Enzymes in DNA Replication Helicase: Unwounds a portion of the DNA Double Helix separating the two strands using

g the energy that is derived from ATP hydrolysis. RNA Primase: Attaches and synthesizes RNA primers, the complementary bases to the templates, to the replicating strands DNA Polymerase delta (): Binds to the 5' - 3' strand in order to bring nucleotides and create the daughter leading strand. DNA Polymerase epsilon (): Binds to the 3' - 5' strand in order to create discontinuous segments starting from different RNA primers. Exonuclease (DNA Polymerase I): Finds and removes the RNA Primers DNA Ligase: Binds the DNA fragments together by addition of phosphates in the gaps that remain in the phosphate-ribose sugar backbone. Nucleases: Remove wrong nucleotides from the daughter strand.
Reference: Phatak,Omkar.DNA enzymes.html Replication Enzymes. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/dna-replication-

Enzymes in Protein Synthesis RNA transcription from DNA requires RNA polymerases, as well as other enzymes. RNA Polymerase I elongates mRNA; RNA Polymerase II catalyzes the transcription of DNA to synthesize precursors of mRNA and most snRNA and microRNA; RNA polymerase III synthesizes tRNAs, rRNA 5S and other small RNAs found in the nucleus and cytosol, etc. RNA translation from mRNA takes place at ribosomes (composed of ribosomal RNA), and requires tRNA (transfer RNA). Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases are enzymes that catalyze the bonding between specific tRNAs and the amino acids that their anticodons sequence. Post-translational modification of proteins is performed by a vast array of enzymes. For example, racemization of proline is catalyzed by prolyl isomerase.
Reference: Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molecular biology of the cell. New York: Garland Science. pp. 760. ISBN 0-81533218-1.

Codon Charts:
Table 1. Genetic code: mRNA codon -> amino acid

1st Base U Phenylalanine Phenylalanine U Leucine Leucine Leucine Leucine C Leucine Leucine Isoleucine Isoleucine A Isoleucine Methionine 1 (Start) Valine Valine G Valine Valine Alanine Alanine Proline Proline Threonine Threonine Threonine Threonine Alanine Alanine Serine Serine Proline Proline C Serine Serine

2nd Base A Tyrosine Tyrosine Stop Stop Histidine Histidine Glutamine Glutamine Asparagine Asparagine Lysine Lysine Aspartate Aspartate Glutamate Glutamate G Cysteine Cysteine Stop Tryptophan Arginine Arginine Arginine Arginine Serine Serine Arginine Arginine Glycine Glycine Glycine Glycine

3rd Base

U C A G U C A G U C A G U C A G

Table 2. Reverse codon table: amino acid -> mRNA codon

Amino acid mRNA codons Ala/A Arg/R Asn/N Asp/D Cys/C Gln/Q Glu/E Gly/G His/H Ile/I START GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG Amino acid Leu/L mRNA codons UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG AAA, AAG AUG UUU, UUC CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU, AGC ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG UGG UAU, UAC GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG UAG, UGA, UAA

CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG Lys/K AAU, AAC GAU, GAC UGU, UGC CAA, CAG GAA, GAG GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG CAU, CAC AUU, AUC, AUA AUG Met/M Phe/F Pro/P Ser/S Thr/T Trp/W Tyr/Y Val/V STOP

Table 5. Genetic code: DNA -> mRNA codon -> tRNA anticodon -> amino acid

Obs. DNA mRNA tRNA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 TTT UUU TTC UUC TTA UUA TTG UUG TCT UCU TCC UCC TCA UCA TCG UCG TAT UAU TAC UAC TAA UAA TAG UAG TGT UGU TGC UGC TGA UGA TGG UGG CTT CUU CTC CUC CTA CUA CTG CUG CCT CCU CCC CCC CCA CCA CCG CCG CAT CAU CAC CAC CAA CAA CAG CAG CGT CGU CGC CGC CGA CGA CGG CGG ATT AUU ATC AUC AAA, AAG AAG AAU AAU, AAC AGI, AGG AGI, AGU AGC, AGU AUA, AUG AUG AUU AUC, AUU ACA, ACG ACG ACU ACC GAI, GAG GAI, GAU GAC, GAU GGI, GGG GGI, GGU GGC, GGU GUA, GUG GUG GUU GUC, GUU GCI, GCG GCI, GCU GCC, GCU UAI, UAG

Amino acid Different AA Phe Phe Leu Leu Serine Leucine

Diff. tRNA anticodons to encode all AA

Phenylalanine AAG AAU AGI

AGI, AGG, AGA Ser Ser Ser Ser Tyr Tyr STOP STOP Cys Cys STOP Trp Leu Leu Leu

AGC (or AGU) Tyrosine AUG AUU Cysteine ACG ACU Tryptophan ACC GAI

GAI, GAG, GAA Leu

GAC (or GAU) Proline GGI

GGI, GGG, GGA Pro Pro Pro Pro His His Gln Gln

GGC (or GGU) Histidine Glutamine Arginine GUG GUU GCI

GCI, GCG, GCA Arg Arg Arg Arg

GCC (or GCU) Isoleucine UAI

UAI, UAG, UAA Ile Ile

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

ATA AUA ATG AUG ACT ACU ACC ACC ACA ACA ACG ACG AAT AAU AAC AAC AAA AAA AAG AAG AGT AGU AGC AGC AGA AGA AGG AGG GTT GUU GTC GUC GTA GUA GTG GUG GCT GCU GCC GCC GCA GCA GCG GCG GAT GAU GAC GAC GAA GAA GAG GAG GGT GGU GGC GGC GGA GGA GGG GGG 64

UAI, UAU UAC UGI, UGG UGI, UGU UGC, UGU UUA, UUG UUG UUU UUC, UUU UCA, UCG UCG UCU UCC, UCU CAI, CAG CAI, CAU CAC, CAU CGI, CGG CGI, CGU CGC, CGU CUG, CUA CUG CUU CUU, CUC CCI, CCG, CCA CCI, CCG CCI, CCU CCC, CCU

Ile Met Thr Thr Thr Asn Asn Lys Lys Ser Ser Arg Arg Valine CAI Val Val Val Alanine Ala Ala Ala Asp Asp Glu Glu Gly Gly Gly Gly 20 CCC (or CCU) 33 Glycine CCI Glutamate CUU Aspartate CGC (or CGU) CUG CAC (or CAU) CGI UCU UCG Lysine UUU Asparagine UGC (or UGU) UUG Methionine Threonine UAC UGI

UGI, UGG, UGA Thr

CAI, CAG, CAA Val

CGI, CGG, CGA Ala

No. 64

Note: 1 The codon AUG both codes for methionine and serves as an initiation site: the first AUG in an mRNA's coding region is where translation into protein begins. (SBDR - SOCIETY FOR BIOMEDICAL DIABETES RESEARCH)

DNA Sequence Errors

A substitution is a mutation that exchanges one base for another (i.e., a change in a single "chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G). Such a substitution could change a codon to one that encodes a different amino acid and cause a small change in the protein produced. For example, sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution in the beta-hemoglobin gene, which alters a single amino acid in the protein produced. Reference: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/mutations_05