
danger
all

most powerful

protection
it

the
in

of

neurosis.

Nor

is

hard to
or

discern

the

ties

with

mystico-religious

philosophico-

religious

sects

and communities the manifestation of

of
all

distorted cures
is

kinds of neuroses.
the
contrast

All

of this
directly
in

bound

up

with

between
are

sexual tendencies
their aims.
If

and

those which

inhibited

he

is

left

to himself, a neurotic

is

obliged to
the

replace

by

his

own symptom
from
which

formations

great

group

formations

he

is

excluded.

He

own world of imagination for himself, his own religion, his own system of delusions, and thus
creates his

Postscript

25

recapitulates the institutions of humanity in a distorted

way which
E.
estimate,
In

is

clear

evidence of the dominating part

played by the directly sexual tendencies.^

conclusion,

we

will

add a

comparative
theory,

from the standpoint of the

libido

of the states with which

we have been
of group

concerned, ot
formation,

being

in

love,

of hypnosis,

and

of the neurosis.

Being in
tendencies
that

love

is

based

upon the simultaneous

in

presence of directly sexual tendencies and of sexual

are
inhibited
their

aims,

so

that

the object draws

to
itself.
It
is

a part of the narcissistic ego-libido

condition

in

which there

is

only

room
to

for the

ego and the object.

in love in
is

Hypnosis resembles being

these two persons,

being limited
entirely

but
are

it

based
ego

upon
aims

sexual

tendencies

that

inhibited

in

their

and substitutes the object

for the

ideal.
it

The group
hypnosis
together,
in

multiplies this process;

agrees with
it

the nature of the instincts which hold

in

and

the

replacement of the
this
it

ego ideal

by the object; but to

other individuals,
possible
object.

adds identification with

which was perhaps originally made

having
the

by

their

same

relation

to

the

See Totem und Tabu, towards the end of Part

die Ambivalenz*.

II,

'Das

Tabu und

26

Group Psychology mid the Analysis of the Ego

Both
states,

hypnosis

and group formation, are

the

an

inherited
libido

deposit

from
in

phylogenesis

of the

human
and

hypnosis

the form of a predisposition,

this,

the

group,

besides

as

direct

survival.

The replacement
states a separation

of the directly sexual tendencies

in their

by

those that are inhibited

aims promotes

in

both
ideal,

between the ego and the ego

a separation with which a beginning has already been

made

in

the state of being in love.

The neurosis stands outside this series. It also based upon a peculiarity in the development of is the twice repeated start made by the human libido

the directly sexual function, with

of latency.^

an intervening period

To

this in

extent

it

resembles hypnosis and

group formation
which
is

having the character of a regression,

absent

from being

in

love.

It

makes

its

appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual

instincts

to

those that are inhibited in their aims has

not been
conflict

completely successful;
those
instincts

and

it

represents

between
into

which
of

have
the

been

received
this

the

ego
and

after

having passed
portions

through

development

those

same

instincts which,

like other instinctive

strive,

desires that have

been completely repressed,

from the repressed

unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction.

The

neurosis

See Drei Abhandlungen

zur Sexnaltheorie,

4.

Auflage,

1920, S. 96.

Postscript
extraordinarily rich
in

27

is

content,

for

it

embraces

all

possible relations

between the ego and the object

is

both those
in

in
is

which the object

retained and others

inside

which

it

abandoned or erected
ideal.

the ego

itself

and
its

also

the conflicting relations between the

ego and

ego

INDEX
Abraham,
Affectivity.

62, 108. See tinder Emotion.

18,

Conscience,
Social, 88.

10, 28,

68-9,75, 79
10-13,

Altruism, 57.

Contagion,
55, 61.

Emotional,

Ambivalence,

-Anaclitic type, 60. Archaic inheritance, 10, 99. Army, 42-6, 89, "^4, no, 122. Autistic mental acts, 2.

27, 34-5, 46-7. Crowd, I, 3, 26, 92.

Danger, Effect on groups, 46-9.

Darwin,

90.

Bernheini, 35, 100. Bletder, 2. Brothers, 43, 114.

in Christ, 43.

Delusions: of inferiority, 107. of observation, 69. Devotion to abstract idea, 17,

75-

Community
Brtigeilles,
34.

of, 90,

112, 122.

Doubt: absence

Caesar, 44. Cathexis, 18, 20, 28, 117. Object-, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76. Catholic Church, 42-3, in, 123. Celibacy of priests, 123. Censorsliip of dreams, 16, 69.
Chieftains,

in groups, 15-16. interpretation in dreams, 15-16.

Dread:
Children's, 83, 85-6. in a group, 46-8, 50. in an individual, 47-8. Neurotic, 48. of society, 10. Panic, 45-9.

Mana

in,

96.

Children, 14, 16, 18-19, 30, 67,

82, 91.

Dream,
83, 85-6.

Dread

in,

Parents and, 54, 86, n6. Sexual object of, 72, 116.

20, 69, 104. Interpretation of doubt uncertainty in, 15-16.

and

Unconscious

of,

18.

symbolism, 114. Dut>% Sense of, 84, 88, 95.

Christ, 42-5, 50, III.

Equal love

of,

50.

Ego,
iii.

Identification with,

Church, 42-3, 89, 94, iio-ii,

122-3.

18-19, 62-70, 74, 84, 100-9, 120, 125-7. Relations between ego ideal and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
10,

93,

Commander-in-Chief, 42-5.
Conflict,
18,

107, 126.

Relations between object and, 62-70, 74-6, 108-10.

30 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

ideal, 68-70, 74-7, 80, 100-3, 105-10, 113, 126-7. Abrogation of the, 105. Hypnotist in the place of, 77. Object as substitute for, 74-6,

Ego

Father, 43, 92, 98-9. Equal love of, 95.

God, n5.
Identification with, 60-2.

Object

no. Relations between

80,

103,

tie with, 62. Primal, 92, 94-5, 99-IOO,

eg"o

and,

n2-i3,
cation
the, 94,

115,
of,
1

120.

Deifi-

103, 105-10. Testing reality of things, 77. The first, 113.

68-70,

93, n5. Killing 12-13, 122.

Surrogate, 43,
Federal, P., 50.

n4.

Egoism,

57.
18,

Emotion
Ambivalent,
55.

Felszeghy, Beta v., 48. Ferenczi, 76, 98.

Festivals, 105. Folk-lore, 25.

Charge

of,

28.
of.

Contagion
16,

See Contagion.

Intensification of, in groups,

23, 27-30, 33, 46, 81. Primitive induction of, 27,
34, 46-7-

Folk-song, 25.

French Revolution,
Function:

26.

Tender, 72-3, 78, 1 16-17. Emotional tie, 40, 43, 45, 52-3, 59-60,64-5, 81, 88,91,94,
100,

for testing reality, 20, 77. (Instanz), 15.

Gemeingeist, origin

of,

87.

117-20.
of, 46-9. relation to

Genital organisation, 19.

Cessation

God,
identi-

85, 96.

Empathy,

fication, 66, 70.

Father, n5. Gregariousness, 83-4, 92.

Enthusiasm, in groups, 25. Envy, 87-8.

Equality, demand for, 88, 89. Eros, 38-40. Esprit de corps, origin of, 87. Ethical conduct of a group, 18. level of Christianity, in. standards of individual, 24-5.

Group
Artificial, 41-2, 52, 82,

89,94,

no,

122.

Different kinds of, 26, 41. Disintegration of, 49-51.

Dread

in, 47.
in,

Equality

feeling, 86-7,

89. 121.
in.

Heightened affectivity See under Emotion.

ideal,

Fairy tales, the hero in, n4. Family, 70, 95, lOO, n3, 120. a group formation, 95.

100, 102.

Intellectual
18,

capacity

of,

14,

and Christian community, and social instinct, 3.

Primal, 122. Fascination, 11, 13, 21, 75.

43.

23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81. Intensification of emotion in.

See tinder Emotion. Leaders of. See under

Leader.

Index
Group (contimied)
:

MI

Libidinal structure

of, 37,

40,

Hypnotist, 13, 1-], 95-9. Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5.

Idealisation, 74. Identification, 59-70, 75-6, 84, 86-9, 94, 101-3, III, 125.

44-5. 47, 51, 53-4, 70, 79-80, 102-3. marriages, 120.

INIental

change of the
in,

indi-

6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102. mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82. Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90. Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.

vidual

Ambivalent, 61.
in hysterical

symptom, 63-5.

Regression of object-choice
to, 64.

with a lost or rejected object, with with with with

67-8, 108-9. Christ, in. the father, 60-2. the hero, 115.

psychological
6-32.

character

of,

psychology,
37, 45,

1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4,

53,

59, 92-4,

loi,

112,

114.

the leader, iio-ii. Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70. Individual: a member of many groups, lOI. Dread in, 47-8. Mental change in a group.
6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102, 1-2, 92-3, 112, 114. Induction of emotion, 27, 34,

Revolutionary, 26. Sexual instincts and, 120.

spirit, 87. Stable, 26, 41, 84, loi. Suggestibility of, 11, 13, 35, 84-5. Transient, 25, 41, 84, 10 1.

Psycholog>%

Guilt, Sense of, 20,63, 65, 84, 106. Gynaecocracy, 113.

Hatred, 53, 56. Hebbel, 49.

46-7. Infection, mental, 64-65.

Inferiority,

Delusions

of,

57,

Herd, 83-5, 89.

instinct,
3,

106-7.
121.

83-6, 105,

Hero, 17, 1 13-15. Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94,

123.

Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99. Inhibition Collective, of intellectual functioning, 23, 33.

Horde Primal, 89-95, 99,

120.

13-14,

Removal
Instinct:

of,

17,

28,

33.

of the. See under Father. H^^jnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81, 95-100, 125-6. a group of two, 78, 100.

Father

Herd,
1

3,

83-6,
in

105,

121.
78,

inhibited
1

aim,

72-3,

5-26.

Life and death, 56.

Love,

37,

39,

58.

sleep, 79, 98. of terror, 79.

and

Nutrition, 85. Primary, 84-5.

32

Group Psychology ajtd the Analysis of the Ego

:

Instinct (continued)

Libido, 33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83,

102, III, 116, 119, 123, 126. Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104, 125. Oral phase ot, 61.

Self-preservative, 34, 85. Sexual, 19, 39, 56, 71-8, 85-5, 94, 115-26. Social, 3. unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8, 94, 115-26.

theory, 57, 83, 125. Unification of, 19.

Unconscious,
in groups,

10.

Withdrawal

of,

108.

Intellectual ability, lowering of,

14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81. Introjection, of object into ego,

Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108,

122. a factor of civilisation, 57, 93. and character formation, 94, 118-20. and hatred, 56.

65, 67-8, 76.

Jealousy, 121.

Being
1

in,

58,

7i-9,

120-1,

Kings, Mana in, 96. Kraskovic, B. jnr., 23. Kroeger, 90.

24-6.
1

Child's,

16-17.

Christ's, 43,

Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.

Language,
126.

25,

38, 71.
of,

Pauline,
Self-.

118.

Latency, period

72, 117, 120.

See tinder Narcissism.

Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82,

Abstractions
for,

Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117. Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.

85, 89, 92, 99, no. as substitutes

53.
of,

Sublimated homosexual,

57.

The word,
Unhappy,

37-9, 71.

75.

Equal love

Identification Killing the, 90.

93, 95. with, iio-ii.

Unsensual, 73.

McDougall,

Loss

of,

49.

Negative, 53. Prestige of, 21-2.

the group ideal, 100, 102,
1

10.

I, 26-31, 34-6, 46-7, 49, 84. Magical power of words, 19. Magnetic influence, 1 1. Magnetism, animal, 96.

Tie with, 49, 52, 66. Le Bon, 5-25, 29, 34, 82, 84,
lOO-I.

Mana,

96.

Libidinal structure of the group, 37,

40, 44-5,47, 53,70,79-80, 102-3.

Mania, 106-9. Marcuszewicz, 68. Marriage, 54, 120. Melancholia, 68, 106-9. Metapsychology, 63, 118. Moede, Walter, 24.
Moliere, 119. Morality, Totemism the origin
of,

The word,
ties,

44,

44. 56-8, 65, 93,

100.

in

the group, 45, 51, 54.

90.

Index
Mother deities, 113, 115. Multicellularity, 7, 32, 83. Myth, 113-15Nachmaiisohn,
Napoleon, 44.
Narcissism,
2, 38,

133

Panic, 45-9.

Pan-sexualism, 39. Paid, Saint, 39, 118.

PJister,

39, 38.

119.
first

39.
19.

P/ato,

Names, Taboo upon,

Poet,

the
9,

epic,

113-114.

Power,
54-8,69, 74-5,

15,

28.

93, 94, 104. Nestroy, 49.

Neurosis, 18, 20, "37, 44, 63, 103-4,123-26. Nietzsche, 93.

Nutrition, Instinct
of,

5^,

of leaders, 21. of words, 19. Prestige, 21-2, 34. Primitive peoples, 14, 24, 92, 96, 105.

18-19,

Psycho-Analysis,
3<5,

84.

4, 7 14, 18, 38-9. 59-60, 84, 97.

Object,

68, 74, 87, 93, 104, 125, 127. cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2,
57-8,
76.
of,

62,

Psychology: Group, 1-4,

6, 25-6, 33-4, 37,

45. 53. 59, 92. 94, loi. Group and individual, 1-2,

92-93, 112, 114.

18,

Change

119, 121.

Child's, 72. -choice, 54, 62, 64, 74, III, 119, 121. Eating the, 61-62.

Psychoses, 66, 103. Pubert}^ 67, 72-73.

Races, repugnance between

Hyper-cathexis

of,

76.
of,

Rank,
68,

related, 55. Otto, 112,

114.

Identification with ego, 108.

Rapport, 97.
Reality:

Less or Renunciation
108.
-love, 56, 63, 74, III.

Function for testing, 20, 77. Contrast between Objective

Relations with the ego, 65,

67-8, 70, 76. Sexual, 67, 72-3, 116. Substituted for ego ideal, 74, 80, 103, 125. Observation, delusions of, 69. Oedipus complex, 60-61, 63,
66, 117.

and Psychological, 20. Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121,

126.

Religion, 51, 90.

Wars

of,

51.

Repressed: Sexual tendencies, 74, 117,

123-4.

Inverted, 62. Oral phase of organisation of the libido, 61.

Organisation in groups, 26,

30-1,
33,

41-2,

80,

82,

90.

117-18, 126. 64-5, 69, 72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120, Resistance, 84, 104. Responsibility, Sense of, 9-10,

The,

10,

104,
9,

Repression,

54,

Orgy, 121.

29-30.

34

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

Konrad,
36.

Richter,

Sachs, Hanns, 16, 115. Schopenhatier, 54.

Self-:

Suggestibility, 11, 13, 35, 84-5. Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7, 40, 82, 95, 99, 102.

Counter-, 35.
Definition for, 100.

consciousness, 30-1. depreciation, 107, love. See tmder Narcissism. observation, 69. preservation, 15, 34, 84-5.
sacrifice,
11,

Mutual,

12,

27,

34, 82.

Superman, 93.
Taboo,
19, 96,

112.

Tarde, 34.

38, 75.

Totemism,
Totemistic:
clan, 95.

90,

12-13.

Sex, 39.

Sexual
act, 92,

121.
72.

aims,

58,

Diversion of
120.

community of brothers, exogamy, 122.

Tradition, 17, 21. of the group, 31. of the individual, 32. Transference, 97-8.
Trotter,
32, 83-5, 89,

112.

instinct from, 58. Infantile,

72. Obstacles to,
life,

19,

72.

over-estimation, 53-5. Tendencies, Inhibited and unhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94, 1 15-16, 125-26. union, 37-8. Shazv, Bernard, 121. Sidis, Boris, 84. Sighele, 24-5. Simniel, E., 44. Sleep, 98, 104. and hypnosis, 98. Smith, Robertson, 70.
Social:

105.

Uncanniness, 95, 99.

Uncertainty, absence in groups,
15-16.'

interpretation in dreams, 15-16. Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16,

18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72, 97,

100,

104.
14. 10.

Groups led by,

instincts,

duties, 88, 95. relations, 2-3, 57. Socialistic tie, 51.

Le

Bon's, 10, 14, 24. of children, 18, 117. of neurotics, 18.

Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.

Racial, 9.

Dread

of,

10.

Sociology. See under Psychology.

Group

War

Wallenstein, 44. neuroses, 44.

44.
of,

Speech, 84. Sublimated:

devotion, 17, 75.

War, The,

Wilson, President, 44. Wishes, Affective cathexis

20.

homosexual
Sublimation,

love, 57. 118.

Words, magical power

of,

19.

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