Chapter 2 Solutions Engineering and Chemical Thermodynamics

Wyatt Tenhaeff Milo Koretsky Department of Chemical Engineering Oregon State University koretsm@engr.orst.edu

2.1 There are many possible solutions to this problem. Assumptions must be made to solve the problem. One solution is as follows. First, assume that half of a kilogram is absorbed by the towel when you dry yourself. In other words, let
m H 2 O = 0.5 [kg ]

Assume that the pressure is constant at 1.01 bar during the drying process. Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects reveals

= h q Refer to the development of Equation 2.57 in the text to see how this result is achieved. To find the minimum energy required for drying the towel, assume that the temperature of the towel remains constant at T = 25 C = 298.15 K . In the drying process, the absorbed water is vaporized into steam. Therefore, the expression for heat is
v h l =h q H 2O H 2O

v is the specific enthalpy of water vapor at P = 1.01 bar and T = 298.15 K and where is h H 2O l h is the specific enthalpy of liquid water at P = 1.01 bar and T = 298.15 K . A hypothetical
H 2O

path must be used to calculate the change in enthalpy. Refer to the diagram below
P liquid 1 atm h 1 3.17 kPa P
sat

h P = 1 [atm]

vapor

h 3

h 2

liquid

vapor

By adding up each step of the hypothetical path, the expression for heat is = h1 + h2 + h3 q l ,sat (25 C ) h l = h

H 2O

v ,sat (25 C ) h l ,sat (25 C )] ( 25 C, 1.01 bar )]+ [h H O H O v (25 C, 1.01 bar ) h v ,sat (25 C )] + [h H O H O
H 2O
2 2 2 2

However, the calculation of heat can be simplified by treating the water vapor as an ideal gas, which is a reasonable assumption at low pressure. The enthalpies of ideal gases depend on temperature only. Therefore, the enthalpy of the vapor change due to the pressure change is zero. Furthermore, enthalpy is weakly dependent on pressure in liquids. The leg of the hypothetical path containing the pressure change of the liquid can be neglected. This leaves
v (25 C, 3.17 kPa ) h l (25 C, 3.17 kPa ) =h q H 2O H 2O

From the steam tables: v, sat = 2547.2 kJ h kg H 2O l , sat = 104.87 kJ h kg H 2O which upon substitution gives
kJ = 2442.3 q kg

(sat. H2O vapor at 25 C) (sat. H2O liquid at 25 C)

Therefore,
kJ Q = (0.5 [kg ]) 2442.3 kg = 1221.2 [kJ ]

To find the efficiency of the drying process, assume the dryer draws 30 A at 208 V and takes 20 minutes (1200 s) to dry the towel. From the definition of electrical work,
W = IVt = (30 [A ])(208 [V ])(1200 [s]) = 7488 [kJ ]

Therefore, the efficiency is

1221.2 [kJ ] Q 100 % = 100 % = 16.3% W 7488 [kJ ]

There are a number of ways to improve the drying process. A few are listed below. Dry the towel outside in the sun. Use a smaller volume dryer so that less air needs to be heated. Dry more than one towel at a time since one towel cant absorb all of the available heat. With more towels, more of the heat will be utilized.

2.3 In answering this question, we must distinguish between potential energy and internal energy. The potential energy of a system is the energy the macroscopic system, as a whole, contains relative to position. The internal energy represents the energy of the individual atoms and molecules in the system, which can have contributions from both molecular kinetic energy and molecular potential energy. Consider the compression of a spring from an initial uncompressed state as shown below.

uncompressed x

compressed M

State 1

State 2

Since it requires energy to compress the spring, we know that some kind of energy must be stored within the spring. Since this change in energy can be attributed to a change of the macroscopic position of the system and is not related to changes on the molecular scale, we determine the form of energy to be potential energy. In this case, the springs tendency to restore its original shape is the driving force that is analogous to the gravity for gravitational potential energy. This argument can be enhanced by the form of the expression that the increased energy takes. If we consider the spring as the system, the energy it acquires in a reversible, compression from its initial uncompressed state may be obtained from an energy balance. Assuming the process is adiabatic, we obtain:

E = Q + W = W
We have left the energy in terms of the total energy, E. The work can be obtained by integrating the force over the distance of the compression:

W = F dx = kxdx = Hence: E = 1 2 kx 2

1 2 kx 2

We see that the increase in energy depends on macroscopic position through the term x. It should be noted that there is a school of thought that assigns this increased energy to internal energy. This approach is all right as long as it is consistently done throughout the energy balances on systems containing springs.

2.4 For the first situation, let the rubber band represent the system. In the second situation, the gas is the system. If heat transfer, potential and kinetic energy effects are assumed negligible, the energy balance becomes
U = W

Since work must be done on the rubber band to stretch it, the value of the work is positive. From the energy balance, the change in internal energy is positive, which means that the temperature of the system rises. When a gas expands in a piston-cylinder assembly, the system must do work to expand against the piston and atmosphere. Therefore, the value of work is negative, so the change in internal energy is negative. Hence, the temperature decreases. In analogy to the spring in Problem 2.3, it can be argued that some of the work imparted into the rubber band goes to increase its potential energy; however, a part of it goes into stretching the polymer molecules which make up the rubber band, and the qualitative argument given above still is valid.

2.5 To explain this phenomenon, you must realize that the water droplet is heated from the bottom. At sufficiently high temperatures, a portion of the water droplet is instantly vaporized. The water vapor forms an insulation layer between the skillet and the water droplet. At low temperatures, the insulating layer of water vapor does not form. The transfer of heat is slower through a gas than a liquid, so it takes longer for the water to evaporate at higher temperatures.

2.6

Apartment System

Surr. HOT Q

+ W -

If the entire apartment is treated as the system, then only the energy flowing across the apartment boundaries (apartment walls) is of concern. In other words, the energy flowing into or out of the refrigerator is not explicitly accounted for in the energy balance because it is within the system. By neglecting kinetic and potential energy effects, the energy balance becomes

U = Q + W
The Q term represents the heat from outside passing through the apartments walls. The W term represents the electrical energy that must be supplied to operate the refrigerator. To determine whether opening the refrigerator door is a good idea, the energy balance with the door open should be compared to the energy balance with the door closed. In both situations, Q is approximately the same. However, the values of W will be different. With the door open, more electrical energy must be supplied to the refrigerator to compensate for heat loss to the apartment interior. Therefore,
Wajar > Wshut

where the subscript ajar refers the situation where the door is open and the subscript shut refers to the situation where the door is closed. Since,
Qajar = Qshut U ajar = Qajar + Wajar > U shut = Qshut + Wshut Tajar > Tshut

The refrigerator door should remain closed.

Fridge

2.7 The two cases are depicted below.

Heater off Heater on

Surr. System Q System

Surr.

Heater

Lets consider the property changes in your house between the following states. State 1, when you leave in the morning, and state, the state of your home after you have returned home and heated it to the same temperature as when you left. Since P and T are identical for states 1 and 2, the state of the system is the same and U must be zero, so

U = Q + W = 0
or

Q =W
where -Q is the total heat that escaped between state 1 and state 2 and W is the total work that must be delivered to the heater. The case where more heat escapes will require more work and result in higher energy bills. When the heater is on during the day, the temperature in the system is greater than when it is left off. Since heat transfer is driven by difference in temperature, the heat transfer rate is greater, and W will be greater. Hence, it is cheaper to leave the heater off when you are gone.

Heater

2.8 The amount of work done at constant pressure can be calculated by applying Equation 2.57

H = Q
Hence,

H = Q = mh where the specific internal energy is used in anticipation of obtaining data from the steam tables. The mass can be found from the known volume, as follows:
3 L = 1.0 [kg ] m3 0.0010 kg

m=

V = v

m (1[L]) 0.001

As in Example 2.2, we use values from the saturated steam tables at the same temperature for subcooled water at 1 atm. The specific enthalpy is found from values in Appendix B.1: kJ kJ kJ =u l ,2 at 100 o C u l ,1 at 25 o C = 419.02 104.87 = 314.15 u kg kg kg

[ ])

( [ ])

Solve for heat:

kJ = (1.0 [kg ]) 314 . 05 Q = mu kg = 314.15 [kJ ]

and heat rate:

314.15 [kJ ] = 0.52 [kW ] 60 [s] (10 [min.]) min

&=Q= Q t

This value is the equivalent of five strong light bulbs.

2.9 (a) From Steam Tables:

kJ 1 = 2967.8 u kg kJ 2 = 2659.8 u kg

(100 kPa, 400 C) (50 kPa, 200 C)

kJ =u 2 u 1 = 308.0 u kg
(b) From Equations 2.53 and 2.63
u = u 2 u1 = cv dT =
T1 T2 T2 T1

(c P R )dT

From Appendix A.2 c P = R( A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 )

u = R A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 1 dT
T1 T2

Integrating
E 1 1 B C u = R ( A 1)(T2 T1 ) + (T2 2 T12 ) + (T23 T13 ) D( ) + (T2 4 T14 ) 2 3 4 T2 T1

The following values were found in Table A.2.1

A = 3.470 B = 1.45 10 3 C=0 D = 1.21 10 4 E =0 Substituting these values and using

10

 J R = 8.314 mol K T1 = (400 + 273.15 K) = 673.15 K T2 = (200 + 273.15 K) = 473.15 K

provides
J u = 5551 mol kJ J 1 [mol H 2 O] 1000 g 1 kJ = u 308 . 1 = kg 5551 mol 18.0148 [g H 2 O] 1 kg 1000 J

The values in parts (a) and (b) agree very well. The answer from part (a) will serve as the basis for calculating the percent difference since steam table data should be more accurate.
% Difference = 308 ( )308.1 100 % = 0.03% 308.0

11

2.10 (a) Referring to the energy balance for closed systems where kinetic and potential energy are neglected, Equation 2.30 states

U = Q + W
(b) Since internal energy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas (Equation 2.4) and the process is isothermal
U = 0

According to Equation 2.77

P2 W = nRT ln P 1 P2 = n1 RT1 ln P 1

From the ideal gas law:

n1RT1 = P 1V1 P2 W = P1V1 ln P 1

Substitution of the values from the problem statement yields

5 bar W = 8 105 Pa 2.5 10 3 m 3 ln 8 bar W = 940 [J ] The energy balance is Q = 940 [J ]
(c) Since the process is adiabatic

)(

0 J = Q +W

Q=0
The energy balance reduces to
U = W

12

The system must do work on the surroundings to expand. Therefore, the work will be negative and
U < 0 U = n cv T < 0
T1 T2

T2 < T1 T2 will be less than 30 C

13

2.11 (a) (i).

1 3 Path B

P [bar]

Pa A th

2 1

0.01

0.02

0.03 3 v [m /mol]

(ii). Since internal energy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas (Equation 2.4) and the process is isothermal
u = 0

Equation 2.48 states that enthalpy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas. Therefore,
h = 0

Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy produces u = q + w = 0

For an isothermal, adiabatic process, Equation 2.77 states

P2 W = nRT ln P 1

or
w= P2 W = RT ln P n 1

Substituting the values from the problem statement gives

14

 1 bar J w= ((88 + 273.15) K )ln 3 bar 8.314 mol K J w = 3299 mol

Using the energy balance above

J q = w = 3299 mol
(b) (i).

See path on diagram in part (a)

(ii). Since the overall process is isothermal and u and h are state functions
u = 0 h = 0

The definition of work is

w = PE dv
During the constant volume part of the process, no work is done. The work must be solved for the constant pressure step. Since it is constant pressure, the above equation simplifies to
w = PE dv = PE (v2 v1 ) The ideal gas law can be used to solve for v 2 and v1
J mol 8.314 ((88 + 273.15) K ) m3 RT2 K = = v2 = 0 . 030 P2 1 10 5 Pa mol J mol 8.314 ((88 + 273.15) K ) m3 RT1 K = 0 . 010 v1 = = P1 3 10 5 Pa mol

Substituting in these values and realizing that PE = P 1 since the process is isobaric produces

15

 m3 m3 w = (3 10 5 Pa) 0.030 0.010 mol mol J w = 6000 mol

Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy results in

u = q + w = 0
J q = w = 6000 mol

16

2.12 First, perform an energy balance. No work is done, and the kinetic and potential energies can be neglected. The energy balance reduces to

U = Q We can use Equation 2.53 to get

Q = n cv dT
T1 T2

which can be rewritten as

Q = n c P dT
T1 T2

since the aluminum is a solid. Using the atomic mass of aluminum we find
n= 5 kg = 185.3 mol kg 0.02698 mol

Upon substitution of known values and heat capacity data from Table A.2.3, we get
J 3 Q = (185.3 mol) 8.314 mol K 2.486 + 1.49 10 T dT 294.15 K Q = 131.61 [kJ ]
323.15 K

17

2.13 First, start with the energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Therefore, the energy balance becomes

U = Q + W The value of the work will be used to obtain the final temperature. The definition of work (Equation 2.7) is
W = PE dV
V1 V2

Since the piston expands at constant pressure, the above relationship becomes
W = PE (V2 V1 )

From the steam tables m3 1 = 0.02641 v kg (10 MPa, 400 C)

m3 3 V1 = m1v1 = (3 kg) 0.02641 = 0.07923 m kg

[ ]

Now V2 and v2 are found as follows V2 = V1 V 2 = 2 v m2 748740 J W = 0.4536 m3 = 0.07923 m3 6 PE 2.0 10 Pa m3 0.4536 m 3 = = 0.1512 3 [kg ] kg

[ ]

[ ]

2 and P2 are known, state 2 is constrained. From the steam tables: Since v

T2 = 400 [ C]

3 20 bar, 0.1512 m kg

Now U will be evaluated, which is necessary for calculating Q . From the steam tables:

18

 kJ 2 = 2945.2 u kg

3 20 bar, 0.1512 m kg

kJ 1 = 2832.4 u kg

(100 bar, 400 C)

kJ kJ 2 u 1 ) = (3 [kg ]) 2945 . 2 2832 . 4 U = m1 (u kg = 338.4 [kJ ] kg

Substituting the values of U and W into the energy equation allows calculation of Q

Q = U W
Q = 338400 [J] ( 748740 [J ]) = 1.09 10 6 [J ]

19

2.14 In a reversible process, the system is never out of equilibrium by more than an infinitesimal amount. In this process the gas is initially at 2 bar, and it expands against a constant pressure of 1 bar. Therefore, a finite mechanical driving force exists, and the process is irreversible.

To solve for the final temperature of the system, the energy balance will be written. The pistoncylinder assembly is well-insulated, so the process can be assumed adiabatic. Furthermore, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The energy balance simplifies to
U = W

Conservation of mass requires

n1 = n2 Let n = n1 = n2

The above energy balance can be rewritten as

n cv dT = PE dV
T1 V1 T2 V2

Since cv and PE are constant: ncv (T2 T1 ) = PE (V2 V1 )

V2 and T1 can be rewritten using the ideal gas law

V2 =

nRT2 P2 PV T1 = 1 1 nR

Substituting these expressions into the energy balance, realizing that PE = P2 , and simplifying the equation gives 5 P2 + P 1 V1 2 T2 = 7 nR 2 Using the following values

20

P 1 = 2 [bar ] V1 = 10 [L] P2 = 1 [bar ]

n = 1.0 [mol] L bar R = 0.08314 mol K

results in
T2 = 206 [K ]

To find the value for work, the energy balance can be used W = U = ncv (T2 T1 ) Before the work can be calculated, T1 must be calculated PV T1 = 1 1 = nR

(2 [bar ])(10 [L])

L bar (1 [mol]) 0.08314 mol K

= 241 [K ]

Using the values shown above

W = 727 [J ]

21

2.15 The maximum work can be obtained through a reversible expansion of the gas in the piston. Refer to Section 2.3 for a discussion of reversible processes. The problem states that the piston assembly is well-insulated, so the heat transfer contribution to the energy balance can be neglected, in addition to potential and kinetic energy effects. The energy balance reduces to
U = W

In this problem, the process is a reversible, adiabatic expansion. For this type of process, Equation 2.90 states W= 1 [P2V2 P1V1 ] k 1

From the problem statement (refer to problem 2.13), V1 = 10 [L] P 1 = 2 [bar ] P2 = 1 [bar ]

To calculate W, V2 must be found. For adiabatic, reversible processes, the following relationship (Equation 2.89) holds: PV k = const where k is defined in the text. Therefore,
1 P 1 k k V2 = P V1 2

c 7 Noting that k = P = and substituting the proper values provides cv 5

V2 = 16.4 [L]

Now all of the needed values are available for calculating the work.
W = 9 [L bar ] = 900 [J ]

From the above energy balance,

U = 900 [J ]

22

The change in internal energy can also be written according to Equation 2.53:
U = n cv dT
T1 T2

Since cv is constant, the integrated form of the above expression is 5 U = n R (T2 T1 ) 2 Using the ideal gas law and knowledge of P 1 and V1 ,
T1 = 240.6 [K ]

and
T2 = 197.3 [K ]

The temperature is lower because more work is performed during the reversible expansion. Review the energy balance. As more work is performed, the cooler the gas will become.

23

2.16 Since the vessel is insulated, the rate of heat transfer can be assumed to be negligible. Furthermore, no work is done on the system and potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Therefore, the energy balance becomes

=0 u or
2 = u 1 u

From the steam tables kJ 1 = 2619.2 u kg kJ 2 = 2619.2 u kg (200 bar, 400 C)

2 and P2 constrain the system. The temperature can be found from the steam The values of u tables using linear interpolation: T2 = 327.5 C kJ 100 [bar ], u 2619 . 2 = 2 kg

Also at this state, m3 2 = 0.02012 v kg Therefore,

m3 3 Vvessel = mv2 = (1.0 [kg ]) 0.02012 = 0.020 m kg

[ ]

24

2.17

Let the entire tank represent the system. Since no heat or work crosses the system boundaries, and potential and kinetic energies effects are neglected, the energy balance is
u = 0

Since the tank contains an ideal gas T2 T1 = 0 T2 = T1 = 300 K The final pressure can be found using a combination of the ideal gas law and conservation of mass. T1 T = 2 P 1V1 P2V2 We also know
V2 = 2V1

Therefore, P P2 = 1 = 5 bar 2

25

2.18 (a) First, as always, simplify the energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Therefore, the energy balance is

U = Q + W Since, this system contains water, we can the use the steam tables. Enough thermodynamic properties are known to constrain the initial state, but only one thermodynamic property is known for the final state: the pressure. Therefore, the pressure-volume relationship will be used to find the specific volume of the final state. Since the specific volume is equal to the molar volume multiplied by the molecular weight and the molecular weight is constant, the given expression can be written 1.5 = const Pv
2 . This equation can be used to solve for v P 1.5 1.5 1 2 = v v 1 P 2
1

Using
P 1 = 20 [bar ] 1 = v m3 1.0 m 3 = 0.1 10 [kg ] kg

[ ]

P2 = 100 [bar ]

gives m3 2 = 0.0342 v kg Now that the final state is constrained, the steam tables can be used to find the specific internal energy and temperature.
T2 = 524.7 [K ] kJ 2 = 3094.6 u kg

To solve for the work, refer to the definition (Equation 2.7). 26

W = PE dV
V1

V2

or
= PE dv w
1 v 2 v

Since the process is reversible, the external pressure must never differ from the internal pressure by more than an infinitesimal amount. Therefore, an expression for the pressure must be developed. From the relationship in the problem statement, 1.5 = P 11.5 = const Pv 1v Therefore, the expression for work becomes
= w
2 v 1 v

11.5 P 1v 1.5 v

= P 11.5 dv 1v

2 v 1 v

dv v 1.5

Integration and substitution of proper values provides bar m 3 kJ = 2.840 w = 284 kg kg

kJ W = (10 [kg ]) 284 kg = 2840 [kJ ]

A graphical solution is given below:

2 P [bar] 100

60

20

Work
0.02 0.06 0.10 v [m 3/kg]

27

To solve for Q , U must first be found, then the energy balance can be used.
kJ kJ 2 u 1 ) = (10 [kg ]) U = m(u 3094.6 kg 2602.8 kg = 4918 [kJ ]

Now Q can be found,

Q = U W = 4918 [kJ ] 2840 [kJ ] = 2078 [kJ ]

(b) Since the final state is the same as in Part (a), U remains the same because it is a state function. The energy balance is also the same, but the calculation of work changes. The pressure from the weight of the large block and the piston must equal the final pressure of the system since mechanical equilibrium is reached. The calculation of work becomes:
W = mPE dv
1 v 2 v

All of the values are known since they are the same as in Part (a), but the following relationship should be noted
PE = P2

Substituting the appropriate values results in

W = 6580 [kJ ]

Again we can represent this process graphically:

2 P [bar] 100

Work
60

20

0.02

0.06

0.10 v [m 3/kg]

28

Now Q can be solved.

Q = U W = 4918 [kJ ] 6580 [kJ ] = 1662 [kJ ]

(c) This part asks us to design a process based on what we learned in Parts (a) and (b). Indeed, as is characteristic of design problems there are many possible alternative solutions. We first refer to the energy balance. The value of heat transfer will be zero when
U = W

For the same initial and final states as in Parts (a) and (b),
W = U = 4918 [kJ ]

There are many processed we can construct that give this value of work. We show two alternatives which we could use: Design 1: If the answers to Part (a) and Part (b) are referred to, one can see that two steps can be used: a reversible compression followed by an irreversible compression. Let the subscript i" represent the intermediate state where the process switches from a reversible process to an irreversible process. The equation for the work then becomes
i v 1 1 . 5 = 4918000 [J ] 2 v i ) P 1 W = m P2 (v dv 1v 1 . 5 1 v v

i : Substituting in known values (be sure to use consistent units) allows calculation of v m3 i = 0.0781 v kg The pressure can be calculated for this state using the expression from part (a) and substituting the necessary values. v1 Pi = P 1 v i Pi = 29.0 [bar ]
1.5

29

i are known, the process can be plotted on a P-v graph, as follows: Now that both Pi and v

2 P [bar] 100

60

Work

i 20

0.02

0.06

0.10 v [m 3/kg]

Design 2: In an alternative design, we can use two irreversible processes. First we drop an intermediate weight on the piston to compress it to an intermediate state. This step is followed by a step similar to Part (b) where we drop the remaining mass to lead to 100 bar external pressure. In this case, we again must find the intermediate state. Writing the equation for work: i v 1 ) P2 (v 2 v i )] = 4918000 [J ] W = m[ Pi (v However, we again have the relationship:
v1 Pi = P1 v i
1.5

Substitution gives one equation with one unknown vi:

1.5 v1 W = m P1 ( v v ) P ( v v ) i 1 2 2 i = 4918000 [J ] v i

There are two possible values vi to the above equation. Solution A:

m3 i = 0.043 v kg

30

which gives
Pi = 70.8 [bar ]

This solution is graphically shown below:

2 P [bar] 100

i 60

20

Work

0.02

0.06

0.10 v [m 3/kg]

Solution B
m3 i = 0.0762 v kg

which gives
Pi = 30.0 [bar ]

This solution is graphically shown below:

2 P [bar] 100

60 i 20

Work

0.02

0.06

0.10 v [m 3/kg]

31

2.19 (a) Force balance to find k:

Fspring=kx Piston

Fatm=PatmA

Fgas=PgasA

Fmass=mg

Pgas = Patm + A kx A

mg

since V=Ax

V Pgas = Patm + A + k2 A mg

since V is negative. Now solve:

2 10 5 Pa = 1 10 5 Pa +

(2040 kg )(9.81 m/s 2 ) k (0.02 m 3 )

0 .1 m 2

(0.1 m 2 )2

N k = 5.01 10 4 m

Work can be found graphically (see P-V plot) or analytically as follows: Substituting the expression in the force balance above:
P k V WA = atm + A + A 2 dV
mg

mg kV W A = Patm + d (V ) dV + 2 A A Vi Vi

Vf

V f

2 5.01 10 4 [N/m] 0.02 m 3 0 2 W A = 3.00 10 Pa 0.03 0.05 m + 2 2 0 .1 m 2

)(

32

W A = 5 103 [J ]
-W 3 P [bar] 0.5kJ = 10squares square = 5 kJ k V 2 A 2 2

mg A

Work

1 1 Patm

0.01

0.03

0.05 V [m3 ]

(b) You need to find how far the spring extends in the intermediate (int) position. Assume PVn=const (other assumptions are o.k, such as an isothermal process, and will change the answer slightly). Since you know P and V for each state in Part (a), you can calculate n.
Pi Pf

V n = Vi or f

10 5 Pa 2 10 5 Pa

0.03 m 3 = 3 0.05 m

n = 1.35

Now using the force balance

V Pgas,int = Patm + A + k 2 A mg

with the above equation yields:

Pint = Pi V i int

( )=P
V n

mg k (Vint V i ) atm + A + A2

This last equality represents 1 equation. and 1 unknown (we know k), which gives
Vint = 0.0385 m 3

Work can be found graphically (see P-V plot) or analytically using:

33

W B = Pgas dV + PgasdV
Vi Vint

V int

Vf

expanding as in Part (a)

int 5 N WB = 2 10 m2 dV +

Vint V i

Vi

f 6 N 5 N V ( ) + 5 10 d V 3 10 m 5 2 dV + m

V if

Vint

Vint

6 5 10 N5 V d ( V ) m

Therefore,
WB = 3.85 [kJ ]

just like we got graphically.

3 P [bar]

2 2

mg A mg A 1

Work
Patm

0.01

0.03

0.05 V [m3 ]

(c) The least amount of work is required by adding differential amounts of mass to the piston. This is a reversible compression. For our assumption that PVn = const, we have the following expression:
Vf

WC , rev =

Vi

Pgas dV = V 1.35 dV
Vi

Vf

const

Calculate the constant from the initial state

34

const. = 1 105 Pa 0.05 m 3 Therefore,

)(

)1.35 = 1.75 103

10 = 1.75 0.35 V
3

WC, rev = 1.75 103 dV 1.35

.05 V

.03

0 .35 .03 .05

= 2800 [J ]

3 P [bar]

2 2

1 1

Workrev
Patm

0.01

0.03

0.05 V [m3 ]

35

2.20 Before this problem is solved, a few words must be said about the notation used. The system was initially broken up into two parts: the constant volume container and the constant pressure piston-cylinder assembly. The subscript 1 refers to the constant volume container, 2 refers the piston-cylinder assembly. i" denotes the initial state before the valve is opened, and f denotes the final state.

To begin the solution, the mass of water present in each part of the system will be calculated. The mass will be conserved during the expansion process. Since the water in the rigid tank is saturated and is in equilibrium with the constant temperature surroundings (200 C), the water is constrained to a specific state. From the steam tables,
kJ l 1 v , i = 0.001156 kg kJ v 1 v , i = 0.12736 kg kJ l 1 u , i = 850.64 kg kJ v 1 u , i = 2595.3 kg P sat = 1553.8 [kPa ] Knowledge of the quality of the water and the overall volume of the rigid container can be used to calculate the mass present in the container.
l v 1 1 V1 = 0.05m1 v , i + 0.95m1 v ,i

(Sat. water at 200 C)

( )

( )

Using the values from the steam table and V1 = 0.5 m 3 provides
m1 = 4.13 [kg ]

[ ]

Using the water quality specification,

v m1 = 0.95m1 = 3.92 [kg ] l m1 = 0.05m1 = 0.207 [kg ]

For the piston-cylinder assembly, both P and T are known. From the steam tables

36

 m3 2, i = 0.35202 v kg kJ 2, i = 2638.9 u kg

(600 kPa, 200 C)

Enough information is available to calculate the mass of water in the piston assembly. V m2 = 2 = 0.284 [kg ] 2 v Now that the initial state has been characterized, the final state of the system must be determined. It helps to consider what physically happens when the valve is opened. The initial pressure of the rigid tank is 1553.8 kPa. When the valve is opened, the water will rush out of the rigid tank and into the cylinder until equilibrium is reached. Since the pressure of the surroundings is constant at 600 kPa and the surroundings represent a large temperature bath at 200 C, the final temperature and pressure of the entire system will match the surroundings. In other words, kJ f =u 2, i = 2638.9 u kg (600 kPa, 200 C)

Thus, the change in internal energy is given by

v l v v l l U = (m2 + m1 , i + m1, i )u f m2 u 2, i m1, i u1, i m1, i u1, i

Substituting the appropriate values reveals

U = 541.0 [kJ ]

To calculate the work, we realize the gas is expanding against a constant pressure of 600 kPa (weight of the piston was assumed negligible). From Equation 2.7, W = PE dV = PE (V f Vi )
Vi Vf

where
PE = 600000 [Pa ] Vi = 0.1 m 3 + 0.5 m 3 = 0.6 m 3

3 v l V f = (m2 + m1 , i + m1, i )v 2, i = 1.55 m

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

[ ]
37

2, i was used to calculate V f because the temperature and pressure are the same Note: v for the final state of the entire system and the initial state of the piston-cylinder assembly. The value of W can now be evaluated.
W = 570 [kJ ]

The energy balance is used to obtain Q.

Q = U W = 541.0 [kJ ] ( 570 [kJ ]) = 1111 [kJ ]

38

2.21

A sketch of the process follows:

system
A p 1,A = 10 bar T1,A = 700 o C H2 O B p 1,B = 20 bar T1,B = 250 o C H2 O

system Process boundary

A p2 T2 H2 O B p2 T2 H2 O

boundary

50 cm

10 cm

The initial states are constrained. Using the steam tables, we get the following: State 1,A 10 [bar] 700 [oC] 0.44779 [m3/kg] 3475.35 [kJ/kg] 0.01 m3
V v

p T v u V
m=

State 1,B 20 [bar] 250 [oC] 0.11144 [m3/kg] 2679.58 [kJ/kg] 0.05 m3 0.090 [kg]

0.11 [kg]

All the properties in the final state are equal. We need two properties to constrain the system: We can find the specific volume since we know the total volume and the mass: v2 = V1, A + V1, B m1, A + m1, B = m3 0.06 m 3 = 0.30 0.20 [kg ] kg

[ ]

We can also find the internal energy of state 2. Since the tank is well insulated, Q=0. Since it is rigid, W=0. An energy balance gives:
U = Q W = 0

Thus, U 2 = U1 = m1, A u1, A + m1, Bu1,B or

u2 = kJ U 2 m1, Au1, A + m1, B u1, B = = 3121 m2 m1, A + m1, B kg

We have constrained the system with u2 and v2, and can find the other properties from the steam Tables. Very close to T2 = 500 [oC] and Thus, P2 = 1200 [kPa]

39

 m3 V2, A = v2, A m2, A = 0.30 (0.09 [kg ]) = 0.267 [m] and kg x = (0.267 0.1) = 0.167 [m]

40

2.22 We start by defining the system as a bubble of vapor rising through the can. We assume the initial temperature of the soda is 5 oC. Soda is usually consumed cold; did you use a reasonable estimate for T1? A schematic of the process gives:
State 2: T 2= ? P2= 1.01 bar

State 1: T 1 = 278 K P1 = 3 bar

where the initial state is labeled state 1, and the final state is labeled state 2. To find the final temperature, we perform an energy balance on the system, where the mass of the system (CO2 in the bubble) remains constant. Assuming the process is adiabatic and potential and kinetic energy effects are negligible, the energy balance is
u = w

Expressions for work and internal energy can be substituted to provide cv (T2 T1 ) = PE dv = PE (v 2 v1 ) where cv = cP R. Since CO2 is assumed an ideal gas, the expression can be rewritten as
T PT T cv (T2 T1 ) = PE R 2 1 = R T2 2 1 P1 P2 P1

where the equation was simplified since the final pressure, P2, is equal to the external pressure, PE. Simplifying, we get:
RP2 R T2 1 + c P = T1 1 + c v v 1

or
RP2 cv 1 = 237 K T2 = T1 + c P v 1 cP

41

2.23 The required amount of work is calculated as follows:

W = PV

The initial volume is zero, and the final volume is calculated as follows:

4 4 V = r 3 = (0.5 ft )3 = 1.54 ft 3 = 0.0436 m 3 3 3 Assuming that the pressure is 1 atm, we calculate that W = 1.01325 105 Pa 0.0436 m 3 0 m 3 = 4417 J This doesnt account for all of the work because work is required to stretch the rubber that the balloon is made of.

)(

42

2.24 (a) Since the water is at its critical point, the system is constrained to a specific temperature, pressure, and molar volume. From Appendix B.1

m3 c = 0.003155 v kg Therefore,
m= V = c v 0.01 m 3 = 3.17 [kg ] m3 0.003155 kg

[ ]

(b) The quality of the water is defined as the percentage of the water that is vapor. The total volume of the vessel can be found using specific volumes as follows

l + mv v v = [(1 x )m]v l + ( xm )v v V = ml v where x is the quality of the water. To solve for the quality, realize that starting with saturated water at a pressure of 1 bar constrains the water. From the steam tables,
m3 v = 1.6940 v kg m3 l v = 0.001043 kg

(sat. H2O at P = 1 bar)

Now the quality can be found

x = 0.00125

Thus, the quality of the water is 0.125%.

(c) To determine the required heat input, perform an energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, and no work is done. Therefore,

U = Q

43

where
l v 2 [(1 x )m]u 1 1 U = mu + ( xm )u

From the steam tables kJ 2 = 2029.58 u kg m3 l u1 = 417.33 kg

m3 v 1 u = 2506.1 kg

(H2O at its critical point)

(sat. H2O at P=1 bar)

Evaluation of the expression reveals U = 5102.6 [kJ ] = 5.10 10 6 [J ]

44

2.25 (a) Consider the air in ChE Hall to be the system. The system is constant volume, and potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, disregard the work. The energy balance is

du & =q dt since the temperature of the system changes over time. Using the given expression for heat transfer and the definition of dU , the expression becomes cv dT = h(T Tsurr ) dt We used a negative sign since heat transfer occurs from the system to the surroundings. If cv is assumed constant, integration provides cv ln (T Tsurr ) = ht + C where C is the integration constant. Therefore,
T = Tsurr + C1e
h c t v

where C1 is a constant. Examining this equation reveals that the temperature is an exponential function of time. Since the temperature is decreasing, we know that the plot of temperature vs. time shows exponential decay.

T0 Temperature Tsurr time

45

(b) Let time equal zero at 6 PM, when the steam is shut off. At 6 PM, the temperature of the hall is 22 C. Therefore,
T = Tsurr + C1e
h t c v

22 C = 2 C + C1e (0) C1 = 20 C After 10 PM, ( t = 4 hr ), the temperature is 12 C. 12 C = 2 C + (20 C )e h = 0.173 hr -1 cv

h ( 4 hr) c v

At 6 AM, t = 12 hr . Substitution of this value into the expression for temperature results in
T = 4 .5 C

46

2.26 The gas leaving the tank does flow work as it exits the valve. This work decreases the internal energy of the gas lowering the temperature. During this process, water from the atmosphere will become supersaturated and condense. When the temperature drops below the freezing point of water, the water forms a solid.

Attractive interactions between the compressed gas molecules can also contribute to this phenomena, i.e., it takes energy to pull the molecules apart as they escape; we will learn more of these interactions in Chapter 4.

47

2.27 Mass balance

dm & in m & out = m & in =m dt Separating variables and integrating:

m2

m1

& in dt dm = m
0

or
& in dt m2 m1 = m
0

Energy balance Since the potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, the open system, unsteady state energy balance is
dU & +W & & out hout m & in hin + Q = m s dt sys out in

The process is adiabatic and no shaft work is done. Furthermore, there is only one inlet stream and not outlet stream. Therefore, the energy balance simplifies to
dU dt & in hin =m sys

The following math is performed

U2

U1

& in hin dt = hin m & in dt dU = m

0 0

2 m1u 1 = (m2 m1 )h U 2 U 1 = m2 u in where the results of the mass balance were used. Both m2 and m1 can be calculated by dividing the tank volume by the specific volume

48

m2 = m1 =

V 2 v V 1 v

Substitution of these relationships and simplification results in

2 hin ) (u 1 hin ) (u 2 v 1 v =0

From the steam tables:

kJ 1 = 2583.6 u kg m3 1 = 0.19444 v kg

(sat. H2O vapor at 1 MPa)

= 3177.2 kJ h in kg

(6 MPa, 400 C)

There are still two unknowns for this one equation, but the specific volume and internal energy are coupled to each other. To solve this problem, guess a temperature and then find the corresponding volume and internal energy values in the steam tables at 6 MPa. The correct temperature is the one where the above relationship holds.
T = 600 C : Expression = 4427.6 T = 500 C : Expression = 1375.9 T = 450 C : Expression = -558.6

Interpolation between 500 C and 450 C reveals that the final temperature is
T2 = 464.4 C

49

2.28 We can pick room temperature to be 295 K

Tin = T1 = 295 [K] Mass balance dn & in n & out = n & in =n dt Separating variables and integrating:
n2

n1

&in dt dn = n
0

or
&in dt n2 n1 = n
0

Energy balance Neglecting ke and pe, he unsteady energy balance, written in molar units is written as:
dU & W & &in hin n &out hout + Q =n dt sys

The terms associated with flow out, heat and work are zero.
dU &in hin =n dt sys

Integrating both sides with respect to time from the initial state where the pressure is 10 bar to the final state when the tank is at a pressure of 50 bar gives:
U2

U1

&in hin dt = hin n &in dt dU = n

0 0

since the enthalpy of the inlet stream remains constant throughout the process. Integrating and using the mass balance above: n2u2 n1u1 = (n2 n1 )hin

50

Now we do some math: n2u 2 n1u1 = (n2 n1 )hin n2 (u 2 hin ) = n1 (u1 hin ) By the definition of h hin = uin + Pin vin = uin + RTin = u1 + RT1 so n2 (u 2 u1 ) n2 RT1 = n1 (u1 u1 ) n1R T1 n2 cv (T2 T1 ) n2 RT1 = n1RT1 Since cv = c P R = 3 R 2

n2

3 (T2 T1) n2T1 = n1T1 2

or
3n2T2 5n2T1 = 2n1T1

dividing by n1: n n 3 2 T2 5 2 T1 = 2T1 n1 n1 Using the ideal gas law: n2 P2T1 = n1 P 1T2 so
P T P T 3 2 1 T2 5 2 1 T1 = 2T1 1T2 1T2 P P

or

51

P T 5 2 1 1 P T2 = = 434 [K] P2 3 P + 2 1
(b) Closed system

u = q w = q
= u

cv kJ (T2 T1 ) = 5R (T2 T1 ) = 28.9 MW 2MW kg

kJ q = 28.9 kg
(c)
P2T2 = P3T3 PT P3 = 2 2 = 34 [bar ] T3

52

2.29 Mass balance

dn & in n & out = n & in =n dt

Separating variables and integrating:
n2

n1 = 0

&in dt dn = n
0

or
&in dt n2 = n
0

Energy balance Neglecting ke and pe, the unsteady energy balance, in molar units, is written as: dU & +W & &in hin n &out hout + Q =n dt sys
The terms associated with flow out and heat are zero.

dU & &in hin + W =n dt sys

Integrating both sides with respect to time from the empty initial state to the final state gives:
U2

U1

& dt = h n &in hin dt + W & in in dt + W = hin n2 + W dU = n

0 0 0

since the enthalpy of the inlet stream remains constant throughout the process. The work is given by:

W = n2 Pext (v2 v1 ) = n2 Pext v2

53

n2u2 = n2 [hin Pext v2 ]

Rearranging,

u 2 = hin Pext v2 = uin + Pin vin Pext v2 u 2 uin = Pin vin Pext v2
P T cv (T2 Tin ) = RTin R ext 2 P2

so
T2 =

(cv + R )
Pext cv + P R 2

Tin = 333 [K ]

54

2.30
valve maintains pressure in system constant v T1 = 200 oC x1 = 0.4 V = 0.01 m3 l

Mass balance dm & in m & out = m & out =m dt

Separating variables and integrating:
m2

m1

& out dt dm = m
0

or
& out dt m2 m1 = m
0

Energy balance dU +Q & & out h = m out dt sys

Integrating
2 m2 u

1 m1u

+Q m & dt = h & & out h & out out out dt + Qdt dU = m

0 0 0

Substituting in the mass balance and solving for Q

2 m1u 1 (m2 m1 )h Q = m2u out

55

We can look up property data for state 1 and state 2 from the steam tables:
m3 1 = (1 x)v f + xv g = 0.6 .001 + 0.4 0.1274 = 0.051 v kg m3 2 = 0.1274 v kg

So the mass in each state is:

m1 =

0.01 m 3 V1 = 0.196 [kg ] = 1 v m3 0.051 kg

[ ]

m2 =

V2 = 2 v

0.01 m 3 = 0.0785 [kg ] m3 0.1274 kg

[ ]

m2 m1 = 0.1175 [kg ]

And for energy and enthalpy

kJ 1 = (1 x)u f + xu g = 0.6 850.64 + 0.4 2597.5 = 1549 u kg kJ 2 = 2595.3 u kg

= 2793.2 kJ h out kg Solving for heat, we get
= 228 [kJ ] 2 m1u 1 (m2 m1 )h Q = m2u out

56

2.31 Consider the tank as the system.

Mass balance dm & in m & out = m & in =m dt

Separating variables and integrating:
m2

m1

& in dt dm = m
0

or
& in dt m2 m1 = m
0 t

Energy balance Since the potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, the open system, unsteady state energy balance is
dU & +W & & out hout m & in hin + Q = m s dt sys out in

The process is adiabatic and no shaft work is done. Furthermore, there is only one inlet stream and not outlet stream. Therefore, the energy balance simplifies to
dU & in hin =m dt sys

The following math is performed

U2

U1 = 0

& dU = m
0

in in

& in dt h dt = hin m
0

2 = m2 h U 2 = m2 u in where the results of the mass balance were used. Thus, 2 = h u in From the steam tables

57

 kJ 2 = 3632.5 u kg
so = 3632.5 kJ h in kg

(9 MPa, 800 C)

We can use the value of hin and the fact that the steam in the pipe is at 9 MPa to find the temperature.

Tin = 600 C

58

2.32 (a) First, the energy balance must be developed. Since the problem asks how much energy is stored in the battery after 10 hours of operation, the process is not steady-state. Let the battery be the system. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, heating of the battery as it is charged can be ignored. The energy balance is
dU & +W & =Q s dt sys

No shaft work is performed, but electrical is supplied to the battery, which must be accounted for & is given explicitly in the problem statement. Both of these values remain & . The value of Q in W s constant over time, so integration provides

& +W & t U = Q s
From the problem statement
& = 5 [kW ] W s & = 1 [kW ] Q

t = 36000 [s]

Substituting these values allows the calculation of the amount of energy stored:
U = 144,000 [kJ ] = 144 [MJ ]

(b) To calculate the velocity of the falling water, an energy balance must be developed with the water passing through the electricity generator (probably a turbine) as the system, where the r water enters with a velocity V1 and leaves with a negligible velocity, which will be approximated as 0. Assume that potential energy changes can be neglected. Furthermore, assume that the temperature of the water does not change in the process, so the change in internal energy is zero. Also, view the process as adiabatic. The energy balance reduces to

& =W & E K river & where W river is the power of the flowing water. The actual power being provided by the stream can be calculated using the efficiency information. Let represent the efficiency.

59

& W s = 5 [kW ] = 10 [kW ] & W = river 0.5 & The value of W river should be negative since the water is supplying work that is stored electrical energy. Therefore, the energy balance becomes & = 10000 [W ] E K
This expression can be rewritten as 1 r2 r2 & V2 V1 = 10000 [W ] m 2 From the problem statement and the assumptions made,

= & s Wriver

& W

kg & = 200 m s r m V2 = 0 s Therefore,

r m V1 = 10 s
There are a number of reasons for the low conversion efficiency. A possible potential energy loss inherent in the design of the energy conversion apparatus decreases the efficiency. Heat is lost to the surroundings during conversion. Some of the energy is also lost due to friction (drag) effects.

60

2.33 Considering the turbine to be the system, rearrangement of the steady-state, open system energy balance provides

& +W & &out (h + ek + e p ) out n &in (h + ek + e p )in = Q n s

out in

Performing a mass balance reveals

& in = n &1 = n & out = n &2 n

Assuming the rate of heat transfer and potential energy effects are negligible and realizing that there is one inlet and one outlet allows the simplification of the above equation to
& =n & 2 [(h2 h1 ) + (e K , 2 e K ,1 )] W s

(h2 h1 ) can be rewritten using Equations 2.58 and Appendix A.2

(h2 h1 ) = c p dT = R (A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 )dT
T2 T1

& , it is rewritten as follows for dimensional Since the quantity ek ,2 ek ,1 is multiplied by n homogeneity

(e

k ,2

r 2 r2 1 ek ,1 ) = ( MW ) air V2 V1 2

& , the ideal gas law is used To solve for n

& =n & 2 RT21 P2V 2 & PV &2 = 2 2 n RT2

To solve for the volumetric flow rate, the fluid velocity must be multiplied by the cross-sectional area

r D2 2V2 & V2 = 4
The energy balance is now

61

r T2 D 2V r 2 r2 P 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 & Ws = R A + BT + CT + DT + ET dT + ( MW ) air V2 V1 RT2 4 2 T1 Substituting values from Table A.2.1 and the problem statement results in

W = 4.84 10 6 [W] = -4.84 [MW]

62

2.34 First, a sketch of the process is useful:

30 bar 100 oC

20 bar 150 oC

To find the heat in we will apply the 1st law. Assuming steady state, the open system energy balance with one stream in and one stream out can be written:
& & (h1 h2 ) + Q 0=n

which upon rearranging is:

& Q = h2 h1 & n

Thus this problem reduces to finding the change in the thermodynamic property, enthalpy from the inlet to the outlet. We know 2 intensive properties at both the inlet and outlet so the values for the other properties (like enthalpy!) are already constrained. From Table A.2.1, we have an expression for the ideal gas heat capacity: cp R = 1.424 + 14.394 10 3 T 4.392 10 6 T 2

with T in (K). Since this expression is limited to ideal gases any change in temperature must be under ideal conditions. From the definition of heat capacity:
T2 & Q = h2 h1 = 1.424 + 14.394 10 3 T 4.392 10 6 T 2 dT & n T1

By integrating and substituting the temperatures, we obtain:

& Q J = 5590 & n mol

63

2.35 A schematic of the process follows:

W s T1 = 350 oC v1 = 600 cm3/mol T1 = 308 oC P2= 1 atm

& /n To solve for W s & we need a first law balance. With negligible eK and eP, the 1st law for a steady state process becomes: & +W & & (h1 h2 ) + Q 0=n s

If heat transfer is negligible,

& W s = h & n

We can calculate the change in enthalpy from ideal gas heat capacity data provided in the Appendix.
T2 T2 & W s = h = c dT =R 1.213 + 28.785 10 3 T 8.824 10 6 T 2 dT p & n T1 T1

Integrate and evaluate:

& W s = 5358 J & n mol

64

2.36 (a) First start with the energy balance. Nothing is mentioned about shaft work, so the term can be eliminated from the energy balance. The potential and kinetic energy effects can also be neglected. Since there is one inlet and one outlet, the energy balance reduces to

& =n & 2 h2 n &1h1 Q

A mass balance shows

&2 = n &1 n

so the energy balance reduces to

& =n &1 (h2 h1 ) Q

Using the expressions from Appendix A.1, the energy balance becomes
& =n &1R A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 dT Q
T1 T2

Using
A = 3.376 B = 0.557 10 3 C =0 D = 0.031 105 E =0 J R = 8.314 mol K mol &1 = 20 n s T1 = 373.15 [K ] T2 = 773.15 [K ] gives

& = 245063 [W ] = 245.1 [kW ] Q

65

(b) To answer this question, think about the structure of n-hexane and carbon monoxide. N-hexane is composed of 20 atoms, but carbon monoxide has two. One would expect the heat capacity to be greater for n-hexane since there are more modes for molecular kinetic energy (translational, kinetic, and vibrational). Because the heat capacity is greater and the rate of heat transfer is the same, the final temperature will be less.

66

2.37 First start with the energy balance around the nozzle. Assume that heat transfer and potential energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. Therefore, the energy balance reduces to
& 2 (h + e K ) 2 n &1 (h + e K )1 = 0 n

A mass balance shows

&1 = n &2 n

On a mass basis, the energy balance is

r 1 r h =e K ,2 = V12 V2 2 h 2 1 K ,1 e 2

Since the steam outlet velocity is much greater than the velocity of the inlet, the above expression is approximately equal to

r h =1 V 2 h 2 1 2 2

( )
(10 bar, 200 C) (sat. H2O(v) at 100 kPa)

The change in enthalpy can be calculated using the steam tables. J h1 = 2827.9 103 kg J h2 = 2675.5 103 kg Therefore,

r m V2 = 552 s
To solve for the area, the following relationship is used

r AV2 &= m 2 v
From the steam tables

67

 m3 v2 = 1.6940 kg Now all but one variable is known. A = 3.07 10 3 m 2

[ ]

68

2.38 First start with the energy balance around the nozzle. Assume that heat transfer and potential energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. Therefore, the energy balance reduces to

& 2 ( h + ek ) 2 n &1 (h + ek )1 = 0 n
The molar flow rates can be eliminated from the expression since they are equal. Realizing that e K ,2 >> e K ,1 since the velocity of the exit stream is much larger than the velocity of the inlet stream simplifies the energy balance to h2 h1 = ek ,2 Using Appendix A.2 and the definition of kinetic energy
r2 1 h2 h1 = R A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 dT = ( MW ) C 3 H 8 V2 2
T1 T2

From Table A.2.1 A = 1.213 B = 28.785 10 3 C = 8.824 10 6 D=0 E =0 It is also important that the units for the molecular weight and universal gas constant are consistent. The following values were used J R = 8.314 mol K kg ( MW ) C3 H 8 = 0.0441 mol Integration of the above expression and then solving for T2 provides
T2 = 419.2 [K ]

69

2.39 First start an energy balance around the diffuser. Assume that heat transfer and potential energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. The energy balance reduces to

& 2 ( h + ek ) 2 n &1 (h + ek )1 = 0 n
A mass balance reveals
&1 = n &2 n

The molar flow rates can be eliminated from the expression. Using the definitions of enthalpy and the kinetic energy, the equation can be rewritten as
T2 T1

r 2 r2 1 c dT = ( MW ) V 2 V1 P air 2

The temperature and velocity of the outlet stream are unknown, so another equation is needed to solve this problem. From the conservation of mass,

r r & P 1V1 = P 1 A1V1 = P2 A2V2 T1 T1 T2

where A2, the cross-sectional area of the diffuser outlet, is twice the area of the inlet. Therefore,
r T2 r 1 P 1 V2 = V1 2 P2 T1

Using Appendix A.2 and the above expression, the energy balance becomes
R A + BT + CT + DT
2

T2 T1

2 r 2 T2 r 1 P 1 1 + ET dT = ( MW ) air V V 1 T 1 2 P 2 2 1 3

Substituting values from the problem statement provides an equation with one unknown:
T2 = 381 K

Therefore,
r 1 1 bar 381 K m (300 m/s ) = 111 V2 = 2 1.5 bar 343.15 K s

70

2.40 To find the minimum power required for the compressor, one must look at a situation where all of the power is used to raise the internal energy of the air. None of the power is lost to the surroundings and the potential and kinetic energy effects must be neglected. Therefore, the energy balance becomes

& &1h1 n & 2 h2 + W 0=n s

Performing a mass balance reveals
&1 = n &2 n

The energy balance reduces to

& =n &1 (h2 h1 ) W s

Using Equation 2.58 and Appendix A.2, the equation becomes
& =n &1R A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 dT W s
T1 T2

Table A.2.1 and the problem statement provide the following values

A = 3.355 B = 0.575 10 3 C =0 D = 1600 E =0 mol &1 = 50 n s T1 = 300 K

To find the work, we still need T2. We need to pick a reasonable process to estimate T2. Since the heat flow is zero for this open system problem, we choose an adiabatic, reversible piston situation. For this situation,
PV k = const.

Since we are assuming the air behaves ideally, we can rewrite the equation as

71

 n1 RT1 n2 RT2 P 1 P = P2 P 2 1
1 k k 1 k k P 1 T1 = P2 T2

Substituting values from the problem statement, we obtain

(1 7 / 5) 7 / 5 (1 bar ) T2 = (300 K ) (10 bar )(1 7 / 5)

5/7

= 579 K

Substitute this value into the expression for the work and evaluate:
& = 417.4 [kW ] W s

72

2.41 (a) Perform a mass balance:

&1 + n &2 = n & out n

Apply the ideal gas law:

& & P 1V1 + P2V2 = n & out RT1 RT2

Substitute values from the problem statement:

(8.314)(373.15) (8.314)(293.15) & out = 0.366 [mol/s] n

(1105 )(5 10 3 ) + (2 105 )(2.5 10 3 ) = n&out

(b) No work is done on the system, and we can neglect potential and kinetic energy effects. We will assume the process is also adiabatic. The energy balance reduces to

&in hin n & out hout 0 = n & out hout (n &1h1 + n & 2 h2 ) = n &1 (hout h1 ) + n & 2 (hout h2 ) = 0 n We can calculate the enthalpy difference from the given ideal heat capacity:
Tout in out

&1 R n

(3.267 + 5.324 10

&2 R T dT + n

Tout

(3.267 + 5.324 10

T dT = 0

373.15

293.15

Again, we must calculate the molar flow rates from the ideal gas law. Upon substitution and evaluation, we obtain Tout = 329 [K ]

73

2.42 (a) Since the temperature, pressure, and volumetric flow rate are given, the molar flow rate is constrained by the ideal gas law.

Note: 1.67 10 8 m 3 /s = 1 cm 3 / min

&= n

[ ] [

]
[ ]

& (1.0135 10 5 Pa )(1.67 10 8 m 3 /s ) PV = = 7.45 10 7 [mol/s] (8.314 [J/mol K ])(273.15 K ) RT

To recap, we have shown 1 [SCCM ] = 7.45 10 7 [mol/s]

(b) Assumptions:

N2 is an ideal gas All power supplied by the power supply is transferred to the N2 Uniform temperature radially throughout sensor tube Kinetic and potential energy effects negligible in energy balance

& s represent the molar flow Let x represent the fraction of N2 diverted to the sensor tube, and n &total , is rate through the sensor tube. Therefore, the total molar flow rate, n & n &total = s n x We can use temperature and heat load information from the sensor tube to find the molar flow rate through the sensor tube. First, perform an energy balance for the sensor tube: & & s (hout hin ) = Q H = n The enthalpy can be calculated with heat capacity data. Therefore,
&s = n & Q
T2 T1

cP dT

Now, we can calculate the total molar flow rate.

74

&total = n

& Q

x c P dT
T1

T2

To find the flow rate in standard cubic centimeters per minute, apply the conversion factor found in Part (a)
&total (SCCM ) = v & Q

x c P dT
T1

T2

1 [SCCM ] 7.45 10 7 [mol/s]

(c) To find the correction factor for SiH4, re-derive the expression for flow rate for SiH4 and then divide it by the expression for N2 for the same power input, temperatures, and fraction of gas diverted to the sensor tube.

& Q &total , SiH v 4 &total , N v 2

x c P, SiH 4 dT =
T1

T2

1 [SCCM ] 7.45 10 7 [mol/s] =

T2 T1 T2 T1

c P, N

dT

Factor =

& Q

x c P, N 2 dT
T1

T2

1 [SCCM ] 7.45 10 7 [mol/s]

c P, SiH

dT

If we assume that heat capacities are constant, the conversion factor simplifies: Factor = c P, N 2 c P, SiH 4

Using the values in Appendix A.2.2 at 298 K, we get

Factor = 0.67

75

2.43 (a) It takes more energy to raise the temperature of a gas in a constant pressure cylinder. In both cases the internal energy of the gas must be increased. In the constant pressure cylinder work, Pv work must also be supplied to expand the volume against the surroundings pressure. This is not required with a constant volume. (b) As you perspire, sweat evaporates from your body. This process requires latent heat which cools you. When the water content of the environment is greater, there is less evaporation; therefore, this effect is diminished and you do not feel as comfortable.

76

2.44 From the steam tables at 10 kPa:

T(K) 323.15 373.15 423.15 473.15 523.15 573.15 673.15 773.15 873.15 973.15 1073.15 1173.15 1273.15 1373.15 1473.15 1573.15

h 2592.6 2687.5 2783 2879.5

5000 6000 y = 0.0003x
2

h vs. T

+ 1.6241x + 2035.7 R =1
2

2977.3 3076.5 3279.5 3489 3705.4 3928.7 4159.1 4396.4 4640.6 4891.2 5147.8 5409.7
1000 0 0 500 4000 3000 2000

Series1 Poly. (Series1)

1000 T

1500

2000

dh cP = = 1.6241 + 0.0006624T dT P

kJ J kg K = (3.516 + 0.001434T )R mol K

Now compare the above values to those in Appendix A.2. A Steam Tables Appendix A % difference 3.516 3.470 1.3 B 0.001434 0.001450 1.4

77

2.45 For throttling devices, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, the process is adiabatic and no shaft work is performed. Therefore, the energy balance for one inlet and one outlet is simplified to
&1 h1 = n & 2 h2 n

which is equivalent to =m & 1h & 2h m 1 2 Since mass is conserved =m & 2h h 1 2 From the steam tables: = 3398.3 kJ h 1 kg = 3398.3 kJ h 2 kg (8 MPa, 500 C)

2 and P2 , T2 is constrained. Linear interpolation of steam table data gives Now that we know u

T2 = 457 [ C]

78

2.46 (a) An expression for work in a reversible, isothermal process was developed in Section 2.7. Equation 2.77 is
P2 W = nRT ln P 1

Therefore,
P2 w = RT ln P 1

Evaluating the expression with

J R = 8.314 mol K T = 300 [K ] P2 = 100 [kPa ] P 1 = 500 [kPa ]

gives J w = 4014 kg
(b) Equation 2.90 states

w=

R [T2 T1 ] k 1

Since the gas is monatomic 5 cP = R 2 3 cv = R 2 and

79

k=

5 3

T2 can be calculated by applying the polytropic relation derived for adiabatic expansions. From Equation 2.89

PV k = const Pv k = const By application of the ideal gas law RT P Since R is a constant, substitution of the expression for P into the polytropic relation results in v= P (1 k )T k = const

(1 k )T k = P (1 k )T k P 1 2 2 1
This relation can be used to solve for T2 .
T2 = 157.6 [K ]

Now that T2 is known, value of work can be solved. J w = 1775.9 kg

80

2.47 (a) The change in internal energy and enthalpy can be calculated using

=h l (1 atm, 100 C ) h l (1 atm, 0 C ) h =u l (1 atm, 100 C ) u l (1 atm, 0 C ) u We would like to calculate these values using the steam tables; however, the appendices dont contain steam table data for liquid water at 0.0 C and 1 atm. However, information is provided for water at 0.01 C and 0.6113 kPa. Since the enthalpy and internal energy of liquid water is essentially independent of pressure in this pressure and temperature range, we use the steam table in the following way l (1 atm, 100 C ) = 419.02 kJ h kg l (1 atm, 0 C ) = h l (0.6113 kPa , 0.01 C ) = 0 kJ h kg kJ l (1 atm, 100 C ) = 418.91 u kg kJ l (1 atm, 0 C ) = u l (0.6113 kPa , 0.01 C ) = 0 u kg Therefore, = 419.02 kJ h kg kJ = 418.91 u kg

(b) The change in internal energy and enthalpy can be calculated using

=h v (1 atm, 100 C ) h l (1 atm, 100 C ) h =u v (1 atm, 100 C ) u l (1 atm, 100 C ) u From the steam tables

81

 v = 2676.0 kJ h kg l = 419.02 kJ h kg kJ v = 2506.5 u kg kJ l = 418.91 u kg Therefore,

= 2256.99 kJ h kg

kJ = 2087.59 u kg

The change in internal energy for the process in Part (b) is 5.11 times greater than the change in internal energy calculated in Part (a). The change in enthalpy in Part (b) is 5.39 times greater than the change in enthalpy calculated in Part (a).

82

2.48 To calculate the heat capacity of Ar, O2, and NH3 the following expression, with tabulated values in Table A.2.1, will be used,

cP = A + BT + CT 2 + DT 2 + ET 3 R

where T is in Kelvin. From the problem statement

T = 300 [K ]

and from Table 1.1 J R = 8.314 mol K To find the A-E values, Table A.2.1 must be referred to. Formula Ar O2 NH3
A 3.639 3.5778 B 103 0.506 3.02 C 10 6 0 0 D 10 5 -0.227 -0.186 E 109 0 0

The values are not listed for Ar since argon can be treated as a monatomic ideal gas with a heat capacity independent of temperature. The expression for the heat capacity is 5 c P, Ar = R 2 Now that expressions exist for each heat capacity, evaluate the expressions for T = 300 [K ] . J c P, Ar = 20.785 mol K J c P, O2 = 29.420 mol K J c P, NH 3 = 35.560 mol K By examining the heat capacity for each molecule, it should be clear that the magnitude of the heat capacity is directly related to the structure of the molecule.

83

Ar O2 Since argon is monatomic, translation is the only mode through which the atoms can exhibit kinetic energy. Translation, rotation, and vibration modes are present. Since oxygen molecules are linear, the rotational mode of kinetic energy contributes RT per mol to the heat capacity. Translation, rotation, and vibration modes are present. Ammonia molecules are nonlinear, so the rotation mode contributes 3RT/2 per mole to the heat capacity.

NH3

The vibration contributions can also be analyzed for oxygen and ammonia, which reveals that the vibration contribution is greatest for ammonia. This is due to ammonias non-linearity.

84

2.49 For a constant pressure process where potential and kinetic energy effects are neglected, the energy balance is given by Equation 2.57:

Q = H

The change in enthalpy can be written as follows

H = m(h2 h1 )

From the steam tables: = h(sat. vapor at 10 kPa ) = 2584.6 kJ h 2 kg = h(sat. liquid at 10 kPa ) = 191.81 kJ h 1 kg Therefore,
kJ kJ Q = (2 kg ) 2584.6 kg 191.81 kg Q = 4785.6 [kJ ]

We can find the work from its definition:

W = PE dV
Vi Vf

The pressure is constant, and the above equation can be rewritten as follows
2 v 1 ) W = PE m(v

From the steam tables: m3 v2 = v(sat. vapor at 10 kPa ) = 14.674 kg m3 1 = v (sat. liquid at 10 kPa ) = 0.00101 v kg Therefore,

85

 m3 W = (10000 Pa )(2 kg )14.674 0.00101 = 293.5 kJ kg kg

86

2.50 First, perform an energy balance on the system. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Since nothing is mentioned about work in the problem statement, W can be set to zero. Therefore, the energy balance is

Q = U

Performing a mass balance reveals

m2 = m1

where
l v m1 = m1 + m1

Now the energy balance can be written as

l l v v 2 u 1 ) = m1u 2 m1 Q = m1 (u u1 + m1 u1

Since two phases coexist initially (water is saturated) and P 1 is known, state 1 is constrained. From the saturated steam tables
kJ l 1 u = 191.79 kg kJ v 1 u = 2437.9 kg

(sat. H2O at 10 kPa)

As heat is added to the system, the pressure does not remain constant, but saturation still exists. One thermodynamic property is required to constrain the system. Enough information is known about the initial state to find the volume of the container, which remains constant during heating, and this can be used to calculate the specific volume of state 2.
l l v v + m1 v1 V2 V1 m1 v 1 v2 = = = l v m2 m1 m1 + m1

From the saturated steam tables

87

 m3 l v1 = 0.001010 kg m3 l 1 = 14.674 v kg

(sat. H2O at 10 kPa)

Therefore, m3 2 = 1.335 v kg The water vapor is now constrained. Interpolation of steam table data reveals kJ 2 = 2514.6 u kg Now that all of the required variables are known, evaluation of the expression for Q is possible.
Q = 11652 [kJ ]

88

2.51 Let the mixture of ice and water immediately after the ice has been added represent the system. Since the glass is adiabatic, no work is performed, and the potential and kinetic energies are neglected, the energy balance reduces
H = 0

We can split the system into two subsystems: the ice (subscript i) and the water (subscript w). Therefore, H = mi hi + mw hw = 0 and
mi hi = mw hw

We can get the moles of water and ice.

Vw 0.0004 m 3 = = 0.399 [kg ] w v m3 0.001003 kg mw (0.399 [kg ]) = 22.15 [mol] nw = = (MW )H 2O 0.0180148 kg mol mi ni = = 5.55 [mol] (MW )H 2O mw =

[ ]

Now, lets assume that all of the ice melts in the process. (If the final answer is greater than 0 C, the assumption is correct.) The following expression mathematically represents the change in enthalpy.
ni c P, i (0 ( )10 C ) h fus + c P, w T f 0 C = nwc P, w T f 25 C Note: Assumed the heat capacities are independent of temperature to obtain this expression.

)]

From Appendix A.2.3

c P ,i = 4.196 R c P ,w = 9.069 R

and kJ h fus = 6.0 mol

89

Substitution of values into the above energy balance allows calculation of Tf.
T f = 3.12 C

(Our assumption that all the ice melts is correct.)

(b) To obtain the percentage of cooling achieved by latent heat, perform the following calculation

Fractionlatent =

ni h fus

nw c P, w T f Tw, i

J mol Fractionlatent = = 0.911 J (3.12 C 25 C) (22.15 [mol])9.069 8.314 mol K Percentlatent = 91.1%

(5.55 [mol]) 6000

90

2.52 A mass balance shows

l v n2 = n1 + n1

To develop the energy balance, neglect kinetic and potential energy. Also, no shaft work is performed, so the energy balance becomes

U = Q
The energy balance can be expanded to
l v l l v v Q = n1 + n1 u 2 n1 u1 n1 u1

If the reference state is set to be liquid propane at 0 C and 4.68 bar, the internal energies become
l u1 =0 v u1 = u vap (0 C )

u 2 = u vap (0 C ) +

T2

(c P R )dT

273 K

Once the change in internal energy for vaporization and temperature of state 2 is determined, Q can be solved. As the liquid evaporates, the pressure increases. At state 2, where saturated propane vapor is present, the ideal gas law states
P2 = RT2 v2

v l >> v1 . The volume of the rigid container is To find v2 , assume that v1

v v v V = n1 v1 = n1

m3 RT1 = 0.00485 mol P 1

Therefore,
v2 =

m3 = 0.00243 l v mol + n1 n1
V

91

Also, since the propane is saturated, P2 and T2 are not independent of each other. They are related through the Antoine Equation,

ln P sat = A
T

( )

B
sat

+C

where
P sat = P2 and T sat = T2

Substitution provides,
RT2 B ln v = A T +C 2 2

bar m 3 Using values from Table A.1.1 and R = 8.314 10 5 mol K

T2 = 301.7 K

To find u vap , refer to the definition of enthalpy. hvap = h v h l = (u + Pv) v (u + Pv )l Since v v >> v l , the above the change in internal energy of vaporization can be written as u vap = h vap (Pv )v = h vap RT Therefore, kJ u vap (0 C ) = 14.39 mol Evaluation of the following equation after the proper values have been substituted from Table A.2.1
301.7 K l v l v (0) n1 Q = n1 + n1 u vap (0 C ) + (c P R )dT n1 uvap (0 C ) 273 K

92

gives
Q = 18.1 [kJ ]

93

2.53 The equation used for calculating the heat of reaction is given in Equation 2.72. It states
hrxn = vi h f

( )i

This equation will be used for parts (a)-(e). Since the heat of reaction at 298 K is desired, values from Appendix A.3 can be used.
(a) First the stoichiometric coefficient must be determined for each species in the reaction.

vCH 4 ( g ) = 1 vO2 ( g ) = 1 vCO2 ( g ) = 1 v H 2 O( g ) = 1

From Tables A.3.1 and A.3.2

kJ (hf ,298 )CH ( g ) = 74.81 mol kJ (hf ,298 )O ( g ) = 0 mol kJ (hf ,298 )CO ( g ) = 393.51 mol kJ (hf ,298 )H O( g ) = 241.82 mol
4 2 2 2

From Equation 2.72, the equation for the heat of reaction is

hrxn ,298 = vCH 4 ( g ) h f ,298 CH ( g ) + vO2 ( g ) h f ,298 O ( g ) + vCO2 ( g ) h f ,298 CO ( g ) + v H 2 O ( g ) h f ,298 H O ( g ) 4 2 2 2 kJ kJ kJ kJ hrxn , 298 = 0 mol + 393.51 mol + 241.82 mol 74.81 mol

kJ hrxn , 298 = 560.52 mol Now that a sample calculation has been performed, only the answers will be given for the remaining parts since the calculation process is the same.

94

(b)

kJ hrxn , 298 = 604.53 mol

(c)

kJ hrxn , 298 = 206.12 mol

(d)

kJ hrxn , 298 = 41.15 mol

(e)

kJ hrxn , 298 = 905.38 mol

95

2.54 The acetylene reacts according to the following equation

C2H2(g) + (5/2)O2(g) 2CO2(g) + H2O(g)

(a) First, choose a basis for the calculations.
nC 2 H 2 = 1 mol

Calculate the heat of reaction at 298 K using Equation 2.72 and Appendix A.3

( )i hrxn = (h f )C H
hrxn = vi h f
2

2.5 h f

( )O + 2(hf )CO + (hf )H O

2 2 2

J hrxn = 1.255 10 6 mol

H rxn,298 = nC 2 H 2 hrxn = 1.255 10 6 [J ]

The required amount of oxygen is calculated as follows

(nO )1 = 2.5(nC H
2 2

)1 = 2.5 mol

The compositions for both streams are Streams 1 (Inlet) 2 (Outlet) From Table A.2.2 Species C2H2 O2 CO2 H2O
A 6.132 3.639 5.457 3.470 B 103 1.952 0.506 1.045 1.45 C 10 6 0 0 0 0 D 10 5 -1.299 -0.227 -1.157 0.121 E 109 0 0 0 0
nC 2 H 2 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2O

1 0

2.5 0

0 0

0 2

0 1

Integration of the following equation provides an algebraic expression where only T2 is unknown.

96

T2

H rxn,298 +

298 i

(ni )2 (c P )i dT = 0

Substituting the proper values into the expression gives

T2 = 6169 K

(b) The calculations follow the procedure used in Part (a), but now nitrogen is present. The basis is
nC 2 H 2 = 1 mol

The heat of reaction is the same as in Part (a), but the gas composition is different. Since stoichiometric amount of air is used,

(nO )1 = 2.5 mol

2

yN n N 2 = nO2 2 = 9.40 mol 1 1 y O2 air

( ) ( )

The composition of the streams are summarized below Streams 1 2 From Appendix A.2 Species C2H2 O2 CO2 H2O N2 Therefore,
T2 = 2792 K nC 2 H 2 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2O

1 0

2.5 0

9.40 9.40

0 2

0 1

6.132 3.639 5.457 3.470 3.280

B 103 1.952 0.506 1.045 1.45 0.593

C 10 6 0 0 0 0 0

D 10 5 -1.299 -0.227 -1.157 0.121 0.04

E 109 0 0 0 0 0

97

(c) Now excess air is present, so not all of the oxygen reacts. The heat of reaction remains the same because only 1 mole of acetylene reacts. Since the amount of air is twice the stoichiometric amount

(nO )1 = 5 mol
2

yN n N 2 = nO2 2 = 18.80 mol 1 1 y O2 air

( ) ( )

The compositions of the streams are summarized below Streams 1 2

nC 2 H 2 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2O

1 0

5 2.5

18.8 18.8

0 2

0 1

The table of heat capacity data in Part (b) will be used for this calculation. Using the expression shown in Part (a)
T2 = 1787 K

98

2.55 (a) The combustion reaction for propane is

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) For all subsequent calculations, the basis is one mole of propane. The heat of reaction is calculated as follows
hrxn = h f

( )C H 5(hf )O + 3(hf )CO + 4(hf )H O

3 8 2 2 2

J hrxn = 2.044 10 6 mol

H rxn,298 = nC 3 H 8 hrxn = 2.044 10 6 [J ]

The required amount of oxygen for complete combustion of propane is

(nO )1 = 5(nC H
2 3

)1 = 5 mol

yN n N 2 = nO2 2 = 18.81 mol 1 1 y O2 air The stream compositions are listed below

( ) ( )
Streams 1 (Inlet) 2 (Outlet)

nC 3 H 8

nO2

nN 2

nCO2

nH 2O

1 0

5 0

18.8 18.8

0 3

0 4

From Table (a)2.2 Species N2 CO2 H2O

A 3.280 5.457 3.470

B 103 0.593 1.045 1.45

C 10 6 0 0 0

D 10 5 0.04 -1.157 0.121

E 109 0 0 0

Now all of the necessary variables for the following equation are known, except T2 .
T2

H rxn,298 +

298 i

(ni )2 (c P )i dT = 0

Solving the resulting expression provides

T2 = 2374 K

99

(b) The combustion reaction for butane is

C4H10(g) + (13/2)O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) For all subsequent calculations, the basis is one mole of butane. The heat of reaction is calculated as shown in Part (a)
H rxn,298 = 2.657 10 6 [J ]

The moles of nitrogen and oxygen in the feed stream are calculated according to the method in Part (a). The compositions are Streams 1 (Inlet) 2 (Outlet)
nC 4 H 10 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2O

1 0

6.5 0

24.5 24.5

0 4

0 5

The c P data listed in Part (a) can also be used for this reaction since there is no remaining butane.
T2 = 2376 K

(c) The combustion reaction for pentane is

C5H12(g) + 8O2(g) 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) The basis is one mole of pentane. The heat of reaction is calculated as shown in Part (a).
H rxn,298 = 3.272 10 6 [J ]

The moles of nitrogen and oxygen in the feed stream are calculated according to the method in Part (a). The compositions are listed below Streams 1 2
nC 5 H 12 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2O

1 0

8 0

30.1 30.1

0 5

0 6

Substitution of the values into the expression used to find T2 and subsequent evaluation results in
T2 = 2382 K

The adiabatic flame temperatures are nearly identical in all three cases. 100

2.56 The equation for the combustion of methane is

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) Using Equation 2.72 J hrxn = 8.02 105 mol The basis for this problem is

(nCH )1 = 1 mol
4

Also, let represent the fractional conversion of methane. Therefore, the composition of the product gas leaving the reactor is

(nCH )2 = 1(1 ) mol (nO )2 = 2(1 ) mol (nN )2 = 7.52 mol (nCO )2 = mol (nH O )2 = 2 mol
4 2 2 2 2

Furthermore, the heat of reaction is calculated as follows

H rxn,298 = 8.02 105 [J ]

From Table A.2.2 Species CH4 O2 CO2 H2O N2 A 1.702 3.639 5.457 3.470 3.280 B 103 9.081 0.506 1.045 1.45 0.593 C 10 6 -2.164 0 0 0 0 D 10 5 0 -0.227 -1.157 0.121 0.04 E 109 0 0 0 0 0

After substitution of the outlet composition values, heat capacity data, and the heat of reaction into the following equation

101

1273

H rxn, 298 +

298 i

(n ) (c ) dT = 0
i 2 P i

integration provides an equation with one unknown: . Solving the equation gives

=0.42
Since the fractional conversion is 0.42, 58% of the methane passed through the reactor unburned.

102

2.57 For the entire cycle,

U12 = 50 [kJ ] From state 1 to state 2 U12 = Q12 + W12 Q12 = 400 [kJ ] From state 2 to state 3

U11 = U12 + U 23 + U 31 = 0

U 23 = Q23 + W23 Q23 = 0 [kJ ] From state 3 to state 1 W31 = 250 [kJ ] U 31 = Q31 + W31

Hence, the completed table is Process State 1 to 2 State 2 to 3 State 3 to 1

U [kJ ] -50 800 -750 W [kJ ] -400 800 -250 Q [kJ ] 350 0 -500

To determine if this is a power cycle or refrigeration cycle, look at the overall heat and work, W11 and Q11 . W11 = W12 + W23 + W31 = 150 [kJ ] Q11 = Q12 + Q23 + Q31 = 150 [kJ ]

Since work is done on the system to obtain a negative value of heat, which means that heat is leaving the system, this is a refrigeration cycle.

103

2.58 Refer to the graph of the Carnot cycle in Figure E2.20. From this graph and the description of Carnot cycles in Section 2.9, it should be clear that state 3 has the lowest pressure of all 4 states, and state 1 has the highest pressure. States 1 and 2 are at the higher temperature. States 3 and 4 have the lower temperature. Since both the temperature and pressure are known for states 1 and 3, the molar volume can be calculated using

v=

RT P

The table below summarizes the known thermodynamic properties. State 1 2 3 4

T [K ] P [bar ]

1073 1073 298 298

60 0.2

v m 3 /mol 0.00149 0.124

For each step of the process, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The step from state 1 to state 2 is a reversible, isothermal expansion. Since it is isothermal, the change in internal energy is 0, and the energy balance becomes
Q12 = W12

From Equation 2.77,

P2 W12 = nRT1 ln P 1

where W12 is the work done from state 1 to state 2. The value of P2 is not known, but recognizing that the process from state 2 to 3 is an adiabatic expansion provides an additional equation. The polytropic relationship can be employed to find P2 . A slight modification of Equation 2.89 provides Pv k = const From the ideal gas law P= RT v

Combining this result with the polytropic expression and noting that R is constant, allows the expression to be written as

104

Tv k 1 = const Therefore, T3 k 1 k 1 v2 = T v3 2 Substituting the appropriate values (k=1.4) gives m3 v2 = 0.00504 mol Applying the ideal gas law P2 = RT2 = 17.7 [bar ] v2
1

Now, W12 can be calculated.

W12 = 10.89 [kJ ]

Calculation of W34 follows a completely analogous routine as calculation for W12 . The following equations were used to find the necessary properties
1 m3 T1 k 1 k 1 = v4 = v 0 . 0367 T 1 mol 4

P4 =

RT4 = 0.675 [bar ] v4

Now the following equation can be used

P4 W34 = nRT3 ln P 3

which gives W34 = 3.01 [kJ ]

105

For an adiabatic, reversible process, Equation 2.90 states W= nR [T2 T1 ] k 1

This equation will be used to calculate the work for the remaining processes. W23 = nR [T3 T2 ] = 16.11 [kJ] k 1 nR [T1 T4 ] = 16.11 [kJ ] W41 = k 1

To find the work produced for the overall process, the following equation is used Wnet = W12 + W23 + W34 + W41 Evaluating this expression with the values found above reveals Wnet = 7.88 [kJ ] Therefore, 7.88 kilojoules of work is obtained from the cycle. The efficiency of the process can be calculated using Equation 2.98:

Wnet 7.88 = = 0.72 QH 10.89

since QH = W12 = 10.89 [kJ ] . Alternatively, if we use Equation E2.20D.

= 1

TC TH

where TC = T3 = T4 and TH = T1 = T2 . Upon substitution of the appropriate values

= 0.72

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2.59 Since this is a refrigeration cycle, the direction of the cycle described in Figure 2.17 reverses. Such a process is illustrated below:
Constant T H QH

Isothermal compression Adiabatic compression

State 2 Well - insulated T2=T1 P2 State 1 T1 P1

Adiabatic expansion

State 3 State 1 T1 P1 State 4 T4 P4 T3 P3

State 4 T4=T3 P4

State 2 State 3 T3 T2 P3 P2

Isothermal expansion
QC Constant T C

States 1 and 2 are at the higher temperature. States 3 and 4 have the lower temperature. Since the both the temperature and pressure are known for states 2 and 4, the molar volume can be calculated using v= RT P

The following table can be made State 1 2 3 4

T [K ] P [bar ]

v m 3 /mol 0.00149 0.124

1073 1073 298 298

60 0.2

For each step of the process, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The process from state 1 to state 2 is a reversible, isothermal expansion. Since it is isothermal, the change in internal energy is 0, and the energy balance becomes
Q12 = W12

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From Equation 2.77,

P2 W12 = nRTH ln P 1

where W12 is the work done from state 1 to state 2. The value of P1 is not known, but recognizing that the process from state 4 to 1 is an adiabatic compression provides an additional relation. The polytropic relationship can be employed to find P1 . A slight modification of Equation 2.89 provides Pv k = const From the ideal gas law P= RT v

Combining this result with the polytropic expression and noting that R is constant allows the expression to be written as Tv k 1 = const Therefore, T4 k 1 k 1 v1 = T v4 1 Substituting the appropriate values (k=1.4) gives T4 k 1 m3 v1 = v = 0 . 00504 4 T mol 1 RT P1 = 1 = 17.7 [bar ] v1
1 k 1 1

Now, W12 can be calculated.

W12 = 10.9 [kJ ]

Calculation of W34 follows a completely analogous routine as the calculation for W12 . The following equations were used to find the necessary properties: 108

 m3 v3 = 0.0367 mol

Applying the ideal gas law

P3 = RT3 = 0.675 [bar ] v3

Now the following equation can be used

P4 W34 = nRTC ln P 3

which gives
W41 = 3.0 [kJ ]

Equation 2.90 can be used to determine the work for adiabatic, reversible processes. This equation will be used to calculate the work for the remaining processes. nR [TC TH ] = 16.11 [kJ ] k 1 nR [TH TC ] = 16.11 [kJ ] W41 = k 1 W23 = To find the work produced for the overall process, the following equation is used Wnet = W12 + W23 + W34 + W41 Evaluating this expression with the values found above reveals Wnet = 7.88 [kJ ] Therefore, 7.88 kJ of work is obtained from the cycle. The coefficient of performance is defined in Equation 2.99 as follows
COP = QC Wnet

where QC is the equal to Q34 . From the energy balance developed for the process from state 3 to state 4

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Q34 = W34 = 3.01 [kJ ] Therefore, COP = 3.01 [kJ ] = 0.382 7.88 [kJ ]

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2.60 (a) The Pv path is plotted on log scale so that the wide range of values fits (see Problem 1.13)

logP
100

0.075

3 2

log v v
(b) The work required to compress the liquid is the area under the Pv curve from state 3 to state 4. Its sign is positive. The power obtained from the turbine is the area under the curve from state 1 to 2. Its sign is negative. The area under the latter curve is much larger (remember the log scale); thus the net power is negative. (c) First, perform a mass balance for the entire system:

&1 = m &2 = m &3 = m &4 = m & m

Since no work is done by or on the boiler, the energy balance for the boiler is
m & &h m 1 & h4 = QH

Similarly, the energy balance for the condenser is m & &h m 3 & h2 = QC To find the necessary enthalpies for the above energy balances, we can use the steam tables: = 3424.5 kJ h 1 kg (520 C, 100 bar)

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 kJ kJ kJ = 0.10 168.77 + 0.90 2574.8 = 2334.2 h 2 kg kg kg (sat. liq at 7.5 kPa) (sat. vap. at 7.5 kPa)

= 168.77 kJ h 3 kg = 342.81 kJ h 4 kg

(sat. liquid at 0.075 bar)

(subcooled liquid at 80 C, 100 bar)

Now, we can calculate the heat loads:

kJ kJ & = (100 kg/s ) 3424.5 342.81 = 308169 [kW ] Q H kg kg kJ kJ & = (100 kg/s ) 168.77 2334.2 = 216543 [kW ] Q C kg kg

(d) Use Equation 2.96:

& =0 & +Q W net net

From Part (c), we know

& Q net = 308169 [kW ] 216543 [kW ] = 91626 [kW ]

Therefore,
& = 91626 [kW ] W net
(e) Using the results from Parts (c) and (d): =

91626 [kW ] = 0.297 308169 [kW ]

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