Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 94e101

Review

Technological issues associated with iodine fortication of foods

nigb Ray J. Wingera,*, Ju rgen Ko and Don A. Housec
Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, New Zealand (e-mail: r.j.winger@massey.ac.nz) b Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria c University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
With a decrease in the addition of salt to food, iodine deciency diseases are re-emerging globally. Public Health ofcials are considering the addition of iodine salts to processed foods to redress this situation. However, iodate is a powerful oxidising agent and iodide, a powerful reducing agent. Their use in foods may result in redox reactions which in turn may inuence food characteristics, shelf life and stability. Very little research has been conducted with respect to the reactions of iodine and its salts in food matrices. Thus, the impact of fortifying processed foods with iodine salts is unclear.
a

inadequate to further secure sufcient iodine supply for the prevention of IDD. Although the usage of salt for household purposes is decreasing, it is undesirable to increase salt intake for other health reasons. There is also a move towards using non-iodised salts at home. The majority of food companies use non-iodised salt for processed foods. Iodised salt is used in several countries around the world in baked goods (mainly bread) instead of non-iodised salt. There have been no reported technological issues associated with this level of use. However, the use of iodine as an ingredient in a wider range of processed foods has received little research attention. Iodine salts may be volatile and lost through food processing operations. The World Health Organization (2001) suggests there may be 20% loss of iodine through processing and another 20% through cooking and food preparation practices. The justication for this, however, is not clear. Iodide is a strong reducing agent and iodate, a strong oxidising agent. Thus, it is theoretically possible that reactions in foods involving iodine and its salts may potentially:     cause colour reactions increase oxidative reactions, hence reducing shelf life decrease bioavailability of iodine reduce bioavailability of other nutritionally important substances.

This report provides a review of the literature related to the addition, or use of iodine and its salts in processed foods. It summarises fundamental iodine chemistry and identies the potential reactivity of these compounds.

Introduction Iodine has been recognised by the World Health Organization to be one of the most critical nutrients world-wide with nearly two billion people, or 35.2% of the global population, having inadequate iodine nutrition (United Nations System, 2004). The spectrum of iodine deciency disorders (IDD) is exhibited across the entire life span (Table 1). Iodine status in developed countries has decreased signicantly over the past 10 years (Aitken, 2001; Hynes, Blizzard, Venn, Dwyer, & Burgess, 2004). While there is general agreement on the benet of salt iodisation for the improvement of iodine status of the population, this appears to be
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.08.002

Iodine intake and dietary sources Insufcient iodine intake is the major cause of low iodine status. This led to universal salt iodination (USI) to the general public. USI is considered to be the most efcient way to improve iodine intake since both availability of iodine rich foods, such as marine sh and the iodine concentration in those foods are decreasing world-wide. Dairy products substantially contribute to iodine intake only if milk is produced with iodised fodder (Dahl, Johansson, Juishamm, & Meltzer, 2003). Currently, the approved iodine salts to be added to food (salt) are normally sodium or potassium iodate or iodide.

R.J. Winger et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 94e101 Table 1. The spectrum of iodine deciency disorders (World Health Organization, 2004) Life stage Foetus Symptom of deciency disorder Abortions Stillbirths Congenital anomalies Increased perinatal mortality Endemic cretinism Deaf mutism Neonatal goitre Neonatal hypothyroidism Endemic mental retardation Increased susceptibility of the thyroid gland to nuclear radiation Goitre (Sub-clinical) hypothyroidism (Sub-clinical) hyperthyroidism Impaired mental function Retarded physical development Increased susceptibility of the thyroid gland to nuclear radiation Goitre, with its complications Hypothyroidism Impaired mental function Spontaneous hyperthyroidism in the elderly Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism Increased susceptibility of the thyroid gland to nuclear radiation

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Table 2. Levels of salt iodisation in selected countries (ICCIDD, 2007) Country Albania Austria Bosnia/Herz Bulgaria Croatia Czech Rep. Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Macedonia Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovak Rep. Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Australia New Zealand USA Algeria Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Congo (DR, Kin) Cote dIvoire Egypt Eritrea Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Kenya Amount and form of salt iodisation (mg iodine/kg salt, compound) 25, KI 20, KI, KIO3 20e30, KI 19e32, KI 20e30, KI 20e34, KIO3 8e13, KI 21e26, KI 10e15, NaI 20, KIO3 40e60, KI 15, KIO3 25, KI 30, KI 20e30, KIO3 50, KI 20e40, KI 20, KI 15e25, KIO3 19, KIO3 20e30, KI 51e69, KI, KIO3 50, KI 20, KI 25e65, KI, KIO3 25e65, KI, KIO3 75, CuI, KI 30e50, KIO3 20e40, KIO3 50, KIO3 40, KIO3 50, KIO3 100, KIO3 80e100, KIO3 30e50, KIO3 50e80, KIO3 100, KIO3 20e40, KIO3 30e50, KIO3 100, KIO3 100, KIO3

Neonate

Child and adolescent

Adult

The use around the world varies from country to country, as shown in Table 2. The contribution of iodised salt to total iodine intake however is difcult to determine, as salt consumption in general and usage of iodised salt in particular are frequently unclear. In addition, salt used in foods consumed away from home is often neither iodised nor declared as such. Estimates on the dietary contribution of iodine from iodised salt can be as high as 50% for specic groups of the population (Elmadfa & Koenig, 1998), indicating that iodine deciency disorders would be a considerable health problem without food fortication. Iodine fortication levels of salt differ substantially. In European countries, levels range from 8 to 69 mg iodine per kg salt, while in some African countries the levels go up to 100 mg iodine per kg salt (Table 2). The level of iodine added to salt is adjusted normally to provide 100 mg of iodine per day, in addition to iodine from natural sources, taking into account average consumption levels of salt. Although toxicity of iodine from natural sources and from iodised salt is uncommon, excessive intakes may lead to complications such as iodine-induced hyperthyroidism. This has been reported in almost all iodine supplementation programs in their early phases (Stanbury et al., 1998). Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism is transient and, with

proper identication and treatment, reverts to normal after 1 to 10 years (Todd, 1999). Iodine bioavailability There are no recent data on the bioavailability of iodine from the diet. The methods to test bioavailability of iodine all require the use of radioisotopes. As there is only one stable isotope for iodine, isotope tracer studies are not possible for ethical reasons (Hurrell, 1997). However, earlier literature provides a useful guide to iodine availability. There are two aspects to the bioavailability of iodine:  absorption of iodine in the gastrointestinal tract, and  absorption of iodine from the bloodstream by the thyroid gland.

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Inorganic iodide is readily and completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (Keating & Albert, 1949). It is believed that iodate and protein-bound iodine are reduced to iodide for absorption. However, neither the reducing agent nor the site of reduction is clear. While iodine absorption from the gastrointestinal tract has been reported to be virtually 100%, the absorption of iodine by the thyroid gland was estimated to be around 10e15% under normal intakes (Lamberg, 1993). Using a 100 mg radioisotope iodine dose, about 20% was taken up by the thyroid gland (Keating & Albert, 1949). There are virtually no data on the bioavailability of iodine from foods. Very early human balance studies of von Fellenberg (1926) demonstrated high iodine absorption from most foods (ca. 90%) except water cress. There was some evidence that iodine from plants may show a lower absorption rate, apparently caused by the poor release of iodine from the plant structure during digestion. Prolonged cooking of the seaweed hijiki, which is used in Japan, has led to an increase of urinary iodine excretion in men to 53% of dose compared to only 10% for the raw material uncooked (Katamine et al., 1987). However, as with other nutrients, mere balance techniques are imprecise and the assessment of iodine bioavailability is further complicated by analytical difculties in measuring trace quantities in the diet and by possible contamination with atmospheric iodine. Given the presence of various reducing and oxidising agents in foods there is a wide range of possible interactions between iodide and iodate with respect to their bioavailability. The various studies with iodate as iodine source for salt iodisation suggest that iodate bioavailability is extremely high. However, these studies have not included interactions within the food matrix, or in vivo changes during digestion and absorption. One example of a potential problem was the reaction between iodate and ferrous salts used for dual fortication of salt with iodine and iron. The water-soluble, highly bioavailable ferrous compounds reacted with moisture

and impurities in the salt, causing colour changes and iodine losses (Mannar & Diosady, 1998). Even encapsulation of ferrous sulphate with partially hydrogenated vegetable oil resulted in yellow colour changes in dual fortied salt when salt moisture content was high (Zimmermann et al., 2003). In conclusion, there is almost no information on iodine bioavailability, either from pure iodine sources or from unprocessed and processed foods. All present data are based on limited studies using radioiodine in very small samples and specic foods from some decades ago. There are known reactions, particularly with mineral salts, where bioavailability appears to be signicantly reduced. Iodine chemistry Iodine (symbol I, molar mass 126.9) is the heaviest, naturally occurring, member of the halogens. Chemical nomenclature does not distinguish between the iodine atom (I) and the di-iodine molecule (I2) e both are iodine and this can sometimes cause confusion. Free iodine (as I2) does not occur in nature. Iodine is the 60th most abundant element in the earths crust (comparable with thallium) and today, most iodine is extracted from natural brines in Japan or Midland, Michigan, USA. The iodine concentration in seawater is only 0.05 ppm but some seaweeds can concentrate iodine up to 0.45% of their dry weight. Table 3 lists some of the key physical properties of iodine and its salts. A number of radioactive isotopes of iodine can be produced articially, including: 129I (t 1.6 107 years, from uranium ssion), 125I (t 60.2 days), 131I (t 8.04 days) and 128I (t 24.99 min). Those with shorter half-lives (especially 131I) are used in medicine to follow metabolic pathways. Redox reactions in aqueous solution Iodate, iodine and iodide are all quite reactive species and the following is a discussion of the redox chemistry of these substances (Vogel, 1978).

Table 3. Physical properties of some iodine compounds (Greenwood & Earnshaw, 1984) Compound I2 NaI KI NaIO3 KIO3 Molar mass (g/mol) 253.8 149.9 166.0 197.9 214.0 Density (g/cm3) 4.93 3.667 3.13 4.277 3.93 Melting point/boiling point ( C) 50 Sublimes 116 Decomposes 651 1304 686 1330 Decomposes 560 >1000 Solubility in water (g/100 mL) at (temp.  C) 0.030 (25) 0.078 (50) 184 (25) 302 (100) 127.5 (0) 208 (100) 9 (20) 34 (100) 4.75 (0) 32.3 (100) Solubility in other solvent Very soluble in most organic solvents and in aqueous KI solution. Very soluble in ethanol Very soluble in acetone Soluble in ethanol Soluble in acetone Insoluble in organic solvents Insoluble in organic solvents

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The standard half-reactions for iodate and iodine are

2IO 3 12H 10e / I2 6H2 O

Eo 1:194 V

1 2

Iodine Iodine (I2) is a reasonable oxidising agent in acid solution. At low pH, air oxidation (Eq. (4)) can interfere and at higher pH (pH > 8), I2 undergoes disproportionation reactions: I2 2OH / I IO H2 O 3IO / 2I IO 3 9 10

I2 2e / 2I

Eo 0:536 V IO 3

Indicating that both and I2 are oxidising agents and I is a reducing agent. We can combine (1) and (2) directly to give
IO 3 5I 6H / 3I2 3H2 O

Combining the E values require incorporation of the number of electrons transferred. Eo 1:194 5 0:536 1 1:301 V 5

Iodide ion Iodide is a strong reducing agent and reacts with molecular oxygen (O2) 4I 4H O2 / 2I2 2H2 O 4

There are over 70 oxidising agents capable of oxidising I to I2 and 70 reducing agents capable of reducing IO 3 to I (or I2). These I2 producing reactions are popular because the product is easily detected, either spectrophotometrically (lmax (I2) 460 nm: 3 740 L mol1 cm1: lmax (I 3) 350 nm: 3 25,000 L mol1 cm1) under dilute conditions, or with starch (Coumes, Vargas, Chopin-Dumas, & Devisme, 1998). It should be noted that in all these I2 producing reactions, excess iodide ion rapidly converts I2 to triiodide (I 3 ) as the reaction proceeds. This generates a new reactant (I 3 ) which generally reacts more slowly than I with the oxidising agent. I2 I # I 3 ; K k f =k r
kr kf

11

This is very slow in neutral media, but the rate increases with increasing acidity (decreasing pH). It is also accelerated by sunlight and by various metal ion catalysts (Kimura, Tokuda, & Tsukahara, 1994). This reaction is very slow at room temperature but is catalysed by nitrite (NO 2 ) and cupric (Cu2) ions (Kimura, Sato, Murase, &Tsukahara, 1993). Iodate ion Iodate is a strong oxidising agent, especially in acid media.
IO 3 6H 4e / I 3H2 O

At lower acid concentrations, IO 3 is rst reduced to iodide, and the latter is subsequently converted to I2. This Landolt Reaction is a spectacular clock and oscillating chemical reaction, dependent on [H] and the relative concentrations of reacting species through three linked reactions:
2 2 IO 3 3SO3 / I 3SO4 IO 3 5I 6H / 3I2 3H2 O

6 7 8

2 I2 SO2 3 H2 O / 2I 2H SO4

Step 6 is slow and I2 (as indicated by the blue starche iodine complex) will appear when all the SO2 3 is used up. Ascorbic acid reacts rapidly with iodate to give iodide (Samios, Karayannis, & Hadjiioannou, 1977). Unfortunately, there is a lack of kinetic data for the actions of potential reducing agents such as nitrite, sugars, aldehydes, ketones, thiols and amino acids.

At 25  C, the rate of the forward reaction for Eq. (11) is 6.2 109 mol1 s1 and K 729 (Palmer, Ramette, & Mesmer, 1984). Iodide, iodate and elemental iodine can undergo oxidation and reduction cycles in a food system. Lipid oxidation, degradation of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to dehydroascorbic acid (or reverse), reduction of ferric ions to ferrous ions (or oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric ions), and changes in protein functions due to formation of disulde linkages between amino acids are some examples that theoretically could be mediated through the presence of iodine in food systems. Iodine and its salts could cause changes in colour, avours, odours, texture, stability, and nutritional values of food matrices. It is interesting to postulate the impact of food systems containing both iodine and ascorbic acid: the iodate/iodide pairing and ascorbic acid/dehydroascorbic acid pairing could have major implications for the stability of the food system. In summary, elemental iodine does not occur naturally, but it is a key intermediate in iodine reaction chemistry. Potassium and sodium iodates are strong oxidising agents, while the iodide salts are reducing agents. As such, they potentially are important reactants in food systems. The chemistry of the reversible interconversion of iodate to iodide involves elemental iodine and thus a study of iodine and its salts in food systems must take into account all three forms. Use of iodine in processed foods The incorporation of iodates or iodides directly into foods has received very little research attention. The majority of work published in this area has involved the

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replacement of non-iodised salt with iodised salt in the standard food formulations. South Africa requires mandatory iodisation of table salt (40e60 ppm) using potassium iodate as the forticant. This is not a mandatory requirement for processed foods, however. Harris, Jooste, and Charlton (2003) surveyed the use and analysed the iodine content of salt as an ingredient used in 12 South African companies (six bread manufacturers, two bread premix manufacturers, two margarine manufacturers and two avour houses producing salty snack avours). From the returned questionnaires, only one company (bread manufacturer) claimed to use iodised salt as an ingredient. Three companies stated that they believed iodine would affect product stability, taste and the stability of avours (where salt was used as a carrier). The authors measured the actual iodine content of the salt these manufacturers used and noted that four companies (one bread company, one margarine company and both avour houses) actually used salt with a signicant level (39e69 ppm) of iodine. The unintentional use of iodised salt as an ingredient in these foods suggests there is no adverse effect on these products. Hard evidence for adverse reactions in foods is difcult to justify from published literature. Kojima and Brown (1955) found no undesirable effects of iodised salt on canned tomato juice, canned green beans, yellow sweet corn, bottled olives and canned or bulk sauerkraut. This study included storage for 2e3 months. El Wakeil (1958) evaluated iodide/iodine mixtures, iodide in salt, and an iodophor on the quality of canned sweet corn, canned tomato juice and canned sauerkraut. Apart from a avour change in tomatoes for high concentrations (200 ppm) of iodine/iodide mixture, there were no identiable quality changes. It was noted that sodium thiosulphate, commonly used then for stabilising iodide in the salt, caused substantial corrosion of the cans. This is no longer an issue as thiosulphate is not an approved additive for iodised salt. West and Merx (1995) cited reports that iodised salt (containing potassium iodide) used in Switzerland for manufacturing cheese (particularly Emmenthaler and Gruyere) had no discernable impact on avour or quality. The authors themselves experimented with rice and potatoes boiled in water with and without iodised salt. They used four times the level of salt recommended by WHO. They found no signicant difference in sensory tests (avour and appearance). A study in Germany by Wirth and Kuhne (1991) evaluated the use of iodised salt in a wide range of processed meat products. They could nd no changes in sensory properties, no inuence on the curing characteristics of nitrite and no additional nitrosamine formation. These papers suggest that the replacement of non-iodised salt with iodised salt in the standard formulations for many food products will not cause any noticeable changes. Skudder, Thomas, Pavey, and Perkin (1981) found 12.7 ppm iodine from added potassium iodate induced proteolysis in casein during the UHT processing of milk. This did not occur with 6.3 ppm iodine from the iodate. This

concentration of iodate was considerably higher than those anticipated from adding iodised salt. In addition, Sevenants and Sanders (1984) found a reaction between iodide and the cresol component of lemon avouring used in a cake mix. The resulting avour was unacceptable and the authors recommended non-iodised salt be used to avoid the problem (as cresol is a key component of lemon avour). It has also been suggested that a decline in the use of iodophors in the dairy industry may result in lower levels of iodine in dairy foods. However, Skeaff, Thompson, and Gibson (2002) refer to a government report that found no change in the iodine content of dairy products between 1988 and 1998. Cressey (2003) completed analysis of different types of dairy products which had been analysed between 20 and 30 years earlier, in an attempt to compare iodine contents before and after iodophors usage. These included 13 products manufactured in New Zealand and 3 from overseas. Wherever possible, Cressey used the same methodology as that used in those earlier studies. There was no clear trend in iodine content over time, with one exception e butter. The iodine content of butter had clearly decreased over time. The Tasmanian Iodine Supplementation Program began in October 2001 to encourage bakeries to use iodised salt in preference to regular salt. Four of the six major bakery chains, along with a number of independent bakeries, agreed to participate. Estimates suggest that participating bakeries produced about 80% of the bread available for consumption. Salt manufacturers agreed to supply iodised salt at prices comparable to regular salt. A survey in July 2003 found about 70% had changed to using iodised salt and none had reverted to regular salt. Of the non-participating bakeries, most baked from premixes, or used frozen dough formulated interstate, to which salt was already added. The researchers concluded that the Program has high acceptance among small-medium sized bakeries with little impact on business, including time, cost, or consumer acceptance. Unfortunately, there are no published results on the true iodine concentration of the bakery products (Turnbull, Lee, Seal, Johnson, & Shaw, 2004). Personal communication indicated that iodine levels of bread baked with iodised salt were believed to be about 35 mg per 100 g (range from 20 to 100 ignoring outliers). The Supplementation Program is also monitoring milk, where iodine levels are about 200 mg per litre (range 100e420) (Judith Seal, Senior Scientic Ofcer (Iodine), Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, Hobart, Tasmania). Volatility of iodine in foods The retention of iodine in processed foods has received limited attention. The World Health Organization (2001) recommends: in typical circumstances, where:  iodine lost from salt is 20 percent from production to household,

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 another 20 percent is lost during cooking before consumption, and  average salt intake is 10 g per person per day, iodine concentration at the point of production should be within the range of 20e40 mg of iodine per kg of salt (i.e. 20e40 ppm of iodine) in order to provide 150 mg of iodine per person per day. The iodine should be added as potassium (or sodium) iodate. Under these circumstances median urinary iodine levels will vary from 100 to 200 mg/litre It is unclear what evidence was used to support the indicated losses. Kuhajek and Fiedelman (1973) found retention was  between 70 and 80% during the processing and 10 days frozen storage of white bread  48e73% in potato chips after 13 weeks storage  41e61% in frankfurters after refrigerated or frozen storage. In an extensive study using 50 different Indian recipes, prepared in a hospital kitchen using different cooking procedures, Goindi, Karmarkar, Kapil, and Jagannathan (1995) found the range of losses between 3 and 67%. The means ranged from 6 to 37%, though clearly the variation in results was very large. Some foods (Kadhi, carrot, spinach) had losses in excess of 50%. The cooking method had a signicant impact also:       boiling (37% average loss) steaming (20% loss) pressure cooking (20% loss) shallow frying (27% loss) deep frying (20% loss) roasting (6% loss).

possible e sometimes as much as 70%. However, these studies lacked sufcient controls and used methods which would be considered inappropriate today. One of the issues which precludes unambiguous conclusions from these published studies is the limitation of adding iodine to foods via salt. Unless salt levels were normally high, the levels of iodine would be low and the background levels naturally present in the foods may confound the results (the controls may have similar levels of natural iodine, for example). The published research on iodine in processed foods has not involved systematic and carefully designed experiments on the addition of iodine to processed foods, in order to be able to clearly establish the role that iodine may play in food chemistry. Iodine methodology The determination of different iodine species in foods (and other biological samples) is extremely complicated and requires both substantial investment in technical equipment and day-to-day operating expenses. Two methods are presently used for this determination: neutron activation analysis or a combined ion-chromatography/inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Fecher, Goldman, & Nagenat, 1998). However, there has been no work published which establishes the efciency of iodine and its salts recovery from complex solid food matrices (Chai et al., 2004; Leiterer, Truckenbrodt, & Frank, 2001). Determination of iodine species (iodate, iodide and elemental iodine) is not possible by these routine measurements. Conclusion and future work There is almost no information in the literature on the true absorption rate of iodine from the gastrointestinal tract. The present information, which suggests 100% absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, is based on studies conducted in the rst half of the last century using small sample sizes and only basic analytical methodology. Radioisotope techniques cannot be used (ethically) for the assessment of iodine availability in humans and therefore no accurate gures exist. There is less information on the interactions between iodine and food components in respect to their impact on bioavailability from processed foods. There are known reactions, particularly with mineral salts, where bioavailability appears to be signicantly reduced. The existing literature tends to suggest that iodine and its salts, when used as iodised salt to replace added noniodised salt, will have limited impact on food quality. However, these studies have focused on very few food systems and at low iodine concentrations, often not directly measured. While the use of iodised salt to replace non-iodised salt is one method of adding iodine to foods, the levels of added iodine are very low. There are no data to predict the outcome of the use of higher levels of iodine (eg, 25e65 mg iodine per kg food, as is required for salt). Literature evidence suggests there will be reactivity between iodine and some food components when the level of iodine is increased above 100 ppm. This suggests, clearly,

The methodology involved drying at 100  C, then dry ashing at 600  C and colorimetric analysis of iodine. There was no evidence the researchers assessed iodine losses during these analytical procedures. Triplicate samples (250 mg each) were taken before and after cooking one batch of food and this level of sampling is of questionable value for complex food materials. However, the results do indicate that iodine is labile and lost from food systems during routine preparation processes. In summary, the use of iodine salts in processed food systems has been studied predominantly in terms of the replacement of non-iodised salt with iodised salt in a range of processed foods. Most studies reported no signicant impact of this iodine fortication on the sensory or other food qualities. However, there were reactions with milk proteins undergoing a UHT treatment and lemon avouring. There were some reactions observed in canned products when iodine concentrations were above 100 ppm. In most reports the amount of iodine present in the food products was calculated from the amount of iodine in the added salt, rather than by direct measurement. Where studies did measure the iodine levels, it was clear that a considerable loss of iodine during processing was

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R.J. Winger et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 94e101 von Fellenberg, T. (1926). The occurrence, the cycle and the metabolism of iodine. Ergebnisse der Physiologie, Biologischen Chemie und Experimentellen Pharmakologie, 25, 176e353. Goindi, G., Karmarkar, M. G., Kapil, U., & Jagannathan, J. (1995). Estimation of losses of iodine during different cooking procedures. Asia Pacic Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 4, 225e227. Greenwood, N. N., & Earnshaw, A. (1984). Chemistry of the elements. New York: Pergamon Press. 1542 pp. Harris, M. J., Jooste, P. L., & Charlton, K. E. (2003). The use of iodised salt in the manufacturing of processed foods in South Africa: bread and bread premixes, margarine, avourants of salty snacks. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 54, 13e19. Hurrell, R. F. (1997). Bioavailability of iodine. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51(Suppl. 1), S9eS12. Hynes, K. L., Blizzard, C. L., Venn, A. J., Dwyer, T., & Burgess, J. R. (2004). Persistent iodine deciency in a cohort of Tasmanian school children: associations with socio-economic status, geographical location and dietary factors. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 28, 476e481. International Council for the Control of Iodine Deciency Disorders (ICCIDD) (2007). Iodine nutrition and programs for its control. <www.iccidd.org> Katamine, S., Mamiya, Y., Sekimoto, K., Hoshino, N., Totsuka, K., & Suzuki, M. (1987). Differences in bioavailability of iodine among iodine-rich foods and food colours. Nutrition Reports International, 35, 289e297. Keating, F. R., & Albert, A. (1949). The metabolism of iodine in man as disclosed with the use of radioiodine. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 4, 429e481. Kimura, M., Sato, M., Murase, T., & Tsukahara, K. (1993). Kinetic studies of the reaction of nitrous oxide with iodide ion in the presence of molecular oxygen in an acid solution. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 66(10), 2900e2906. Kimura, M., Tokuda, M., & Tsukahara, K. (1994). Kinetics and mechanisms of the copper (II)-catalyzed oxidation of iodide ion in the presence of molecular oxygen in aqueous acid medium. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 667(10), 2731e2735. Kojima, N., & Brown, H. D. (1955). The effects of iodised salt in processed fruits and vegetables. Food Technology, 9, 103. Kuhajek, E. J., & Fiedelman, H. W. (1973). Nutritional iodine in processed foods. Food Technology, 27, 52e53. Lamberg, B. A. (1993). Iodine deciency disorders and endemic goitre. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 47, 1e8. Leiterer, M., Truckenbrodt, D., & Franke, K. (2001). Determination of iodine species in milk using ion chromatographic separation and ICP-MS detection. European Food Research and Technology, 213, 150e153. Mannar, M. G. V., & Diosady, L. L. (1998). Double fortication of salt with iron and iodine. In The Micronutrient Initiative. (Ed.), Food fortication to end micronutrient malnutrition (pp. 89e94). Ottawa: The Micronutrient Initiative. Palmer, D. A., Ramette, R. W., & Mesmer, R. E. (1984). Triiodide ion formation equilibrium coefcients in aqueous solution. Journal Solution Chemistry, 13(9), 637e683. Samios, D. N., Karayannis, M. I., & Hadjiioannou, T. P. (1977). Investigation on the rate law of the reaction of ascorbic acid and iodate. Calculation of kinetic parameters applying stopped-ow techniques. Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie, 104(6), 189e198. Sevenants, M. R., & Sanders, R. A. (1984). Anatomy of an off-avour investigation: the Medicinal cake mix. Analytical Chemistry, 56, 293Ae298A. Skeaff, S., Thomson, C., & Gibson, R. (2002). Mild iodine deciency in a sample of New Zealand schoolchildren. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 56, 1169e1175. Skudder, P. J., Thomas, E. L., Pavey, J. A., & Perkin, A. G. (1981). Effects of adding potassium iodate to milk before UHT treatment. I. Reduction in the amount of deposit on the heated surfaces. Journal Dairy Research, 48, 99e113.

that consideration should be given to the fortication of foods being limited, in the rst instance, to the use of low concentrations of iodine. There are insufcient data to establish what low means and a suitable threshold level cannot be dened at this stage, but must clearly be lower than 100 ppm. In short e for food systems such as bread, processed meats, salty snack foods, some canned foods and some cheeses e the use of iodised salt to replace non-iodised salt in the formulations does not appear to create any observable technological issues. There are examples, such as milk for UHT processing, some avourings, foods containing high levels of unsaturated fatty acids and some foods (eg, bread) where iodine concentrations of 100 ppm and above were used, where there is an observable reaction between iodine and the food matrix. Clearly, there are some technological issues surrounding the use of iodine in these food systems. There are insufcient data available in the literature to be able to describe the range of foods which will be suitable, inert vehicles for the fortication of processed foods with iodine. It appears from world-wide use of iodised salt in bread that this is a suitable food system to be used, but this result cannot be extrapolated to all foods. While modern techniques are available to detect low levels of iodine, sample preparation is inadequately developed and insufciently robust to be condent in measuring low levels of iodine and those covalently bound forms of iodine present in food matrices. It is also unclear whether the different forms of iodine can be detected in real time within a food matrix. This is an important area of work required to further iodine studies on food. Iodine is a volatile material that can be readily lost during food processing. The assumption that iodine concentration can be calculated mathematically in foods is awed. Iodine losses depend on the salt used. References
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