P|C PR00U6T|0N TE6hN0L0CY F0R

P|CCERY FARHER8
Produced and Distributed by
National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services
Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria.
Extens|on u||et|n No. 25
L|vestock 8er|es No.1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Since the release of the Pig Bulletin Booklet in 1976, small scale pig
production has continued to be popular in the country. The increasing
demand for information on improved practices especially with regards
to the use officially available feedstuffs has necessitated the
production of this edition which was completely rewritten and enlarged.
We wish to acknowledge the extensive contributions of Professor T.
S.B. Tegbe, leader of the Swine Programme of the National Animal
Production Research nstitute and the suggestions/contributions of
Professors T.F. Balogun and A. O. Aduku of the Department of Animal
Science, all of Ahmadu Bello University. nformation has also been
drawn from the 1995 National Pig Production Workshop held at badan
which was attended by many of Nigeria's leading swine scientists.
Their contributions which are contained in the training manual have
been pooled to make this bulletin a complete pig production
technology package for small scale producers.
The cooperation of Dr. M. Umaru, Programme Leader, Livestock and
Fisheries Technology Transfer and Mal. 1. O. Yusuf, Progrannne
Leader, Publications and Publicity are highly appreciated, without their
support, the publication of this bulletin would not have been possible.
Ikani I.E. and I.I Dafwang
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
INTRODUCTION................................................................. 6
Advantages of Pig Production............................................. 6
PIG Production SYSTEMS ............................................... 8
Extensive or Free Range.................................................... 8
Semi ntensive System....................................................... 9
ntensive Production System............................................... 10
Piggery Enterprises............................................ ................ 12
PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT...................................... 13
Choice of Site...................................................................... 13
Flooring .............................................................................. 14
Walls.................................................................................... 14
Roofing................................................................................ 14
Space Requirement............................................................. 15
Multipurpose Pens............................................................... 16
PigHouse Equipment.......................................................... 16
BREEDS AND BREEDING ................................................ 20
Breeds ................................................................................ 20
Breeding.............................................................................. 25
Selection of Breeding Stock ............................................... 26
Management of Breeding Boars and Gilts ........................ 28
Purchasing breeding stock.................................................. 28
Artificial nsemination........................................................... 28
PIG MANAGEMENT........................................................... 30
Daily routines....................................................................... 30
Management of pregnant Sows ......................................... 32
2
Farrowing and Care of Newborn Piglets ............................ 33
Weaning.............................................................................. 36
Early Weaning..................................................................... 37
Record Keeping................................................................... 38
FEEDS AND FEEDING....................................................... 38
Nutrients Required by Pigs ................................................ 39
Feedstuffs........................................................................... 41
Ration Formulation.............................................................. 47
Feeds for Different Classes of Pigs..................................... 48
HEALTH MANAGEMENT .................................................. 56
Parasites............................................................................. 56
Hog Cholera........................................................................ 57
African Swine Fever............................................................ 57
Swine nfluenza................................................................... 58
Transmissible Gastroentivitis ............................................. 58
Enteric Colibacillosis............................................................ 58
Erysipelas............................................................................ 58
Salmonellosis...................................................................... 58
MARKETING ANDPROCESSING...................................... 60
Marketing............................................................................. 60
Kafanchan Pig Market......................................................... 61
Sources of Piglets............................................................... 62
Processing.......................................................................... 62
Transportation .................................................................... 62
Carcass and Meat Quality .................................................. 63
Meat Hygiene...................................................................... 66
3
APPENDICES.................................................................... 67
Summary of Management Practices .................................. 67
Glossary.............................................................................. 69
An individual Sow Record .................................................. 70
Boar Performance Record Sheet........................................ 71
Herd Performance Record ................................................. 72
Examples of Pig Production Record .................................. 73
Life Time Record for Sow.................................................... 74
4
INTRODUCTION
Pig meat (pork) is a very important source of animal protein in human
diets. n fact, the F.A.O. Quarterly bulletin of Statistics, 1989 reported
that there is a greater output of meat from pigs (63.9 million metric
tonnes/year) than the combined output of meat from cattle, buffalo,
sheep and goats (58.9 million metric tonnes/year). Pig rearing is
popular in many parts of Nigeria, which has the highest pig population
in Africa (Adebambo, 1982). Even in the far North, it has been
demonstrated that pigs can be reared successfully as exemplified by
the existence of the biggest pig farm in the world in Kano between
1955-1965 (Mckay 1963). n the areas where pigs are reared on tree
range, they are most valued as a kind of "savings to the farmer trom
where he can tap in times of cash shortage and emergency needs.
Commercial production under semi-intensive conditions is becoming
more popular because of its favourable rate of return on investments.
Advantages of Pig Production
The popularity of pig production is because of the following
advantages:
1. Short generation interval and rapid fecundity as can be seen in
table 1.
2. The pig has 15,000 taste buds as against 9,000 in humans
enabling it to eat everything edible to man and other animals
including forage. Recent information which indicates that the pig
can tolerate a higher level of dieta1yfibre than has been
previously recognised has greatly expanded the range of feed
resources for pigs. This is particularly important since the high
5










6
cost and scarcity of grains and concentrates have been major
constraints to poultry and pig production in the tropics. 3. Pigs
are the most efficient animals for converting kitchen wastes and
other non-conventional feedstuffs into meat.
4. The pig is a more efficient carcass yielder than cattle, sheep or
goats, dressing out at about 70% compared to between 5055%
for cattle and about 50% for sheep and goats. n addition, pig
carcasses have a smaller proportion of bones and higher
proportion of edible meat.
5. Pig carcasses are easier to dress and have superior curing
qualities, an obvious advantage for processing and marketing.
6. Pigs adapt readily to most environmental conditions. They are
also very adaptable to intensified or diversified agriculture.
7. Because the pig. possesses a large cecum, the dropping from
pigs is rich in nutrients. Pig faeces make good fertilizer for crops
and can also be recycled into livestock feeds.
n view of these obvious advantages, the need to promote pig
production cannot be over-emphasized. The purpose of this bulletin is
to provide infonnation on management practices that will assist pig
producers improve on the productivity of their herds and therefore
increase their income as well as making more animal protein available
for human consumption in Nigeria.
7
PIG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The common systems of keeping pigs include the following:
1. Extensive or Free-Range (Scavengers)
The tree-range system is the traditional method of rearing pigs in most
parts of the world. The system is cheap as it requires little investment. t
also requires minimal management. Each family keeps a few (one to
three) sows per herd which are allowed to scavenger or wander freely
and pick up food when and where they can. Feed costs on range
system may be about 20-25% less than with intensive rearing method.
No special housing other than for night shelter is required and there is
minimum disease control (Fig. 1 ).
Fig. 1: Scavenging Village Pigs

Pigs under this system are given supplementary feeds. This makes
them have attachment to their owners. Examples of feeds given are
kitchen wastes, farm by-products such as cassava peels, brans of
cereals,fiuit pulps and maize cobs. This technique of supplementary
feeding to pigs makes them come back home daily to the farmer. Local
breeds of pigs predominate the free range system because they are
more highly adapted.
The disadvantages of the system though are numerous, losses
are high and productivity is lowwith the erratic and often seasonal food
supplies. This can result in irregular breeding of sows, slow growth
rate and high piglet mortality. Breeding is indiscriminate as no
particular attention is paid to selection of pigs on desirable traits. They
are particularly susceptible to infestation by parasites from various
sources.
Semi-Intensive
n this system, the animals are restricted to a limited area and
therefore the farmer takes the whole responsibility of feeding them.
Once in '- while, the pigs are allowed into the fenced larger yard to
graze, wallow and exercise. Housing is mainly of very simple
construction and made from simple and inexpensive materials like
mud, bamboo and elevated thatched roof (fig 2). The animals are fed
on kitchen wastes, food by-products etc, and some level of managerial
skills are required. Productivity is better than under the free range and
therefore the herd sizes are bigger. ndigenous breeds are still
prevalent in this system but crosses between local and exotic breeds
are more commonly available.
Many small holder pig fanners practice the extensive system during
the cby season and the semi-intensive system during the rainy season
to prevent damage to crops. n this regard therefore, no fenced yards
are provided.
8
The housing provided for night shelter during the dry season is the
same as that used during the wet seasons. The semi-intensive system
can be recommended for small holders and beginning pig farmers. The
fanner can expand herd size and grow into a more intensive
management system with experience and a conducive marketing
environment. t is also easier to cut down should the prevailing
conditions demand a reduction in herd size.
Fig. 2: LocaI Pig House
3. Intensive Production System
This is the commercial method of pig production under which
economic considerations are the sole determinant of herd size. The
farmer grows or buys feed especially for his pig enterprise. Housing is
generally more expensive with concrete floor, and zinc/asbestos
roofing. Adequate shade, pen space, feed and water facilities are
provided to meet requirements of the pigs. There is an absolute
requirement for skilled management including veterinary protection
against parasites and diseases to optimize output Higher performance
exotic or crosses between exotic and indigenous breeds are used.
9

10
Fig. 3: A WeII Constructed Pig House.
Access to credit facilities are favourable. Cost benefit estimates
are often the primary motivating factors for farmers to invest in
commercial pig production. These factors also determine the level of
herd size and capital intensiveness of the enterprise.
ntensive pig production may be small scale (5 sowherd or up
to 100 stock/year), medium scale (10 sow herd or up to 200
stock/year) or large scale (greater than 200 stock. year) in most
developing countries. Asurvey of136 commercial pig farms in Nigeria
in 1980 showed that 69% were small scale, while only 200fc were
large scale (Ogunfowora et al. 1980).
This system of pig farming can be combined with fish farming
and vegetable production. Such an operation enhances efficiency of
resource use to increase output. Fish ponds can be fertilized with pig
manure, generating algal growth which can then be utilized by fish.

Pig houses can be constructed above the ponds so that the manure
can drop straight into the fish ponds. T1lapia species offish are most
commonly used, often mixed with small population of carp and cat fish.
Pig manure can be used as organic manure to enrich soil for vegetable
gardening. While residues from vegetable products are in turn fed to
pigs.
4. Piggery Enterprises
Since profit motivation is the major determinant for commercial pig
production, it is always better to start on a small scale and then expand
as more experience is gained. Essentially, there are four pig
production enterprises.
a. Farrow-to-finish operations - The farmer keeps a sow herd and
produces his own growers for a finishing operation which he also
owns.
b. Farrowonly - The farmer keeps a sowherd which produces weaners
which he sells to growing and finishing operators.
c. Finishing operation - Farmer buys piglets either as weaners or
growers and fatten them for the pork market.
d. Breeding - The production of breeding stock is a very specialized
enterprise reserved only for the experienced pig breeders and
requires heavy capital investment.
The beginning farmer or pig producer who wants to expand must take
stock of the market needs of his environment and the level of
resources available to him to decide which of these enterprises to
invest in as wen as the level of investment.
11
PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT
The most productive pigs are likely to be those confined in
athermally neutral environment, where the pig neither uses feed
energy to keep warm nor reduces feed intake to keep cool. The
purpose of housing for pigs is to provide an environment that will
enable the pig to growor breed optimally.
Pig housing must therefore aim at:
a. Protection from climatic extremes e.g. direct solar
adiation, rain, wind. etc.
b. Allowing for inherent behaviour patterns of the pigs and
minimize over crowding.
c. Provision of dry bedding conditions that do not predipose the
pig to diseases.
d. Allowing accessibility to food and clean water.
e. Ensuring easy movement of the stockman.
f. Effective disposal of effluent.
g. Cost effectiveness in housing construction.
Adequate considerations must be given to factors that will check
effects of excess heat and humidity. t is important to minimize
temperature variations by keeping the pigs cool on hot days and warm
on cold nights. Also, the rapid growth of pigs emphasizes the need for a
specific environment for each class of pigs for optimum growth and
development. The pig producer must have access to expert
information on appropriate housing designs and investment costs for
pig housing in his environment.
1. Choice of Site
The location of a pig unit should ensure that there is free air movement
and good natural ventilation. This can be achieved by facing the
building north-south, to avoid excessive penetration of sun light into the
pens, preventing problems of sun burns, scorching and heat stress.
12
13




Also, the site should preferably not be too exposed to cold. The
buildings should be on a slight slope to allow drainage and disposal of
eft1uent. The slope also makes it easier to design a pig-flow with the
farrowhouse at the top of slope and the fattening pens at the lower end.
This prevents cross-infection trom effluent between piglets and the
adult pigs. Again access road, water sources and space for expansion
must be put into consideration.
2. FIooring
Hard concrete or similar floors are recommended even in low
cost buildings made of local materials. This prevents the pigs
from rooting and digging up the ground and also permits cleaning
which minimizes the build-up of diseases and parasites. The
floor should
provide insulation against both cold and damp. Also the nature
of the floor surface is important. f the surface is too smooth
and slippery the animals fall and can cause injuries. f it is too
rough or abrasive, this can result in damage to feet and udders.
3. WaIIs
The walls should be of strong materials to restrain the pig and
ensure protection. Suitable materials include mud, wood,
bamboo sticks, stones and cement blocks. Provision should be
made for suitable flaps, windows and doors which can be opened
to allow maximum ventilation during hot periods and closed to
contain warmth at colder times. Smooth walls are most ideal.
4. Roofing
This is for shade and protection of the pigs from rain, sun, etc.
They can be made of traditional materials such as grass, reeds,
leaves, straws, thatch etc, which are ideal in the tropics from an
insulation viewpoint.
They do have the advantage of keeping the house cooler.
Unfortunately however, they are very prone to tire hazards, and are of
low durability. They can become breeding ground for rats and other
pests. Aluminum or corrugated iron sheets can be used but they should
be sufficiently high that there is room for plenty of air movement. On an
apex roof provide raised bridge or other arrangement to allow for the
escape of hot air and air movement.
5. Space Requirement
Over-crowding is a common cause of depressed performance
and lowproductivity in pigs. Therefore, this must be considered in
pig house design. Weight, number of pigs per group, air
temperature, methods of feeding, ventilation and floor design are
factors that affect space requirement. About 10-30 animals per
group is desirable during weaning to market weight. See space
recommendation in tables 2Aand 2B.
14
15
Table 2A: Space requirement for various categories of
Pigs.
Liveweight Floor Area per Pig
20-50kg (Growers) 1m2
50-100kg (Finishers) 2m2
Dry sow 2.5m2
Lactating sow and
(Finisher)
10m2
Boar 9m2
Source: O. M. Osaro (1995).
Generally, a collective pen with dimension of 4m x 5m may house
20 piglets, 10 fattening pigs or sows.

'TabIe 2B: Space requirement for Pigs in BuiIding with
Outside Apron
Space per pig
Stage of Production
nside Outside
Growing-Finishing
Pig
O.6m2(6.sq.1\) O.6m6.sq. 1\)
Sows 1.0m2( 1l.Osq. ft) 1.Om2(1l.0sq. ft)
Boars 3.7m2(40sq.1\) 3.7m2(40sq.1\)
Source: O.O.Tewe and A.O.K. Adesehinwa (1995)

6. MuItipurpose Pig Pens
Although there are advantages in providing separate housing for the
different categories of pigs, a multipurpose pig house may be used.
They can be cheaper and more flexible. Removable structures such as
creep barriers and farrowing rails provide protection for the piglets and
make the pens suitable for farrowing. At weaning, these are removed,
leaving a fattening pen in which the weaners can be fattened through to
slaughter. (Fig. 4).
Fig 4: PIan View of MuItipurpose Pen
7. Pig House Equipment
a. Farrowing Crates: These are specially made and normally
incorporated into the farrowing unit. The sow is restricted in the crate
while piglets have access to a small surrounding area equipped with
creep feeding facilities and water supply. This ensures both sow
comfort and farrowing efficiency (Fig. 5).
Farrowing crates prevent sows from laying down quickly and crushing
the baby pigs. Creep boxes are also placed close to sows. The crates
allow easy handling of sow and piglets while minimizing the risk of
injuries . The crates should not be made with rough or sharp edged
metals to avoid injuries to the feet and legs of pigs.
16
Figure 5: A farrowing crate
b. Farrowing Ran: Guard rails are constructed to about 1.5
1.7m high along sides of the farrowing pen. The rails prevent
the sowfrom crushing the piglets.
c. Weaner Cages: The young pigs weaned uom their sows and with a
change in their diet may become susceptible to diseases particularly
digestive diseases which can result in fairly heavy mortality of
weaners. To minimise this problem, weaner cages which are made of
covered solid-floor, sleeping, eating and dunging areas can be used.
Pigs can huddle and generate enough heat for their comfort inside the
covered kennel section of the cage. n hot weather, the pigs keep cold
by laying out on the mash floors and are protected from the sun by an
umbrella roof over all the cages. Dung and urine fall through the wire
mesh or slats, which is easily cleaned. Pigs normally remain in the
cages for 3-4 weeks before being transferred to fattening houses
(Fig.6).
17
Fig. 6: A Weaner Cage
d. Pig HurdIe: This can be constructed from strong medium size
wooden posts or light timber of about 1.8m wide. Some hurdles
may be as wide as the space between the pens. Such hurdles
facilitate movement of pigs through the barn and aid in
separating pigs inside the pens (Fig. 7)
18
Fig. 7: HurdIe for Separating Pigs.
e. Water Troughs/Feeders: Pigs should have free access to feed and
water troughs depending on the size of the operation. They can
be incorporated into the building design or constructed specially.
They should be easy to clean and should be washed and
disinfected at least once a week. This prevents the harbouring of
disease-causing agents and thus minimize infections.
BREEDS AND BREEDING
1. Breeds
There are over 90 recognized breeds and an estimated 230 varieties
of pigs in the world. These can be grouped into indigenous and
modem exotic types which through selection and breeding, have
been developed for conunercial production.
19
Indigenous Breed:
The indigenous pigs (fig 8)are usually of modest size with adults
reaching 100kg maximum but rarely weigh more than 60kg at one year
of age even under the best rearing conditions. n general the
indigenous breeds have smaller and shorter legs than exotic types with
the typical unimproved conformation of a large head, well developed
forequarters and relatively light hind quarters. These render them more
mobile and better able to forage and root for themselves.
They are sexually early maturing and females may show first
oestrus as early as three months of age. The skin is often black, brown
or occasionally spotted but rarely white. Generally, they are adapted to
traditional rearing systems in which the food consists of diverse
vegetable waste products. ndigenous sows show excellent
mothering ability, which results in very low piglet mortality without
sophisticated housing.
Fig. 8: Indigenous Breed of Pigs.
20
ii. Exotic Breeds:
Exotic breeds were first brought in from Europe and constitute
the commercial herds being reared under semi-intensive and
intensive management systems. The following exotic breeds have
been tried and are of significance in Nigeria.
a. Large White (Yorkshire): A very popular breed throughout the
world. t is fast growing, strong-framed with good body length. t
is renowned for its strength of legs. The females are prolific good
mothers and adapt well to confinement conditions. The breed is
widely distributed in Africa and is used extensively for cross-
breeding. For instance, the Large White XLandrace female is the
most popular cross for commercial production. The white hair
and skin render the carcass more acceptable to consumers than
that from the coloured breed. However, shade and wallows are
essential for the breeds to prevent skin from sun bums (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9: Large White Breed
21


B. Danish Landrace: The breed is easily known by its
forwardpointing loop ears. t is characterised by a long, smooth body
with light shoulders and well developed hams (Fig. 10). The breed is
prolific with excellent mothering ability and produces lean, fast-growing
progeny. The landrace has a higher level of susceptibility to stress than
some other breeds. t is highly favoured for cross breeding purposes.
Fig. 10. Danish Landraee Breed
c. Duroc: dentification of this breed is by its deep red or rusty colour.
The Duroc is a fast-growing large breed which has been selected
specifically for overall muscle and meat production. t has the ability to
grow into heavier weights without depositing too much fat. Litter-size
and mothering ability are only average in the females (Fig. 11).
The breed is well known for its hardiness and resistance to
stress with lower levels of mortality. This is an important quality in the
choice of breeding stock. n commercial pig production, it is frequently
used as a terminal sire on white-breed females.
22

23
Fig. 11: Duroc Breed
D. Hampshire: This is a medium sized black pig with distinct white
saddle which encircles the fore-quarter. The sows are prolific, good
mothers and possess above average milking ability. They thrive better
on extensive conditions than white breeds (Fig. 12).
The breed is meaty with well-developed muscles which showefficiency
of food conversion and is also popular in cross- breeding programmes.
Fig. 12: Hampshire Breed
e. Berkshire: The breed is easily identified by its black coat and
characteristic white feet and nose. t is a smaller, early-maturing pig
which was first developed in England for the pork trade. n the tropics,
it has proved very hardy and cross well with the indigenous stock.
However, the Berkshire breed is on the decline on a world wide basis
which may be due to its carcass that is relatively fatty.
1. Breeding
The pig farmer, no matter how good, cannot do better than the
animal's genetic potential for production. mprovements in productive
parameters can thus be achieved only by selection of animals with
superior genetic make-up as the parents for the next generation.
Since the primary objective of pig fanning is for meat production, the
farmer must learn to select those animals that can be manipulated
through breeding and management in order to tap that animal's
optimum potential for meat production.
For maximum performance, a systematic cross breeding Programme
should be followed. The primary advantage of cross breeding is in the
use of the cross bred dam which farrows and weans more pigs. On the
average, cross-bred pigs gain more weight and are more efficient than
pure-breeds. t is not as if there is an optimum number of breeds that a
fanner can use in a cross-breeding programme but a practical
recommendation is three (Grummer and Giesler 1975). An example of
such a cross-breeding programme is given in Fig. 13.
t is advisable to select breeds that are somehow dissimilar in their
characteristics for such cross-breeding.
24
Figure 13: TypicasI corss breeding programme
3. SeIection of Breeding Stock
Select the breeding stock when the pigs are sexually mature (i.e. about
five months. of age ). Select from the same age group for their fair
comparison. Good reliable indicators of the pig's performance are
traits such as growth rate and efficiency of gain.
a. Growth Rate: Measured by determining the difference in weight at
weaning and weight at maturity divided by the number of days. A
good rule of thumb is to weigh the animals at two months and then
at five months. The daily gain is the difference in weight divided by
90, the number of days in three months. At five months, the live-
weight of a pig should be between 6585kg. The rate of gain should
not be less than 600glday.
b. Efficiency of Gain: Ameasure of how much feed was consumed
to put on the weight gain. t is usually measured for a
25
26
group of pigs. Add the total feed consumption of the group that was
fed together and divide by the total weight gain of all the group to
get the feed efficiency of the group.
c. Litter Size: s important, but it is a low heritable trait. Select
breeders from amongst large, healthy and well performing litters.
d. Conformation and Sex Characteristics: Pigs selected for
breeding must be physically healthy, have good strong legs, be
free from any defects and must not be too fat. t is important to note
that the genetic influence of the boar on the next generation is
greater than that of the sow since one boar will be used to mate
several sows. Boars must have two equally sized and firmly
suspended testicles, exhibit sex drive and be void of bad habits.
Gilts must have a good underline and udder with at least 12 well
spaced, fully formed teats.
e. Other SeIection Criteria: For the small-scale farmer, the above
four criteria are adequate but for the large scale farmer and pig
breeding or testing stations, other criteria are commonly in use.
These include: furrowing rate, number of still born litter, average
pig birth weight, pigs weaned per litter furrowed, average weaning
weight, loin muscle area, carcass length, back fat depth, fat depth,
percent lean, mortality rate at weaning and in growing finishing
stage. Table 3 gives performance guidelines for assessing
production profile of exotic pigs under intensive management
conditions.
4. Management of Breeding Boars and GiIts
Litters selected for breeding should be separated into boars and
gilts at five months to prevent indiscriminate mating.
n the breeding herd, the boar should be at least 7.5 months of
age or about 120kg in weight when first used for breeding. Under pen
mating system, a boar should effectively service 10-12 gilts/sows.
27
More females can be served if hand-mating is used. Care
should be taken to avoid overworking the boar. Boars are at their best
between 15 months to four years of age.
The gilt should not be bred before seven months of age. The
advantage of an older age is that the number of eggs ovulated
increases through the third or fourth estrous period. Furthermore,
signs of estrous in young gilts may be less obvious and of shorter
duration especially under confinement. The number of gilts per pen
should not be more than 15.
5. Purchasing Breeding Stock
n purchasing breeding stock it is important to buy trom a reliable
supplier who can give authentic information on the performance traits
discussed. On purchase, they should be kept apart for about 30 days
to make sure that they are tree from any obvious disease and also to
enable them acclimatize to the new environment before put to use.
However; care must be taken to keep boars within sight and sound of
the female pig! in order to enhance stimulation. He should also be
exercised generously.
6. ArtificiaI Insemination (A.I)
This involves collection of semen from a boar and then introducing it
into a sowor gilt at a later stage by means of catheter. This differs from
the natural service where a boar mounts the sow and introduces his
semen.
a. t allows for wider use and distribution of boars of high
genetic merit.
Artificial insemination offers several potential advantages to
the pig producers and can be used more extensively when producers
are experienced. The advantages of artificial insemination are as
follows: up to 25 sows.
C. t prevents transmission of diseases from farm to farm by
the sale of boars
d. t helps to overcome the practical problems of differences
in size of males and females. On occasions, this problem can
severely limit the use of heavy boars of high genetic caliber.
e. t eliminates the need to purchase, house and feed a
boar especially on small scale pig farming.
f. t reduces the farmer's risk of handling boars for natural
service.
Estrous control, heat detection and timing of insemination are very
essential for any successful A.. These allow for precise scheduling
of
breeding and farrowing. Both natural and artificial methods can be
used for lactating sows .Estrous (mating reflex) will occur within 4 to 7
days after the litter is weaned. Thus several litters could be weaned on
the same day and the sows bred at the earliest opportunity.
To attain good conception rate in gilts/sows, accurate heat
detection must be carried out to ensure that the timing of insemination
is correct To over come wrong timing in detection of the start of estrous
and the natural variations in the time of ovulation two inseminations
approximately 12 hours apart are recommended. During the heat
period, the following signs may be observed:
i. Sows/gilts will allow themselves to be mounted by the
boar or other sows.
ii. Sowin heat stands rigid when pressure is applied to the
region of the loin, i.e. exhibits "standing reflex.
iii, There is swelling and reddening of the vulva.
28
V. Sows become restless and give characteristic 'grunt'.
Recently, devices have been developed which measure the electrical
resistance of the vaginal mucosa. As this varies in relation to honnonal
levels, it can be used to predict more accurately the timing of ovulation
and hence the optimum timing of insemination. This will reduce the
likelihood of sows returning to service or producing small litters.
There is also the practice of inducing estrous and ovulation by
judicious administration of certain hormonal or honnone -like
substances. Sows in which estrous is induced during lactation do not
show strong signs of heat as do those coming into estrous normally.
Therefore, more careful observations for estrous must be made.
PIG MANAGEMENT
Good stocksmanship is a basic requirement for successful
livestock production. The animals must be given adequate care
before the farmer can expect his animals to produce to optimum
capacity.
1. DaiIy Routines
a. Animal nspection: nspect animals early in the morning and
watch out for any abnormal behaviour. Observe their
general stage of health, check for parasites and injuries.
nspect at other times for same parameters.
29

30
be given in quantities that pigs can consume within 20 - 30
minutes. Left-over feed tends to get sour and become a
breeding ground for parasites. Watch out for any abnormal
feeding habits. n order to avoid competition for feed
between piglets and dam, provide a creep where the pigs
can feed without being disturbed by the dam.
c. CIeaning: After watering and feeding, clean up the pens.
Remove moist bedding and replace with a dry one. Wood
shavings can be used for young animals and sawdust for
older ones. f a pen is vacated it should be washed,
disinfected and allowed to rest for at least one to two weeks
before other animals can be brought in.
d. WaIIows: Strongly recommended for replacement gilts,
boars and sows. The wallowing facility should be refilled
with fresh water frequently, wallows and shades help to cool
the pigs and therefore important in the tropics.
e. Exercise: Provide areas for daily exercise. A fenced lot
with either grass or sand will serve. Daily exercise is good
for breeding stock and prevents lameness. Fat animals are
poor breeders.
f AnimaI Grouping: For effective management, group
young pigs together by age, gilts and boars separately.
2. Management of Pregnant Sows:
Once the gilt/sowhas been successfully served, conception will occur.
The . gestation period is 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days).
31
All sows should be checked periodically to detect any one that has
returned to estrous so that they can be served again. The sows should
be kept in small groups to ensure that they all have access to adequate
feed. The feeds should be well fortified in order to meet the needs of
both the dam and foetuses. Feeding of green leaves and vegetable is
particularly important. Heat stress has been recognised to be a major
source of embryo losses especially during early pregnancy. t is
therefore important that pregnant sows should be shielded from
extremes of heat especially during the hottest months of the year
through the provision of shades and wallows.
3. Farrowing and care of new born PigIets
The pregnant animals should be dewormed 2-3 weeks prior to
farrowing to reduce the possibility of the dam passing worms to the
new born piglets. Also the sow should be in the farrowing unit 4 to 5
days prior to expected farrowing time to allow for adjustment to the
environment. Constipation in the sow must be avoided at all cost as
this interferes with farrowing process. Supplements of bran and green
stuff during the last week of pregnancy are recommended.
When the pregnant sowis about to farrow, the signs to watch for
are: increased restlessness as opposed to the peaceful animal of late
pregnancy and making of nest by arranging her bedding.
Management is especially critical since most baby-pig losses occur
during the first 72 hours after birth. t is recommended that for sows
farrowing under confinement conditions, each farrowing should be
supervised by a trained stocksman, in case of any farrowing problem
such as delayed farrowing and still-births. With special care and
attention to dam and her litter, up to 7()95% survival of piglets to 8
weeks of age can be realized.
32
Many losses of newborn piglets are caused by stress due to chilling.
The stockman must be ready to prevent this by providing extra source
of heat. Also, piglets must be encouraged to obtain their first successful
.suckle of colostrum within 45 minutes after birth. Colostrum is the most
important food a piglet takes in during the first few hours ofits life,
because it is a source of both essential energy and antibodies. Failure
to obtain colostrum will invariably result in susceptibility to diseases
and death of the newborn baby pig.
Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked
for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable
system (Fig 14). t is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent
potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the
dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this
reduces the possibility of navel infections colostrum will invariably
result in susceptibility to diseases and death of the newborn baby pig.
Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked
for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable
system (Fig 14). t is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent
potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the
dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this
reduces the possibility of navel infections
.
Fig. 14: Ear Notching System.
Since sow milk (Fig 15) is very low in iron, oral or injectable iron
preparations are administered to the piglets in confinement to reduce
the development of iron deficiency anemia. n the absence of iron
preparation.1 a shovel of red (iron rich) soil thrown into the pen has
been known to source of iron for piglets under Nigerian conditions, but
this may not adequate for optimum growth. njections are made prior
to 5 days of age, while oral preparations to the piglets are usually given
continuously in soluble form. Male piglets not retained for big should
be castrated after one month of age. The piglets can gradually be
introduced to creep feed after two weeks.

Fig. I5 Dam SuckIing PigIets
4. Weaning:
Weaning is the practice of separating the young pigs from their mother.
t usually exerts stress on the young. Weaning is normally
accomplished when pigs are from 6-9 weeks of age, when they should
be capable of subsisting on solid feeds and fending forthemse1ves.
Body weight and health condition are better criteria than age per se.
Exotic breeds should be weaned at weights of 5-6kg. t must be
emphasised that superior management, rigid environment control and
continuous attention to minute details are essential for success in this
phase of growth.
Other changes should be gradually effected at weaning. Do
not abruptly change the ration, but for a few days, continue feeding
creep feed mixed with weaner ration and then finally eliminate the
creep feed completely at about two weeks after weaning.
5. EarIy Weaning
Recent developments in the commercial industry are in favour of early
weaning at about 4 weeks. The advantages are:
a. Losses in piglets due to overlying and starving are significantly
reduced.
b. Pigs can be adequately fed, and lack of uniformity in a litter can be
overcome.
c. Cost in sowfeed can be slashed.
d. The sowlooses less weight during nursing.
e. The dam can be rebred sooner to produce more litters.
f. Better producing sows can be retained for longer period.
g. Early weaning allows for streamlining of the production and market
supply; both weaners and market hogs can be sold.
A very high level of management is required for early weaning
and therefore it is not in general practice. However, a technique of
'split' weaning can be beneficial, whereby the large piglets are weaned
first and the small ones are left with the dam and weaned later.
6. Weaners and Growers
The 3 week period immediately after weaning is a critical one for
the young pigs because a number of stresses may be encountered.
After pigs have overcome the stress of weaning and are feeding
properly, deworm them for the first time. Group the pigs according to
age and size. Large litters should be grouped together. This provides
an opportunity to record their feed consumption up to the time of
selection (at 5 months of age) and enhances the determination of feed
efficiency. Sick pigs should be separated for treatment. f there is need,
some weaner pigs can be sold at two months of age. Others (not for
sale) can be raised on self-fed rations until the finishing stage. At the
age of five months, the live weight of a fully grown pig should be 64-
80kg.
This means the pig is expected to gain 0.55 to O.68kg per day
over a period of three months. By then a healthy pig should be sexually
matured. Separate gilts and boars because the boars usually start
ranting. This is the time to select which pigs should be kept as
replacements in the breeding herd and which should be finished for
market.
7. Record Keeping
The keeping of accurate records is absolutely essential for the
success of any pig enterprise. t gives a clear picture of the type of
operations, so that the exact degree of success can be measured.
Therefore, a good record of the number of pigs in herd, feed
consumption, mortality, medication' and sales, should be kept. Also on
reproduction, details of boar performance, sow productivity, weaners
growth and grower/finisher efficiency should be recorded. Examples
of pig records are given in Appendices 3,4 and 5.
FEEDS AND FEEDING
Feed accounts for 55-85% of the cost of commercial pig production
depending on the level of intensification of the production system.
Feed is therefore the major operational cost item in a pig enterprise.
Pigs require feed to meet biological needs for maintenance, growth
and reproduction. The feed supplies nutrients which are extracted
through the digestive system of the pig and converted into the
metabolites (products) that are used to meet these biological needs.
There are six classes of nutrients required by the pig: Water, energy,
protein, vitamins, minerals and lipids. These nutrients can be supplied
by a wide variety of feedstuffs.
Feeding pigs for optimum production requires that feedstuffs be
combined in proportionate amounts that will provide the quantities of
nutrients needed by the animals. The feed so pre Fats contain 2.25
times the energy of carbohydrates but
pared must be given to the pig in the right quantity and quality. The
cost factor must also be used to determine the choice o feedstuffs that
supply them and how rations can be formulated for the different
classes of pigs.
1. Nutrients Required by Pigs
a. Water: Next to air, water is the most essential nutrient for life. t
should be supplied clean and daily. Most feeds and feedingstuffs
especially green leaves, contain appreciable quantities of water.
Sixty-five percent of the pigs body is water. Water is of particular
importance to pig production in the tropics as the pig requires
water to enable it maintain body temperature. Lack of water
quickly leads to a rise in body temperature and death. Also sub-
optimal amount of water will have a major effect on food intake
and pig performance
b. Energy: Can be defined as the capacity to do work. t provides
the driving force for all the biochemical reactions that go on in the
body. The energy requirement of the pig is usually given in terms
of Digestible Energy or Metabolisable Energy. Energy is
measured in Kilo calories (Kcal) or Megajoule (Mj). The bulk of
energy in pig rations in supplied by carbohydrates which are the
major components of cereal grains such as maize, guinea com,
millet and root crops such as yams, cassava and potato. Fats
contain higher levels of energy than carbohydrates. Fats
commonly used in pig rations include palm oil, groundnut oil,
soyabean oil and tallow.
c. Lipids: Although fats are used primarily as energy sources, it
has been known that the pig has a requirement for one essential
fatty acid; linolenic acid. However, the requirement is so small
that it can be met in normal! rations formulated to meet required
energy standards are generally more expensive.
d. Protein: Provides the primary blocks for building the animal's
body, i.e meat, collagen, hair and nails. Protein is usually broken
down into amino acids by the body and these are the actual
building blocks. Out of the twenty known amino acids, ten are
described as essential because the pig's body cannot
synthesize them internally and therefore they must be supplied
in the diet. Of these, Lysine and Methionine have been found to
be the most limiting in practical rations. The synthetic products
are available commercially and can be added in pig rations
directly to overcome any deficiencies. Because protein sources
are expensive, they are often the most limiting in commercial
feeds. The most commonly used protein containing feedstuf1S
in Nigeria are: Groundnut cake, soyabean (full fat), soyabean
meat, cottonseed cake, palm kernel meal and blood meal.
e. MineraIs: These are the nutrients found in bones. They
also perform extremely diverse functions in the body ranging
from structural formations to regulatory functions inmost body
tissues. There are 13 essential inorganic elements known to be
required by the pig. The minerals that must be provided for in
practical pig rations in sizeable quantities are calcium,
phosphorus, sodium, and chlorine. ron is very important to the
piglet. So much so that it has to be injected directly, even if the
piglet does have access to iron in the soil. Bonemeal, oyster
shell and limestone are the most common sources of Calcium
and Phosphorus in pig rations.
f Vitamins: These are organic compounds required in small
amounts for normal growth, reproduction and health
maintenance. Vitamins A,D, E and K are fat soluble while
the B vitamins are water soluble. Common sources of Vitamins
for swine include green leaves and vegetables.
2. Nutrient Requirements
The nutrient requirement for exotic breeds reared under
Nigerian conditions are given in Tables 4, 4A, 4Band 4C.
3. Feedstuffs
Most natural feedstuffs contain more than one nutrient. A
knowledge of feedstuffs locally available to the farmer or pig feed
producer is therefore most useful. Because it is very important to cut
down on cost of feeds, there is constant search for cheaper sources of
alternative' feedstuffs to the conventional ingredients. Table SAgives a
list of ingredients and their nutrient composition while Table SB gives
the list of some local feedstuffs that have been extensively researched
with limitations on their uses.
t is important to recognise that growth rate on feed made from
low quality feedstuffs is often less than that obtained on feeds
formulate from conventional ingredients as shown in Fig. 16. The
farmer must carefully consider the economic benefits of using one
feedstuff or the other before using them.
Fig. 16: Good quaIity feed makes the difference

Table 4: Feed Requirement for Pigs in a Tropical Environment


Age

Daily Feed
Required
(Kg/head)

Weight Gain
(Kg/head)

Total Feed
(Kg/head)

Total Gain
(Kg/head)

1-8 weeks (creep)

8-16 weeks (Growers)

16-24 weeks (Finishers

1.5

1.5

2.5

0.3

0.5

0.7

24.5

84.0

248.5

14.7

28.0

81.9

Source. O.A. Adebambo (1995)


4. Ration FormuIation
To formulate a ration, the farmer needs:
i. The nutrient requirement of the animal;
ii. The nutrient composition of the feedstuffs available.
iii Acalculator
For pigs kept under extensive production system, the farmer may wish
to give only some kind of concentrate supplement e.g. groundnut cake.
f however, he has access to a crop like soyabean cheaply, he may wish
to mix a ration using soyabean with a cereal by-product such as rice
offal. How can such a farmer prepare a 15% protein ration from
roasted/boiled soyabean and rice offal?
The first thing is to find out:
i. The requirement for the nutrient which in this case is 15%
ii.The nutrient composition of the ingredient which is 40% protein
for soyabean, 5% protein for rice offal.
iii. Let's assume that the quantity of feeds to be mixed is 100kg.
The calculation of the proportion of soyabeans and rice offal that will
be mixed to give 100kg of 15% protein ration can be done by:
a. Algebraic Method:- Which is as follows:
Let Soyabean (SB) be ingredient Aand Rice Offal (RO)B.
Step 1: We can write this statement (or equation) as:
(Ax 40%) + (Bx 5%) = 15Kg of protein.
Step 2: Multiply out to give equation 2
(OAA) + (0.05B) =15kg of protein
Step 3: Since the quantity offeed to be mixed = 100kg, it is true that A+ B
= 100kg (equation 3).
Step 4: Now we have to solve for A and B. This can be done by
eliminating either A or B trom equation 2 and 3. n order to do this,
multiply equation 3 by a figure from equation 2, (e.g.OA.) OAA+ OAB=
(100 x 0.4) = 40 (equation 4).
Step 5: Now subtract equation 2 from 4
(OAA+ OAB= 40)
-(OAA+ 0.058 = 15)
Answer =0 + 0.35B= 25
Step 6: Now calculate the value ofB
since 0.35B= 0.25 (Le. from step 5).
Therefore B= ~ = 7l.4kg
0.35
Step 7: Since B(Le. Rice Offal) = 7104, the proportion of ingredient A
(i.e. Soyabean) in the 100kg feed is 100 - 71.4 = 28.6kg.
Conclusion: Mix 29kg of roasted soyabean (after crushing)
and 71kg of rice offal to get 100kg of 15% protein ration.
b. Pearson square: A second method of doing the same
calculation is to use the Pearson Square.
Step 1 - Drawa square
Step 2 - Place the nutrient content of the diet required in the middle of
the square.
Step 3 - Place the nutrient content of the two ingredients on the let hand
side of the square.
Step 4 - Subtract the figures diagonally and put the difference at the
comers on the right hand side of the square.
Step 5 - Add the differences vertically to get a total
Step 6 - Use the value horizontally opposite each ingredient to
calculate the proportion of that ingredient to be incorporated in the
ration.
For the above example, the square is as follows:
88.40 0.10

0.25
RO.OS Total=0.35
Quantty of Soyabean =
0.10 x 100 = 28.6kg.
0.35
Quantity of Rice offal=
0.25 x 100 = 71.4kg
0.35
The Algebraic and Pearson Square methods are most useful when
only two ingredients are involved. They are most conunonly used for:
1. Preparation of supplementary feeds
2. Combining two ingredients that are to be added to a third
ingredient in the preparation of a supplement
3. Combining concentrates with home grown grains and by -
products. Many feed companies do sell concentrates that a
fanner can mix with locally available grains and by-products to
produce a complete feed. f these are available cheaply, it can
save the fanner feed costs significantly.
The formulation of a complete diet from several ingredients that
contain all the nutrients in the right proportions is a complex procedure
(Table 6). Any farmer who wishes to do so should consult an animal
nutritionist for expert advice and assistance.
n general, the approximate proportions of feed ingredients to meet pig
nutrient requirement, based on conventional diets (rations) are known
to be:
Energy Sources ......................................65-75%
Protein Sources.......................................20-25%
CalciumlPhosphorus ..............................2-3%
MineralMtamin plus salt............ ..............1.5-2%
Table 6: Some Ration Formulations from Feedstoffs for Pigs
5. Feeds for Different CIasses of Pigs
As earlier stated, the nutrient requirement of the pig depends
on such factors as age, sex, productive status and environmental
conditions. A discussion of the specific feeding needs of different
classes of pigs is necessary. Table 4 gives a guide on feed
requirements for different classes of pigs based on local experiences
in Nigeria.
i. Creep Ration
When the piglets are between 7-10 days old, provide them with
creep feed from a separate trough to which the dam has no access.
Feed them in very small amounts, fresh "little and often at first for the
piglets to be accustomed, then it can be increased according to
appetite. This should continue till the young pigs are at weaning age of
6-9 weeks.
Creep ration though expensive, is necessary for a good start and
should be supplied freely to piglets. An allowance ofO.2kg per animal
per day is considered adequate. Creep feed supplements the
declining milk yield of the sow as her lactation advances. The ration
should contain a crude protein level of about 24% and metabolizable
energy (ME) of 3,1 OOKcal/kg. The quality of protein is of prime
importance, for instance the essential amino acids like lysine,
methionine, cystine, etc must be adequately available.
ii. Weaner Ration
This ration should be gradually introduced before the pigs are
completely weaned at the age of 5 - 8 weeks. The practice allows for
smoother transition. The pigs should have free access to the ration at
all times. The protein content of the weaner ration is slightly lower than
that of creep ration (18-22%) with metabolizable energy at
3,OOOKcalI kg. The fibre content should be higher than that of creep
rations. An allowance of 1.Okg per animal per day is adequate if fed
quality feed.
Weaners should be on this ration till the liveweight of about 34.
Okg 45kg when they should be gradually introduced to grower ration.
iii. Growing Finishing Pig Rations
By the time the growing pig is over with the stress of weaning, its
digestive system will be competent to deal with a wider range of
protein and energy feed sources. About 800./0 of feed used in a pig
unit is consumed by the growing and finishing pigs, therefore the
efficiency of feed utilization during this phase is a crucial factor
affecting profitability.
The grower/finisher ration should have a higher fibre content
than creep and weaners' rations. The crude protein content should be
lowered
to 16-18% while the energy should be about 3,OOOKcaJ/kg.
Palatability of feeds should be maintained and liberal feeding is still
recommended since the pigs must grow actively and put on muscle.
An allowance of2. D-2.5kg offeed per animal per day is adequate.
On commercial farms, the main categories of slaughter pigs are:
Porken: which are slaughtered at live weights of up to 65kg
Baconen: which are slaughtered at live weights of 70-90kg
Heavy bogs: which are slaughtered at 9O-140kg live weight.
IV. The Fatteners Ration
At about 57kg live weight, pigs have deposited much of their
muscle tissues and are beginning to deposit fat. However, excessive
fat is not desirable in the carcass. Rations fed at this time should be d~
signed to avoid putting on excessive fat, but must not restrict growth.
Such ration is made up of 15-16% crude protein and is usually high in
fibre, while the energy require ment of3,000Kcal/kg is adequate. The
ration should be less expensive than the ones above. Feeding
allowance of2.0-2.5g per animal per day is recommended. Fattening
is best achieved under total confinement.
V. Breeden Ration
Breeder ration is usually prepared to meet the requirement of the
breeding stock. Good litter size and healthy newborn piglets start with
the correct feeding of the sow at breeding time. Like the boar, she
should be in thrifty condition, neither thin nor fat when bred. This helps
the sow to conceive larger number of piglets when bred. Over fatness
impairs the reproductive capacity of sows and reduces sexual drive in
boars. Crude protein level should be between 15-16% and should be
high in fibre.
vi. FIushing
This is the practice of increasing the level of feed about one week
before mating in order to stimulate an increase in number of ova shed
in sows. This ration should have a higher energy. However, once bred,
the pregnant sowshould be returned to the normal ration so as to gain
weight steadily through pregnancy. Feed the breeding stock an
amount of feed equal to 1.5-2% of the body weight. This means a 150
kg sowshould receive between 2.25-3kg of feed daily.
The energy intake of breeding stock can be reduced either by
diluting the ration with fibrous-low energy stuffs (e.g. rice bran,
cassava peels, pulps) or by feeding smaller amounts. Feeding diluted
feeds is preferred because it satisfies the appetite. Breeder ration
should be well fortified with vitamins and minerals as deficiencies can
cause reproductive failures. The breeding stock should also have
access to plenty of green leaf herbage-grass and legumes. Sows on
pasture also get good exercise which is vital for their health and easy
farrowing. Silage can also be a good source of vitamins, minerals and
unidentified growth and reproductive factors.
After each farrowing (at least 2 days) sows should be fed 1kg of
rice bran to prevent constipation. The sow can be given less fibrous
and more digestive lactation rations a week after farrowing. Rushing
the sow back into full feed after farrowing is a major cause of low milk
yield 6. Methods of Feeding Pigs
Age and productive function of the animal dictate methods that
are available. Examples are as follows:
a. FuII Feeding: For maximum daily gain, it is usually necessary
to allow the pig access to feed at all times. Many different
designs of feeders can be used, but to minimize feed wastage,
constant attention to feeder adjustment is required. One feeder
should be provided for 46 pigs.
b. On-FIoor Feeding: This is suited particularly to controlled
feeding of finishing swine or the breeding herd. Feeding of pigs
in their sleeping are~ on solid floors encourages cleanness,
since pigs are less inclined to dung in their eating and sleeping
areas.
c. InternaI Feeding: Allowing breeding animals, especially
during gestation. access to a self-feeder every third day is a
labour saving technique. The number of times the animals
should have access to a feeder will depend on the condition
and gain of the animals. Regularity of schedule is important to
prevent undue concern and condition of animals.
d. Liquid Feeding: This usually involves mixing predetermined
amounts of feed and water prior to or at the time of feeding This
method can eliminate feed dust in the feeding area and
minimize wastage.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT
A disease outbreak in a piggery can have disastrous
consequences The management practices already described, if
carefully followed, will minimize the occurrence of diseases. That
prevention is better than cure is very relevant in the pig industry.
A clean, sanitary environment provides the best prevention for
internal and external parasite which can be serious problems.
Confinement prevents pigs from contaminated fields and dirty lots.
Antihelmintics and other drugs, when properly used, aid in elimination
of parasites. Antibiotics also protect pigs against disease proliferations
and reduce disease outbreaks. They can also promote growth in pigs
when given at recommended levels. For diseases that can be
prevented through vaccination, a Veterinarian should be contacted to
provide such services routinely.
A basic knowledge of the main diseases which may affect a pig
herd is necessary so that a producer can diagnose the condition and
implement control measures as quickly, as possible. Some of the
common parasites and diseases that affect pigs are highlighted below:
1. Parasites: These are organisms which live on and obtain food from
the body of another, known as the host. They can live on the body (
external parasites) or within the internal tissues and organs (internal
parasites) of the animals.
External parasites mainly cause irritation to the skin surface,
often leading to wounds and increased susceptibility to other
infections. Some of the common external parasites are flies, ticks, lice,
mangemites, etc.
The internal parasites are more common to pigs on free-range..
An example is the round worm (Ascaris Lumbricoides) which causes
lots of damage to pig herds. The round worm can grow up to 300mm
long and 6mm thick in the small intestine. Heavy infestation leads to
inherit in piglets, weakness and loss of weight.
The other harmful worms include tapeworms, e.g. Taenia
So/ium, which has the pig as its intermediate host, while the adult wonn
lives in man. Pigs become infected by picking up eggs from human
faeces and the larvae then encyst in the pig's muscle.
To prevent worm infestation in pig herds, avoid contaminated
water and feeds. Clean and remove faeces always, deworm with
broad spectrum antihelminthics as recommended by your
Veterinarian.
2. Hog ChoIera: This is a highly contagious and acute viral disease of
pigs and is frequently fatal. The spread is by animal contact,
contaminated urine and faeces or other body secretions.
Symptoms:
i. Loss of appetite in affected animals.
ii. nflammation of the eyes.
iii. High body temperature.
iv. Severe diarrhea.
v. Discharge in the eye causing eyelids to stick together.
vi. Trembling and incoordination.
vii. Death often results after 7-8 days.
ControI: There is no effective treatment except vaccination
progranune to be instituted if there is danger of hog cholera infection.
Avoid contact with infected animaIs.
3. African Swine Fever: This is also a very contagious viral disease
which in acute fonn can cause up to 100% mortality.
Symptoms:
i. Pigs are found huddling together.
ii. Loss of appetite.
iii. Small purplish blotches found on the skin.
iv. ncoordination and laboured breathing. Hemorrhages
at the trotters which can lead to lameness.
The disease is spread by bush pigs and warthog which are carriers
of the virus though are themselves immune to the disease. nfection
occurs by contact with other sick pigs or through contaminated food
or water. This disease almost wiped out pigs in Nigeria between
1996 - 2000. Control: nfected pigs should be destroys and properly
disposed off. There is no effective vaccine as at now.
4. Swine nfluenza: t is a respiratory disease that is highly contagious,
caused by the influenza virus. Stress due to rapid changes in
temperature triggers off the disease. Mortality is normally lowbut it is of
great economic importance due to stunting and reduced live weight
gains.
Symptoms: Jerky breathing, cough, high temperature, loss of appetite
and rough hair coat appearance. Secondary infection with bacteria
complicates the condition.
ControI: No treatment or preventive vaccine available, but good
farm management and avoidance of stress can limit outbreak.
TransmissibIe Gastroenteritis (TGE): This viral disease is
characterised by acute diarrhoea., vomiting and early death in
young piglets. The disease can also affect older pigs but rarely
results in death.
ControI: There is no known effective treatment, but infected pigs
can be isolated or killed and buried. The herd is normally immuned
after infection.
6. Enteric CoIibaciIIosis: This is the most common cause of death in
baby pigs, especially within the first ten days. The bacterium Enteric
Colibacilosis (E. Coli) commonly found in the intestinal tract causes
the disease.
Toxins are produced which stimulated a massive fluid loss into the
small intestine leading to scours and dehydration.
Symptoms:
i. Scouring.
ii. Dehydration.
iii. High mortality rate.
iv. Staggering movement.
Control:
i. Avoid stressful condition.
ii. Give oral administration of antibiotic immediately. iii.
Ensure good farm management.
iv. Proper feeding of balanced ration.
v. Piglets must be given colostrum.
7. Salmonellosis: t is a disease of the intestinal tract caused by
salmonella Spp. of bacteria. Pigs of about two months are most
affected. Heavy worm infection triggers it off.
Symptoms:
i. Foul smelling diarrhoea.
ii. Pigs become gaunt.
iii. High temperature in affected pigs.
iv. Some deaths usually occur in a group of infected pigs.
Control:
i Ensure good management.
ii. Practice high level of sanitation.
iii. Feeding of antibiotics and sulpha
drugs.
8. ErysipeIas: This is caused by a bacterium agent which lives in the
soil. Pigs can pick up the agent from soil or by animal contact and even
humans. n the acute form, sudden death is common.
Symptoms:
i. Sick pigs show marked constipation.
ii. High temperature (41-420C).
iii. Reddish - purplish discoloration of the earst
abdomen and
legs.
iv. Chronic stage leads to arthritis swollen joints, stiffness and
heart damage. Control: Routine vaccination programme is
recommended and once the disease is diagnosed treat immediately
with antibiotics.
MARKETING ANDPROCESSING
1. Marketing:
The ability to market pigs at the right time is a major determining
factor to the success of commercial pig production. A recent
international conference on pig production in Nigeria identified
marketing as the number one constraint to increased commercial pig
production. t is true that the small holder who owns less than ten pigs
and sells only one occasionally does not have a marketing problem but
once you have to sell many animals at a time marketing considerations
must be paramount. The bulk of pigs in the tropics are marketed live.
There are basically, four market outlets as listed below:
a. Private SaIes: These involve selling of one or more pigs to
localconsumers, other pig producers, butchers or middlemen. The
pig~ are sold live and prices are normally subject to bargaining. This
method is most common among rural small-scale producers. t has the
advantage of being the simplest. To ensure adequate prices for pig
farmers, marketing cooperatives are recommended.
b. PubIic SaIes: n these methods, pigs are taken to a central pl ac e,
where they are sold by auction on live basis to the highest bidder.
c. Direct SaIes to Butcher: Here, the pigs are sold to the butcher
directly by the producer without middle men. The method is more
applicable to the large scale producers. Fluctuations in prices can be
serious problem in this system of pig marketing.
d. Contract SaIes: Under this system, contract is entered into with an
abattoir to supply a certain number of pigs over a period of time at a
set price. This condition allows the producer to plan his production
strategy over a fairly long period of time. Fluctuation in input prices
however, can be a problem in this system.
2. Kafanchan Pig Market
The Kafanchan pig market is the largest of its kind in Nigeria.
The market is located in Aduwan and Katsit on the outskirt of
Kafanchan town. The position of the market is centrally located to serve
the surrounding towns of Kwoi, Manchok, Kagoro, Zonkwa, Kachia,
etc. in the southern part of Kaduna State. This region is known for its
high pig production in Nigeria.
The pig market holds every Thursday of the week, starting from
as early as 6.30 a.m. till sun set. Pigs are usually transported a day
before the market day. Transportation of pigs could either be by
trekking with the pigs roped and carried along or by vehicle where and
when available. Pig owners ensure that transportation of their animals
is done late in the evening or early hours of the day to avoid heat stress.
Pig selling is the sole business of the market except for food items to
meet the needs of traders. Purchase of pig or pigs is done by bargain
pricing. The highest bidder buys the pig. Traders to this market come
from as far as the Eastern and Southern parts of Nigeria.
3. Sources of PigIets:
For purchase of piglets, the farmer stands at an advantage if he
buys from accredited farms such as University Farms, colleges of
Agriculture, Animal Research institutes or other private pig producers.
f this is not possible, piglets then can be bought from open markets
like the one in Kafanchan.
4. Processing:
The ability of the pig industry to market large quantities of pork is a
necessary condition for the commercial growth of the industry.
Processing outfits are capable of buying many animals at a time,
process them into different products and distribute these products to
any part of the world. Furthermore, processing makes it possible to
harness all the by-products and convert to other uses as:
* Brisdes - for use in shaving and paint brushes.
* ntestines - for use as sausage casings.
* Blood - can be processed into human food or animal feed.
* Slaughter house by-products - processed into animal feed.
* Hoofs-used for gelatin and glue products. All these are usually
wasted under the prevailing pig marketing and slaughtering conditions
in the tropics.
5. Transportation:
Care must be taken while transporting pigs to the market or slaughter
house. Excessive stress on the pig can lead to mortality in transit.
a. Pigs to be transported should not be fed 12 hours before loading
b. Provide a loading ram if many pigs are to be transported at once to
the market. The loading ram should be properly designed to be at
the same height with the cart, truck or trailer.
c. Handle pigs with uttermost care
d. Spray with cold water before loading, if possible. e. L o a d a n d
travel early in the morning for short journeys or in the evening for all
night journeys. This is to ensure that journeys are made during the
cooler parts of the day.
f. The truck to be used should be covered but with provision for
adequate ventilation and bedding on the floor.
g. Avoid mixing pigs of different sizes, ages and herds.
Similar considerations should also apply at the lairage (i.e. where
pigs are held prior to slaughter). The pigs should be handled and
driven with care.
6. SIaughtering:
The standard slaughtering procedure involves:
i. Stunning - Mechanical with a captive bolt pistol or electrical which
involves passing a 1.25 amps current and 300-600 volts for one
second through the brain of the animal.
ii. Bleeding - The stunned animal is hanged on its hind leg on a hoist.
The neck is cut in such a way as to severe all veins. Blood can then be
collected in a clean vessel.
iii. Scalding -mmerse in hot water at 65-75 Degree Centigrade. Once
the hair is loosened, it is cramped with a knife. Excess hair is singed off
with a flame.
iv. Evisceration - To remove the gut, a long cut is made down the belly
of the animal. The entire length of the gut should be removed intact to
avoid contaminating the rest of the carcass. The gut is eviscerated
away from the carcass.
7. Carcass and Meat QuaIity:
The commercial pork industry has standards for carcasses which
may vary from country to country. However, the basic criteria involve
the following considerations:
i Conformation- This refers to the shape of the carcass.
t is desirable to have a carcass that is well developed in the
more valuable meat areas such as the ham and loins.
ii. Lean Content - The amount of lean meat is a very m
portant quality factor.
iii Fattiness - Too much fat in pork is generally not valued. Fat
thickness can be measured even in the live pig and is one of the
criteria often used in selecting animals for breeding.
iv. CoIour and Texture - very pale watery meat is undesirable.
This can occur and is associated with a condition known as pale
soft exudate (PSE) which can result ftom a genetic cause or
poor pre-slaughter handling.
v. Flavour and Odour-Otf-flavour and odours can arise from
feeding high fishmeal diets or rancid fats. Boar taint can
also occur in the meat of entire males.
8. Pig Meat Products:
The wholesale parts of a carcass are shown in figure 17. n most
tropical countries, all the parts are valuable meat, including the head
and trotters. However, the more meaty portions usually fetch higher
prices e.g. the leg and the chump chop.
The meat can be further processed into the following products:
i. Cured - These constitute the bacons and hams which are cured
in brine. Further flavouring is enhanced by smoking. These
processes increase the shelf-life of the product and therefore
should be promoted in the tropics where refrigeration facilities
are often non-existent.in rural areas.
ii. Sausages and Pies - These are derived mainly from
trimming and offal that are left after cutting up whole parts.
iii. Pig Skin - Can be processed into leather or surgical strings.
Fig. 17 Pig carcass showing whoIesaIe parts.
9. Meat Hygiene:
t is important that slaughtering facilities maintain high sanitary
conditions because the products of slaughtered animals provide an
ideal breeding ground for bacteria. The carcass should be chilled
immediately after slaughter.
Refrigeration trucks in good working conditions should be used in
transporting meat over long distances.
t is necessary to provide for meat inspection in slaughter
houses in order to ensure that only healthy meat is approved for sale to
the public. Meat slaughtered on the farm should also be wholesome
and measures taken that no disease is circulated from the dead to the
living.
Appendices.
Appendix 1: Summary of Management Practices.
During Pregnancy:
* Control energy intake, but feed adequate protein.
* De-worm pigs and allowgood exercise.
* Pasture with shelter preferred over total confinement.
Breeding Pigs:
* Purchase breeding pigs trom accredited farms.
* Use pigs selected for good genetic potentials.
* Do not use injured animals or those with deformities.
* Keep pigs cool in warm weather and provide dry place to
sleep at night.
* Boars can be used for service trom eight months of age.
* Carry out routine de-worming.
* Sows and gilts should have normal teats of 12 or more.
* Select gilts based on mother's performance.
* Treat pigs for external parasites and isolate sick ones* Mate sows or
gilts at least twice (24hrs. apart) at breeding time.
Farrowing Time:
*Prepare farrowing house in advance, clean and disinfect at
least 7 days before gilts are moved in.
*Allow rest period between farrowing.
*Keep farrowing unit warm.
Keep farrowing unit draft-tree i.e. no air intakes allowing
draft directly on pigs.
*Do not feed on the farrowing day.
Wash and spray gilts or sows with disinfectant prior to far
rowing.
*As part of pre-farrowing care, feed limited feed and laxative feed. *
*Give iron injection to piglets within 2-3 days. * Provide rail guards and
keep record of farrowing.
Lactating Period:
Keep pigs in confinement for good observation and management.
Maintain strict hygiene and keep predators away.
Observe schedule for castration and vaccination, spread over2-3
weeks. Deworm pigs at weaning.
Wean pigs at 7-9 weeks. Under good management 5-6 weeks could
serve.
Feed good creep feed to ensure: fast growth, heavy weaning
weight and uniform litters.
Provide for medication
Growing-finishing Pigs.
Feed balanced ration
Provide adequate housing free of drafts, dampness and dust
Deworm against internal parasites.
Confinement or pasture is good.
Schedule for vaccination should be observed. * nstall facilities for
coolingpigs in hot weather.
APPENDIX 2 GLOSSARY:
1. Ad Libitum (Ad lib):- Unrestricted feeding to appetite.
2. Artificial nsemination (A):- Collection of semen from boar and
introduction of it at a later stage into sowor gilt by means of a catheter.
3. Antihelmintic:- Dewormer; a chemical destructive to intestine worms.
4. Bacon:- Pig meat which has been cured in brine with or without smoking.
5. Castrate:- To remove the testicles of the pig.
6. Colostrum:- First milk secreted after sow gives birth, usually higher in
protein and antibodies needed for immunity in newborn pigs.
7. Dam:- Afemale pig.
8. Farrow:- Process of giving birth to a litter of pigs by a mother sow.
9. Flushing:- ncreasing the level of feed just before mating , in order to
stimulate and increase number of eggs shed.
10. Gestation:- The period from conception to birth of the young.
11. Gilt:- Ayoung female pig up to the time she produces her first litter.
12. .thrift:- Failure to thrive nonnal1y, i.e. showing poor condition.
13. Lactation:- Period when the sowis producing milk for her young
14. Libido:- Sexual drive and energy.
15. Litter:- Set of young pigs born at one time to the mother pig.
16. Oestrous:- The period during which the female will stand and permit the
male to mate. Also called heat period.
17. Parturition:- Process of giving birth.
18. Scour:- Watery diarrhea in pig.
19. Sire:- The male parent of an animal.
20. Udder:- Alarge pendulous milk secreting gland provided with nipples or
teats for baby pigs to suck.
21. Wallow: To roll about in mud or dirty water to keep cool.
22. Weaning:- The act of separating the young pigs !Tom their mother.
Appendix 3: An IndividuaI sow record


Sow No...... Date served ..... Boar No.....

...........................

Due to farrow ....... Farrowed...........

Total born .........Born alive..........

Pigs fostered off....... Pigs fostered on ........

Date iron injection..........

No. pigs weaned ..... Date weaned........

Total litter wt weaned .................

Average /weaning wt.................

..........................

Remarks.......................

..........................

Appendix 4:

Aboar performance record sheet
Born No.... Date oI birth.....Breed.......

Sow
No

Service
Date

Return
to
service

No.
born

No.
weaned

Total litter
mass
weaned

Remarks









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