Properties of fluids

1. Introduction

Three states of matter

Solids Gases
Liquids

Offer permanent
resistance to a Fluids
deforming force.
Are capable of flowing and conform to the
shape of the containing vessel and offer little
resistance to change of form.
When in equilibrium, fluids cannot sustain
tangential or shear forces.
All fluids have some degree of
compressibility.

2. Properties of fluids

2.1 Density

The density of a substance is that quantity of matter contained in unit

volume of the substance.

Mass density (ρ)

It is defined as the mass (m) of the substance per unit volume.

m
ρ= [m = W/g]
V

SI unit: kg/m3.

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Typical value: The mass density of water at 4 0C is 1000 kg/m3.

2.2 Specific or unit weight (γ or w)

Specific or unit weight of a substance is the weight of unit volume of the

substance.

For liquids, specific weight can be taken as constant for practical changes in
pressure.

Weight per unit volume, w = mass per unit volume × g

w = ρ× g
w=ρg [SI unit: Nm-3]

Typical value: specific weight of water is 9.81 × 103 Nm-3

It should be noted that mass density of a body:

ρ = w/g

2.3 Specific gravity of a body

It is the dimensionless ratio of the weight of the body to the weight of an

equal volume of a substance taken as a standard. Solids and liquids are
usually referred to water (at 20 0C) as standard while gases are often referred
to air free of carbon dioxide and hydrogen (at 0 0C and 1 atmosphere or
101.3 kPa pressure) as standard.

Specific gravity of a substance = Weight of substance/Weight of equal

volume of water
= Density of substance/Density of water

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2.4 Viscosity

Fluids flow under the action of forces, deforming continuously for as long as
the force is applied.

Deformation is caused by shearing forces F, which cut tangentially to the

surface to which they are applied and cause the material originally
occupying the space ABCD to deform to AB1C1D.

B B1 C C1

x
E
θ
y

A D

If ABCD represents an element in a fluid with thickness s perpendicvular to

the diagram, then the force F will act over an area A equal to BC×s. The
force per unit area F/A is the shear stress τ and it is found experimentally
that, in a true fluid, the rate of shear strain is directly proportionl to the shear
stress.

Suppose that at time t a particle E moves through a distance y from AD then,

for small angles,
Shear strain, Φ = x/y
Rate of shear strain = x/yt = (x/t)/y = u/y,
Where u = x/t is the velocity of the particle at E. Assuming that the
experimental result that shear stress is proportional to shear strain, then
τ = constant × u/y

The term u/y is the change of velocity with y and may be written in the
differential form du/dy. The constant of proportionality is known as the
dynamic viscosity µ of the fluid.

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τ = µ × du/dy
This is the Newton’s Law of viscosity

Kinematic viscosity, ν

µ µ µg
ν (nu) = ρ = γ =
γ
g

2.5 Vapour pressure

When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure
created by the vapour molecules is called vapour pressure.

2.6 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K)

If the force per unit area on a surface increases from p to p +δp, the
relationship between change of pressure and change of volume depend on
the bulk modulus of the material:

Bulk Modulus = Change in pressure / Volumetric strain

Where the volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the original
volume. Therefore,
δp
K =  − δV  as δp → 0
 
 V 
dp
= -V
dv
The concept of bulk modulus is mainly applied to liquids.

Surface tension

Although all molecules are in constant motion, a molecule within the body
of the liquid is on average attracted equally in all directions by the other
molecules surrounding it, but at the surface between liquid and air or
interface between one substance and another, the upward and downward
attraction are unbalanced, the surface molecules being pulled inward
towards the bulk of the liquid. This causes the liquid surface to behave as if
it were an elastic membrane under tension.

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The surface tension, σ, is measured as the force acting across unit length of a
line drawn in the surface.

The effect of surface tension is to reduce the surface of a body of liquid to a

minimum. For this reason drops of liquid tend o take spherical shape. For a
small droplet, surface tension will cause an increase of internal pressure p in
order to balance the surface force.

Considering the forces acting on a diametral plane through a spherical drop,

radius r,

Force

p
σ

Force due to internal pressure = pressure ×area

= p× πr2

Force due to surface tension around the perimeter = 2πr×σ

For equilibrium,
p× πr2 = 2πr×σ
p = 2σ/r

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In many problems with which engineers are concerned, the magnitude of
surface tension forces is very small compared with the other forces acting on
the fluid and may, therefore, be neglected.

However, these forces can cause serious errors in hydraulic scale models
through capillary effects.
Capillarity

Suppose that a fine tube, open at both ends, is lowered vertically into a
liquid. If the liquid wets the tube, the level of liquid will rise in the tube.
This means that the magnitude of the cohesion of the molecules in the liquid
is lesser than the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the tube.

For liquids that do not wet glasses, the level of the liquid would fall in the
tube, e.g. mercury in glass tubes.

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 h

Capillarity is a serious source of error in fine gauge tubes. For example, for
water in a tube of 5 mm diameter, the capillary rise will be approximately
4.5 mm, while that for mercury the corresponding figure would be – 1.4
mm.
3. Problems

1. If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 kN, calculate its specific weight, γ, density, ρ, and

specific gravity. Take specific weight of water to be 9.79 kN/m3.

Solution

Specific weight, γ = (47 kN)/(6 m3)

= 7.833 kN/m3
Density, ρ = γ/g = (7.833N/m3)/ (9.81 m/s2) = 798 kg/m3

Specific gravity = γoil/γwater = (7.833 kN/m3)/(9.79 kN/m3) = 0.800

2. If the density of a liquid is 835 kg/m3, find its specific weight and specific
gravity. [Ans: 8.20 kN/m3, 0.837]

3. What pressure must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 1.25% if

the bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.19 GPa.