Spain: Introduction

Spain is a country located in Southwestern Europe. The coastlines include the Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean Sea, Northern Atlantic Ocean and neighboring countries include Andorra, France, Gibraltar, Portugal, and Morocco. Spain controls a number of territories in northern Morocco including several enclaves and the Canary Islands. Spain borders the Pyrenees Mountains but much of the country is high plateaus. The government system is a parliamentary monarchy. The chief of state is the King and the head of government is the President. Spain has a mixed capitalist country in which there is a variety of private freedom, combined with centralized economic planning and government regulation. Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco, plus Alborn, Chafarinas Islands, Alhucemas, Vlez de la Gomera and other small islets including Perejil. Furthermore, the town of Llvia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union and the fifth largest country in Europe. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian peninsula around 35,000 years ago. It came under Roman rule around 200 BCE, after which the region was named Hispania. In the Middle Ages it was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors to the south. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the centuries-long reconquest, or Reconquista, of the peninsula from the Moors in 1492. Spain became an influential global empire in the early modern period, being one of the first countries to colonize the New World and leaving a legacy of over 500 million Spanish speakers today, making it the world's second most spoken first language. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a developed country with the thirteenth largest economy in the world by nominal GDP. Spain also has high living standards with the tenth-highest quality of life index rating in the world. It is a member of the United Nations, NATO, OECD, and WTO. Capital: Madrid Population Total Population: 46,174,601 Natural Increase: 0.2% Density: 93 Inhabitants/km Urban Population: 77.4%

Population of main cities including suburbs: Madrid (3,130,000); Barcelona (1,600,000); Valencia (800,000); Seville (700,000); Zaragoza (650,000). Ethnic Origins: Spanish: 90%. Foreigners: 10% of which 13% are Moroccans, 11.7% Rumanians, 9.5% Ecuadorians, 7% British and 5.8% Colombians. Official Language: Castilian (Spanish) Other Languages Spoken: Some regions use their regional language for conducting business (Euskera, Catalan, Galician, Valencian). Other minor regional languages can be used: Bable, Aragonese, Aranese, Extremaduran. Business Language(s): Spanish. Religion: Catholics 77% (50% practicing); Muslims, Protestants, etc.: 3%; non believers: 19%. National Currency: Euro (EUR) Area: 505,600 km Type of State: Kingdom. Constitutional monarchy based on a parliamentary democracy. Power is highly decentralized; the autonomous communities have a high level of legislative, executive and fiscal autonomy (Basque country and Navarre, own taxes). Type of Economy: High revenue country; Member of OECD. Economy based principally on agriculture, financial services and tourism; Unemployment rate among the highest in Europe

History of Spain:
Spain, also known as the Kingdom of Spain, is made up of 504,782 square kilometers and is located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. It borders Portugal on the west and France on the north. In terms of geography, it borders the Bay of Biscay and the North Atlantic, the Pyrenees Mountains, the southwest of France, and the Mediterranean Sea. Spain is made up of a high central plateau, which is broken up by many mountains and rivers. In addition to the landmass of the peninsula, Spain also includes the Balearic Islands (Majorca, Minorca, Cabrera, Ibiza, and Fomentra), the Canary Islands (Tenerife, Palma, Gomera, Hierro, Grand Canary, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote) and five territories of sovereignty on and off the coast of Morocco: Ceuta, Melilla, the Chafarinas Islands, the Pen of Alhucemas, and the Pen of Vlez de Gomora. The population of Spain is estimated to be 39,996,671 people, with a 0.11 percent population growth. There are three major cities: Madrid (4 million people), Barcelona (2 million), and Valencia (754,000).

In terms of religion, Spain is known to be 66.7 percent Roman Catholic, 1.2 percent Muslim, 0.8 percent Protestant, and 31.3 percent other. There are four recognized languages: Castilian Spanish, the official language spoken by 74 percent of the population; Catalan, spoken by 17 percent; Galician, spoken by 7 percent; and Basque, spoken by 2 percent. The Spanish population has a literacy rate of 97 percent. About one percent of men and two percent of women are illiterate.

During the Franco Period, there was no discussion of cultural or ethnic diversity. Spain believed that Castilian was the only permissible language. In any discussions of Basque, Catalan, or Galician peoples, the lines between ethnicity and nationalism became fused. From the perspective of the National government, Basques, Catalans and Galicians were nationalities within a larger and inclusive Spanish state or nation. However, for many Basque and Catalan nationalists, there is no Spanish nation but only a country made up of ethnic nations or autonomous communities. To further complicate this issue, one must also consider the role of immigration of peoples to these areas, especially the Basque Country and Catalua to find work. These non-ethnic groups are faced with learning and using the languages of these areas. In addition to Basques, Catalans, and Galicians, there is another important minority group, Spanish Gypsies. Gypsies refer to themselves as Rom and to their language as Romany. Gypsies in Spain are usually divided into two groups: Gitanos (Gypsies) and Hungaros (Hungarians). Historically, Gitanos live in the southwest and central regions of Spain. Traditionally, many have worked as street vendors and entertainers. Hungaros are said to be Kalderash; they are generally poorer and more nomadic than the Gitanos. The exact population of Gypsies in Spain is unknown. Estimates range from 300,000 to 450,000. The traditional nomadic and segregated lifestyles of the Gypsies have dictated inequitable access to welfare services, housing, and education. Since the nineteenth Century, illiteracy in Spain had been on the decline. It was estimated that during 1860 and 1900, it was between 75 and 63 percent. It had decreased at an important rate to about 15 percent in the 1950s. The highest rate of illiteracy is found in rural areas among women. Spain is in the progress of evolving its economy and integrating into the European Union. It suffered a recession in the 1990s and saw an upturn in 1994. However, Spain has also suffered from a very high unemployment rate of up to 25 percent. The GNP is 44.5 billion (estimated 1998) and the per capita GDP is $8,300. The most significant economic progress has been in the area of tourism. With respect to the government, Spain is a parliamentary monarchy ruled by the Chief of State, the King, and a head of government, the president the Popular Party (PP). The Spanish legislative system is bicameral and made up of General Courts (Cortes) a type of national assembly, which is made up of a Senate whose members are directly elected by popular vote,

and 51 others appointed by the Regional Legislatures and the Congress of Deputies, also elected by popular vote. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities. The Catholic Church has always played a significant role in the history of Spanish education. The relationship of the Church throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries had been complex and significant. A series of Concordats with the Vatican have solidified these relationships. The first in 1851, established Catholicism as the official state religion of Spain. However, this Agreement was revoked in 1931 with the coming of the Second Republic and a series of anticlerical government measures. With the success of Franco, after the Spanish Civil War, the power and status of the Church was restored with the approval of the 1952 Concordat. This agreement had important implications for education. According to this agreement, Catholic religious instruction was to be mandatory in all schools, even in public schools. Additionally, the Church was given the right to establish universities. With the coming of democracy, the reduction of state subsidies for education was established. By the end of 1987, however, issues surrounding government subsidies for Church education had not been resolved. At the end of the twentieth century, the government continued to subsidize private Church-affiliated schools. In 1987, the Church received $110 million. These subsidies have continued in the creation of educational institutions that are private but receive state funds.

Population of Spain:
The current population of the Kingdom of Spain is estimated to be about 47.27 million people, which is only a 0.97% increase from the last record of population. The population of Spain has historically always been less than the populations of France and Italy. Based on the total land area and the total population of the country, the population density is estimated to be about 231 people per square mile. Spain's official population fell by 206,000 to 47.1 million mostly from the immigrants who have returned home due to the effects of the European economic and fiscal crisis. Its population density, at 91.4/km (229/sq. mile), is lower than that of most Western European countries. With the exception of the capital, Madrid, the most densely populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain doubled during the twentieth century, but the pattern of growth was extremely uneven due to large-scale internal migration from the rural interior to the industrial cities, a phenomenon which happened later than in other Western European countries. No fewer than eleven of Spain's fifty provinces saw an absolute decline in population over the century. The last quarter of the century saw a dramatic fall in birth rates. Spain's fertility rate of 1.47 (the number of children the average woman will have during her lifetime) is lower than the EU average, but has climbed every year since the late 1990s. The birth rate has climbed in 10 years from 9.10 births per 1000 people per year in 2000 to 10.9 in 2010.

Historical Population of Spain While the population of the Kingdom of Spain has always increased over the last half a century, the growth has had its varying degrees of growth rates. From about 1960 to around 1985, the growth of the country remained a fairly steady normal increase of population. However, from 1985 to around 1998, the growth slowed down quite a bit. Then, in 1999, the growth picked back up until about 2010 when the population growth began to really slow down. Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 Population (millions) 30.455 31.723 33.427 35.147 37.108 38.273 38.768 39.295 39.926 42.345 45.828 46.816

Projected Population of Spain The population of the Kingdom of Spain is expected to continue to increase over the next 37 years, but it will increase at a very slow rate. The birth rates are expected to remain between about 9 and 11 births per 1000 people. However, the death rates are expected to rise from about 9.7 deaths per 1000 people to about 12.6 deaths per 1000 people, exceeding the number of births per 1000 people. Year 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 Population (millions) 47.321 48.418 49.306 49.842 50.380 50.894 51.281 51.452 Percent Increase 0.11% 2.3% 1.8% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 0.76% 0.33%

Religion of Spain:
When King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella ruled Spain in the 1400s and 1500s, they decreed that all Spaniards must become Roman Catholics. People who practiced other religions, such as Islam or Judaism, where forced to change religions. If they did not, they were killed or exiled from Spain. Today, almost 97 percent of Spains population is Roman Catholic, although Muslims and Jews in the country now practice their religions freely. Roman Catholicism Roman Catholicism is one of the oldest denominations of Christianity. Christianity is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, whom Christians believe is the Son of God. His life story and teaching are written in the holy book called the New Testament, which is part of the Bible. In addition to worshiping Christ, Catholics pray to his mother, Mary, and to hundreds of holy people, called saints, through whom God is said to have performed miracles. Santiago de Compostela Many Christians honor saints by making special journeys, called pilgrimages, to the places where they are buried. For hundred of years, pilgrims from all over the world have visited the town of Santiago de Compostela, in northern Spain. They come to celebrate Saint James Day on July 25. They believe that Saint James, whom Spaniards call Santiago, is buried in the towns cathedral. Saint James is Spains patron saint, which means that he protects the country from danger. Legend has it that just as a boat carrying Saint James body arrived at Santiago de Compostela, a horse and rider fell into the ocean. Instead of drowning, they emerged from the sea covered in scallop shells. People believe that Saint James was responsible for this miracle. Today, as pilgrims travel thousands of miles on foot, bicycle, or horseback to Santiago de Compostela, they wear scallop shells as a reminder of the miracle. One the pilgrims arrive at Santiago de Compostela, they visit Saint James tomb and rub the neck of his statue to receive a blessing. Romera del Roco Christians in Spain go on another important pilgrimage to the village of El Roco, in southern Spain. In the 1400s, a hunter there found a statue of Mary in a tree trunk, in the marshes of the Guadalquivir River. At first, people from nearby villages journeyed once a year to see the statue. They believed that it had magical healing powers and could perform miracles. Now, almost one million pilgrims travel from all over Spain to see the statue in the church of Nuestra Seora del Roco, or Our Lady of the Dew. They shout Viva la Reina de las Marismas! or Hurray for the Queen of the Marshes! Several times during the week-long festival, which is called Romera del Roco, people carry Marys statue around the village. Crowds of faithful pilgrims follow the statue and try to touch it for good luck.

Other Religions Although most Spaniards are Roman Catholics, about 300,000 Muslims live in Spain. A group of Muslims called Moors came to Spain from northern Africa in 711 A.D. The Moors ruled the country for hundreds of years. Muslims follow the religion of Islam, which is based on the teachings of God, whom they call Allah, and his prophet Muhammad. These teachings are found in the holy book called the Quran, which is written in the Arabic language. About 12,000 Jews also live in Spain. Jew first came to Spain with Romans, who invaded the country around 200 B.C. and ruled for the next 600 years. Jews follow the teachings of their holy book, the Torah, which is written in the Hebrew language.

Literacy in Spain:
Spain definition: age 15 and over can read and write This entry includes a definition of literacy and Census Bureau percentages for the total population, males, and females. There are no universal definitions and standards of literacy. Unless otherwise specified, all rates are based on the most common definition - the ability to read and write at a specified age. Detailing the standards that individual countries use to assess the ability to read and write is beyond the scope of the Factbook. Information on literacy, while not a perfect measure of educational results, is probably the most easily available and valid for international comparisons. Low levels of literacy, and education in general, can impede the economic development of a country in the current rapidly changing, technology-driven world. total population: 97.7% male: 98.5% female: 97% (2010 est.) About 70% of Spain's student population attends public schools or universities. The remainder attend private schools or universities, the great majority of which are operated by the Catholic Church. Compulsory education begins with primary school or general basic education for ages 6-14. It is free in public schools and in many private schools, most of which receive government subsidies. Following graduation, students attend either a secondary school offering a general high school diploma or a school of professional education (corresponding to grades 9-12 in the United States) offering a vocational training program. The Spanish university system offers degree and post-graduate programs in all fields--law, sciences, humanities, and medicine--and the superior technical schools offer programs in engineering and architecture.

History of Education in Spain:

The formal history of education in Spain must begin with the history of Roman education because it established the basis for subsequent educational thought and literature for many centuries. Romans brought their system of education to Spain, and it flourished as in all parts of the Roman Empire. Roman education in Spain took many forms. It usually started with the education of children in the family by parents and relatives or tutors. Fathers frequently educated their sons by using paternal precepts (pracepta paterna). It was often the case that private tutors from distant lands, at times slaves, were also used to educate children. This was especially true in the case of teachers of Greek. Primary and secondary education was in the hands of the pedagogues, preceptors, or magisters. These teachers were in charge of teaching the young the basic notions of language (Latin and Greek), as well as with the basics of literature, rhetoric, and philosophy. There also existed special schools for the specific teaching of grammar and literature. Teachers in these schools were known as grammatistes and students who attained high levels of grammar were known as grammatikos. Higher education also flourished in Spain from the period of the late Republic onwards. Many famous orators, poets, political figures, philosophers and educators came from Roman Spain. This list might include the older and younger Seneca, Mela, Columella, Martial, and Quintilian. Quintilian was born around A.D. 35 in Calagurris in the northern Roman Spanish province known as Hispania Tarraconensis. He was a famous teacher of Latin and rhetoric. During his early years, he studied in Rome and later returned to Spain to teach rhetoric and work as a lawyer (advocate). He returned to Rome during his later years. During the fifth century, western and southern Europe experienced large-scale invasions by the Visigoths, Germanic peoples from the north of Europe. These groups were quick to become Christianized, and they took over the control of Roman governmental administration while keeping many aspects of Roman culture. Education in the Middle Ages became much more formalized in Spain during the Middle Ages with the establishment of monastic schools in the fifth century. It was the primary role of the Church to educate literate clergy for Spanish medieval society. In the Islamic period, Moorish invaders overran Visigothic Spain at the beginnings of the eighth century. At this time Moorish peoples from the North of Africa (mostly Berbers) crossed the Straits of Gibraltar in 711. Seven years later in 718, most of Iberia was under Islamic control. Of all the invasions that Spain was to experience, this was the most significant. The Moors developed a strong military and technologically advanced society in Iberia, which was known for more than eight centuries for its cultural arts and tolerance of beliefs. At this time, Christian, Muslims, and Jewsthe principal populations of Spainlived in comparative harmony. During the second half of the ninth century, and in the tenth century, important Islamic academies were founded in Moslem Spain, especially in the city of Cordoba. In these academies, education originated mostly from close studies of the commentaries of the Koran and philology. Muslims, Spanish speaking Ibero-Roman Visigoths, and Hispanic Jews shared in each other's educational traditions. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Judaism

developed its own system of education, which was, for the most part, based on the famous Talmudic Schools of the Near East. Important changes to this system arose during the tenth century. During this time, Jewish schools changed emphasis. Spanish Jews, known as Sephardi, were strongly influenced by Islamic educational thought and thus changed their areas of focus to include philosophical, scientific, and linguistic subjects. Jews made important contributions to Spanish culture during the Middle Ages, but these contributions must be considered within the context of Islamic Spain, especially during the years 711-1100. Important Jewish communities existed in the cities of Seville, Toledo, Burgos, Valeria, and Saragossa, as well as in other cities like Cordoba and Segovia. Jews continued to make significant contributions to Spanish culture and education throughout the late Middle Ages, especially in the areas of medicine, philosophy, and literature. Jewish education in Spain was closely tied to Jewish temples, as well as to Arabic and Christian centers of learning. Unlike today, scholars from Jewish temples, Islamic mosques, and Christian cathedrals were in constant conversation. Centers of higher learning existed throughout independent Spain and these centers were especially well known for the teaching of medicine. In Spain, medieval education was intimately connected with religion in all the three major religious faithsChristian, Moslem, and Jewish. The system that was based on the classical traditions of the Roman Period eventually went into decline. However, the Christian system of education continued to be based on the study of the seven liberal arts (the Trivium and Quadrivium). During the fifteenth century, Renaissance humanism spread from Italy to Spain. As in other European countries, Renaissance education in the humanities was a court phenomenon. The Spanish court of Alfonso V, in Naples, provided a direct flow of Italian educational ideas from Italy to Spain. At the center of this exchange of ideas and information was the Spanish College of San Clemente at the University of Bologna, where many Spanish students studied. During the second half of the sixteenth century, Spanish higher education started to decline; this decline began during the reign of Philip II and the application of the Ley Pragmtica of 1559, whereby Castilians were prohibited from studying in foreign universities, with the exception of those in Rome or Naples. The Counter Reformation and the Spanish King's siding with the Council of Trent continued Spain's isolation and curtailed any reforms brought on by Renaissance humanism in educational thought. At the end of the seventeenth century, and at the beginning of the eighteenth century, a small group of Spanish thinkers began to speak out against Spain's intellectual isolation. This group of scholars, known as the Novatores denounced Spain's backwardness and called for the introduction of modern science and thought into Spain's cultural landscape. The eighteenth century in Spain was a period of reform and one of the principle instruments of reform was education. In fact, education offered one of the greatest possibilities for bringing about reform in Spanish society. During this time, education in Spain was in a dismal state. Some Spaniards had read about the critiques of education in the writings of Rousseau, as well as in the writing of Spanish intellectuals such as Father Benito Feijoo and Luis Antonio Verney. There was no true educational system in eighteenth-century Spain.

Education was governed and controlled for the most part by municipalities, town councils, and by the church through the teaching efforts of religious orders. The reforms put forth by the liberal Spanish governments of the early nineteenth century were similar to those of the eighteenth century. The educational thought of M. Quintana and Gil de Zrate sought to free Spanish educational institutions from the restrictions of the past. However noteworthy these attempts at reform seem to be, in the end, they failed. Spanish liberals believed that Spain had to provide for the most important services and needs of the population. Clearly, education was one of paramount importance. According to the Constitution of 1812, education was the basic responsibility of the State. It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that there were any real efforts for constructing a true system of education for Spain. This systematic provision of education was not at all successful. Throughout the nineteenth century, from 1821 to 1857, a great deal of educational legislation was put forth to better Spain's educational system. Basic educational reform had to be restructured into new governmental offices. The later half of the nineteenth century was a period of political conflict between those who sought to establish a democratic constitution and conservatives who wished to continue and restore the power of the Crown. The Revolution of 1868 and the subsequent establishment of the First Republic (1873) highlighted the importance of academic freedom and the separation of Church and State in the matters of education. With the coming of the Restoration (1874), King Alfonso XII returned to the throne and conservatives sought to re-establish church control in education. Throughout the nineteenth century, liberals and conservatives engaged in bitter battles over educational issues. One of the most important conflicts arose in 1875, when the government proclaimed the Decree of 1875. This decree directed university presidents (Rectores) to oversee that "nothing contrary to Catholic dogma or morality" would be taught in their universities. The decree set off a controversy and protests from many university professors. Opponents saw the decree as a violation of their academic freedom. Many professors were dismissed or removed from their chairs.

The Revolution of 1868, and the establishment of the First Republic in 1873, was a period of political tensions. Special attention was given to the importance of academic freedom but the vast majority of educational reforms were not successful. In 1874, after a brief period of Republican efforts, the Monarchy was restored, and education fell into a constant battle between liberals and conservatives. The political instability of this period can also be seen in the many attempts at reforms in the areas of secondary and higher education. The period of the Restoration ended with the military uprising of General Primo de Rivera in 1923 and his attacks on academic freedom in Spanish higher education. During this period, many Spanish intellectuals and university professors were exiled or silenced, among them, the noted poetphilosopher Miguel de Unamuno. With the coming of the Second Republic in 1931, a new Constitution brought new important educational reforms, including the call for free compulsory Primary Education, academic

freedom and non-religious instruction. All these changes came to an end with the failure of the Republic and the success of the Nationalist forces of General Franco at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939. During subsequent years, education in Spain was converted into the transmission of Franco's views of Spanish Nationalism and Catholic ideology. There were important reforms in the 1950s with some changes to elementary and secondary education and the establishment of preuniversity course of study. Important changes in economics and demography came to the forefront in the 1960s. This was a period of significant economic and demographic growth, as well as an intense time of industrialization. However, the authoritarian Franco government did not provide for democratic reforms; thus, this period is also characterized as a time of internal conflict, especially in Spanish Universities. Five years before the death of Franco, the Spanish government carried out its most significant educational reform since the Moyano Law of 1857. This reform, known as the General Law on Education (LGE), sought to reorganize the whole of the Spanish educational system. In the end, only limited reforms were enacted and these were quickly out of date due to the increasingly fast social and economic changes that Spanish society was forcing. One of the most important events, which changed not only contemporary Spanish education but also the whole of Spanish society and culture after the death of Franco, was the Spanish Constitution of 1978. One of the first attempts at reform, which came about after the establishment of the new Constitution, was the Organic Law of 1980 (LOECE) which, while short lived, laid the foundations for the University Reform Law (LRU) of 1983. This reform established the basis for the Organic Law on the General Organization of the Educational system of 1990 and the subsequent Organic Law on Participation (LOPEG), which characterizes the basic nature and structure of Spanish education at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Current Education System:

Spain has 75 universities (universidades), of which 50 are established on a public basis and 25 on a private basis. Of the 50 public universities, 48 fall under the authority of Autonomous Communities while 2 fall under the Ministry of Education and Science. Of the 25 private universities, 7 belong to the Catholic Church. Spain also has a number of non-university higher education institutes for physical education, civil marine, tourism, dramatic art and dance, song and music, as well as a number of highly rated business schools (usually American). Although few Spanish universities are world-renowned, Spain has a long history of university education, with the university system dating back to the middle ages and the oldest university (Salamanca) founded in 1218 (prior to which, the Moors had universities in Spain long before anyone else had even thought of them).

The largest and most highly regarded Spanish universities are Complutense in Madrid and the University of Barcelona, with student bodies of around 76,000 and 90,000 respectively, although both Granada and Seville universities each have over 60,000 students. (2010-2011 academic year) The number of university students in Spain exploded in the 1960s and 1970s and today numbers over 1.5 million, a figure generally considered to be too high for a country with a population of 45 million. Overcrowding is a huge problem, particularly in first year classes (you usually need to arrive early just to get a seat at a lecture). However, many students drop out after the tough exams set at the end of the first year. The number of female students has increased by around 40 per cent in the last decade and they now outnumber male students (more women also complete their courses and obtain degrees than men). Foreign students comprise just 3 percent of students at Spanish universities, with a third coming from European Union countries. In general, the academic year runs from October to June. Types of universities There are four different types of university establishments in Spain: University schools (escuelas universitarias), where short-term three-year courses are offered; University colleges (colegios universitarios) where the first three years of study leading to a licenciado is completed; Faculties (facultades) where long-term courses are offered in all academic disciplines (except technical courses) and Higher technical schools of engineering and architecture (escuela superior de ingeniera y arquitectura) where long-term technical courses are completed.

The Spanish university system is rigidly structured and students must choose a fixed curriculum and arent permitted to change universities during their studies (except for family or health reasons). Studies at Spanish universities are divided into three cycles and have undergone some changes since 2010. In line with the European Higher Education Area, programmes are situated in one of the following thee cycles: Bachelor's programmes - basic degree programmes and/or general education-oriented; Master's programmes - specialized or multidisciplinary advanced training, academic or professional oriented; Doctorate programmes - advanced training in research techniques.

Entering university
Competition for places at Spanish universities is high as there are too few places for all the students wishing to attend. Spanish students must have an Intermediate level and then pass an Entry exam. This will give them a chance to continue their education in a university or other Higher education facility. EU nationals are entitled to compete for places at Spanish universities on equal terms with Spanish nationals, as are Spanish nationals in other EU countries. In addition, a percentage of places at most universities, e.g. 5 percent, are allocated to foreign non-EU students. In general, qualifications that are accepted as entry requirements in a student's home country are accepted in Spain. Applications must be submitted to universities and addressed to the student secretariat (vicerectorado de alumnos). Spanish universities accept British A-levels as an entrance qualification, but an American high school diploma isnt usually accepted. American students must usually have spent two years at college or hold a BA, BBA or BSc degree.

Major Crops:
Spain has long been Western Europe's leading producer, and the world's foremost exporter, of oranges and mandarins. In the early 1960s, the production of these commodities averaged 1.8 million tons a year, and by the 1980s the annual yield averaged about 3 million tons. Grapefruit, lemons, and limes were also grown in quantity, but Spain was second to Italy among West European producers of these fruits. Spain's citrus groves, all under irrigation, were concentrated in Mediterranean coastal provinces, the Levante, primarily in a narrow coastal strip 500 kilometers in length extending from the province of Castellon to the province of Almeria. Some citrus fruit production also was found in Andalusia. Spain's other significant orchard crops were apples, bananas, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, figs, and nuts. Except for bananas, which were grown only in the Canary Islands, and figs, which were grown mostly in the Balearic Islands, orchard crops were produced primarily in the Levante and in Catalonia. The Catalan province of Lerida was the leading producer of apples and pears, and it ranked second to Murcia in the production of peaches. Almonds, grown along the southern and the eastern coasts, emerged as another important Spanish cash crop. Almost half of the 1985 crop was exported, approximately 70 to 75 percent of it to EC countries. The principal vegetable crops were potatoes, tomatoes, onions, cabbages, peppers, and string beans. Spain was the leading producer of onions in Western Europe, and it was second only to Italy in the production of tomatoes. These crops were concentrated in Andalusia and in the intensively cultivated and largely irrigated Mediterranean coastal areas, where small garden

plots known as huertas were common. The Canary Islands also produced a significant proportion of Spain's tomatoes. Potatoes were a prominent garden crop in the northwest. Spain was the world's leading producer and exporter of olives and olive oil, although in some years Italy showed higher production levels because Spanish harvests were notably vulnerable to insects, frost, and storm damage. Andalusia, where about one-half of the olive groves were found, is generally free of these hazards, but olives were grown in virtually every province except the humid north and the northwest. In the 1980s, olive production fluctuated wildly, ranging from 1.2 million to 3.3 million tons per year. Olive oil production was also volatile. Spain's olive production is affected by EC quotas, and past efforts to control overproduction have included the destruction of olive groves. Though Spain boasted the world's largest area of land devoted to vineyards, much of the wine it produced was of mediocre quality. Vineyards were usually located on poor land, and good wine-making technology was often lacking. In the past, government-guaranteed prices for wine tended to encourage quantity rather than quality and alcoholic content, but programs were instituted in the 1980s to upgrade production, and surpluses of poor quality white wine were more regularly distilled into industrial alcohol. Supported by the restructuring and reconversion program initiated by the government in 1984 and by an EC assistance program, Spain's vineyard acreage continued to decline, and it was expected to fall to 100,000 hectares by 1990. Spain's 1986 wine production was estimated at 36.7 million hectoliters. Grains covered about 10 percent of Spain's cultivated lands, and about 10 percent of that area was irrigated. Wheat and barley were generally grown in the dry areas because corn tends to crowd such crops out of areas with more abundant rainfall or irrigation. Although most of the wheat was grown in dry upland areas, some of it also was grown on valuable irrigated land. Rice was dependent on plentiful water supplies and, accordingly, was produced in the irrigated areas of the Levante, in Andalusia, and at the mouth of the Rio Ebro. Spanish farmers also grew rye, oats, and sorghum. During the mid-1980s, the grain crop usually hit record highs of about 20 million tons, compared to 13 million ton in 1983. This meant that Spain, long a grain-importing nation, now produced a surplus of cereals. Barley had come to account for about one-half of the grain harvest and corn for about one-sixth of it, as the government encouraged production of these crops in order to reduce imports of animal feed grains. Although the wheat crop was subject to wide fluctuations because of variable weather conditions, it generally provided about one-fourth of Spain's total grain production, which exceeded the country's needs. Rice and oats constituted the rest of the national total. Some rice and wheat were exported with the help of subsidies, and analysts expected the surplus of wheat and the deficit of corn to continue into the 1990s. To make up for the shortage of domestic feed grains, Spain became one of the world's largest importers of soybeans, and it developed a modern oilseed-crushing industry of such high productivity that surplus soybean oil became one of Spain's most important agricultural export commodities. The government encouraged domestic production of soybeans to lessen

the heavy dependence on soybean imports. To limit the impact of this production on the important, labor-intensive, olive oil industry, which provided work for many field hands in southern Spain, a domestic tax system was established that maintained a two-to-one olive oilsoybean oil price ratio. The revenues derived from this system subsidized large exports of surplus soybean oil. The United States, once the main source of soybean imports, lodged protests against this policy, both bilaterally and internationally, but with little effect as of 1988. As a further step in reducing Spanish dependence on imported soybeans, the government encouraged sunflower production. Especially favorable growing conditions, coupled with generous government support, caused sunflower seed output to expand spectacularly, and the amount of land used for its cultivation went from virtually nothing in 1960 to approximately 1 million hectares in the 1980s. Sunflower-seed meal was not the most desirable livestock feed, and therefore was not used in this way, but by the 1980s most Spanish households used the cooking oil it provided because it was less expensive than olive oil. About 8 percent of the cultivated land in Spain was devoted to legumes and to industrial crops. Edible legumes were grown in virtually every province; French beans and kidney beans predominated in the wetter regions; and chick peas (garbanzos) and lentils, in the arid regions. However, Spain was a net importer of legumes. Although consumption of these crops declined as the standard of living improved, domestic production also fell. Sugar beets were Spain's most important industrial crop. Annual production in the mid-1980s averaged about 7 million tons. Cultivation was widely scattered, but the heaviest production was found in the Guadalquivir Basin, in the province of Leon, and around Valladolid. A small amount of sugarcane was grown in the Guadalquivir Basin. Sugar production, controlled to meet EC quotas, was usually sufficient to meet domestic needs. Although small quantities of tobacco, cotton, flax, and hemp were also cultivated, they were not adequate to fulfil Spain's needs. But esparto grass, a native Mediterranean fiber used in making paper, rope, and basketry, grew abundantly in the southeastern part of the country.

Spain Industry Sectors: Major Contributors Industry in Spain has developed in diverse sectors, including textile, food-processing, machinery, and iron and steel. However, the key contributors to Spains economy are: Automotive Industry In 2009, Spains automotive industry contributed about 3.5% of the nations GDP, employing 9% of the total labor force. Spain is among the top ten car manufacturing countries in the world. However, the industrys production saw a significant downward spiral in 2008 and 2009, particularly as a result of unfavorable government policies. As a result, the ownership of several Spanish car brands has been passed to foreign companies. Currently, the major domestic player in Spains automotive industry is SEAT, a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group. Tourism Industry Spain has the second largest tourism industry in the world, which is also the nations main source of income, contributing nearly 11% to Spains GDP and employing about 2 million of the total labor force. Additionally, Spains tourism industry is instrumental in stimulating Spanish exports. According to Eurostat, Spain dominated Europes tourism industry between 2000 and 2006, earning approximately 25% of the total revenues. Spains tourism industry, however, began to plateau in 2008 as a result of several factors, including the global economic meltdown and access to cheaper destinations in Europe. Fertilizers and chemicals Fertilizers and chemicals are the most prominent industry sectors in Spain, representing a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.1% for 2009-2010. The industry generated total revenues of $4.3 billion in 2008. In addition, the Spanish specialty chemicals market had total earnings of $24.2 billion in 2008. Finally, increasing investment in research and development has resulted in the development of the biotechnology industry in Spain. The industry grew at an astounding rate of 350% between 2003 and 2010. Currently, Spains biotechnology industry employs over 150,000 workers. Aerospace The Spanish aerospace market is the fifth one in Europe in terms of sales (5,400 Mn) and jobs (over 36,000 people), with yearly sales increases close to 9% in 2011-12. Production capacity is strongly developed, with airplanes and systems as main sub-segment (70% of total production in 2011), followed by engines (11%), equipment (10%) and other (9%). The country has important aerospace clusters. In the last years the most important global manufac-turers have invested in R&D centers in Spain, thanks to its position in the EU and its reference posi-tion with Latin American countries. It also highlights the relevance and the capabilities that the Span-ish aerospace industry has acquired in the last years.

Biotechnology, Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences The Spanish biotechnology industry has increased significantly in recent years. Spain is responsible for 8.5% of the European scientific production of biotechnologies and occupies the fifth place in the EU15 ranking. In 2009 there were 1,095 companies involved in biotechnology activities. There is a strong spin-off culture, both in the public and private sector. The pharmaceutical industry is well-established, grouping close to 450 pharmaceutical companies representing 20% of total R&D spending in Spain. The healthcare market includes more than 1,700 companies developing technological products for multiple segments such as electro-medicine, ophthalmology, pediatric surgery Information & Communication Technologies (ICT) The market for the ICT sector in Spain has experienced a major growth over recent years, becoming one of the top five countries in Europe. The sector's turnover in 2009 reached 100,000 Mn, an average annual growth above 4% over the past 7 years; this amount represents a contribution to GDP of about 6%. Companies directly employ over 418,000 workers, a figure that rises to one million and a half including indirect jobs, 7.5% of total employment in the country. Following the general trend of the country, this industry is dominated in number by small and medium enterprises of more than 28,000 companies focused on these activities (only 4% are over 50 employees). Spanish ICT multinationals are present in the most relevant international markets and in multiple sectors with advanced-technology products and systems used for management and control, organization of international events or the defense industry, among other examples