Facts and Figures

Published by the Federal Press Service Vienna 2000

Co n t e n t s
6 6 7 8 9

The Country and its people

The Landscape Climate, Vegetation and Fauna Population Religions

11

Lnder (Federal Provinces) History

From the Dawn of History to a Border Province Rule of the Babenbergs 600 Years of Habsburg Rule Republic of Austria

24 24 26 28 33

56 57

Government and Politics

Development and Fundamental Principles of the Austrian Constitution

62 70 73 75 79 84

Central Institutions of the Austrian Political System Administration of Justice and Control Party System and Political Parties in Austria Organised Interest Groups and Social Partnership Austria as a Member of the European Union Austrias Position within the International System

89 89 95 96 96 99 100 101 105 109 110 112

A map of Austria showing the Lnder

The Economy
Structure and Conditions Economic Data Federal Budget 2000 Labour Market and Employment Industrial Production 1999 Tourism Direct Investment Setting up Companies Transport and Telecommunications The Energy Sector sterreichische Industrieholding AG IAG Development Cooperation Monetary and Financial Policy Agriculture, Forestry and Hydropower Foreign Trade

115 116 118

119

environmental Protection Social Services

The Social Network The Health Service Consumer Protection Data Protection Womens Issues

126 126 133 134 134 135

138 138 145

Education Science and Research

Schooling Science and Research

155 155 163 165 170 181 198 202

Culture
Literature Theatre and Musicals Film Music The Visual Arts and Architecture Museums and Collections International Cultural Exchange

206

Sport Mass Media

Current Media Analysis Print Media Electronic Media Associations and Institutions

214 214 214 218 221

The Austrian flag with the federal coat of arms

Proprietor (publisher): Federal Chancellery, Federal Press Service A-1014 Vienna, Ballhausplatz 2 Tel. ++43/1/53115/2340 Fax: ++43/1/53115/2814 e-mail: press-info.service@bka.gv.at http://www.austria.gv.at Excerpts of the text may be reprinted.

Authors: Prof. Dr. Emmerich Tlos (Government and Politics) Dr. Elisabeth Horvath (The Economy, Environmental Protection and Social Services)

Editor: Department III/1 Graphics: Creativstudio Mark & Nevosad, 1-1030 Vienna Produced by: Druckerei Berger, Horn (Lower Austria)

The coats of arms of the Austrian Lnder

T h e Co un t r y a n d i t s p e o p l e
Austria is situated in southern central Europe, covering part of the eastern Alps and the Danube region and, although land-locked, it borders on the Mediterranean area. The country has a wide variety of landscape, vegetation and climate, and situated as it is at the heart of a continent, it has always been a junction for communication links between the trade and cultural centres of Europe.
Carinthia Burgenland

Austria is a federal state with a total area of 32,368 sq. miles (83,858 sq. km) and consists of nine provinces Burgenland, Carinthia, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol, Upper Austria, Vienna and Vorarlberg.
Lower Austria

Austria has common borders with no fewer than eight other countries. Their inhabitants belong to the major European ethnic groups: the Germanic, Neo-Latin and Slav peoples, with the exception of the Magyars of Hungary, who derive from the Ural Altaic group.
Salzburg Upper Austria

Austrias borders have an overall length of 1,682 miles, of which 509 miles are shared with Germany, 291 miles with the Czech Republic, 64 miles with Slovakia, 220 miles with Hungary, 205 miles with Slovenia, 267 miles with Italy, 104 miles with Switzerland and 22 miles with Liechtenstein.

Styria

The Landscape
The Austrian landscape falls into five main sections: Eastern Alps 20,332 sq. miles = 62.8 % Alpine and Carpathian Foothills 3,658 sq. miles = 11.3 % Pannonian Lowlands 3,658 sq. miles = 11.3 % Vienna Basin 1,424 sq. miles = 4.4 % Granite and Gneiss Highlands (Bohemian Massif)
Vorarlberg Tyrol

3,269 sq. miles = 10.1%

Vienna

Climate, Vegetation and Fauna

Austria belongs to the central European transitional climatic zone. In much of Austria the prevailing winds are westerly and northwesterly. In western Austria temperature variations between day and night and between summer and winter are less pronounced than in the eastern part of the country. Throughout most of Austria adequate precipation figures are registered, although their amount decreases continuously from west to east. Austria can be divided into three climatic zones: the east shows a Continental Pannonian climate (mean temperature for July usually above 19 C; annual rainfall often less than 800 mm), while the central Alpine region has the characteristic features of the Alpine climate (high precipitation, short summers and long winters). The remaining part of the country belongs to the transitional central European climatic zone, which is characterised by a wet and temperate climate (mean temperature for July 14-19 C, annual precipitation 700-2,000 mm, depending on location, exposure and altitude). The variety of Austrias geography and climate has resulted in a wide diversity of vegetation, in which the main groups largely coincide with the different climatic regions. Austria is characterised by the oak and beech forests that predominate in central Europe, while above 1600 ft. these give way to a mixture of beech and fir. At altitudes higher than 4000 ft., fir predominates and in turn gives way to larch and stone-pine.

The Grossglockner. Austrias highest mountain, 12,465 ft. high

Austria is one of Europes most heavily wooded countries, with 47 % of its total area being accounted for by forests. In the Alpine foreland the forests are to a great extent replaced by arable land, especially on the northern edge of the Alps, where above an altitude of 2000 ft grassland prevails. Characteristic of the Pannonian region are scrub, mixed deciduous wood and heathland. To the east of Lake Neusiedl (Burgenland) one can find typical salzsteppe flora.

Austrian wildlife is characteristic of

A country fair. Dancing in front of the village inn

central Europe: red deer, roe deer, hare, fox, badger, marten, squirrel, pheasant, partridge, etc. Typical

Alpine fauna such as chamois, marmot and the Alpine chough are to be found in the mountainous regions, and the ibex is also breeding here again. Typical of Pannonian wildlife is the vast bird population (purple heron, spoonbill, avocet) abounding in the reed beds which surround Lake Neusiedl, central Europes only steppe lake.

Population
According to the latest national census (1991), Austria has a population of 7,795,786. Based on the latest population statistics (1999), Austria has a population of 8.09 million, which represented an increase of some 300,000 since 1991.

In 1999, 3.9 million (48.5 %) of the population were male, 4.1 million (51.5 %) female. For those born in 1999, average life expectancy for men was 75, for women 81.

98 % of Austrias population is German-speaking. Members of the six ethnic groups officially recognised in Austria are found in five of the Austrian provinces. Burgenland is home to Croats and Hungarians, many of whom have migrated to Vienna. Slovenes are found in the Gail, Rosen and Jaun valleys of southern Carinthia and in some

villages in the southern part of Styria. Many Czechs and Slovaks live in Vienna and Lower Austria, particularly in the Marchfeld and Tullnerfeld regions. Romany and Sinti, who were recognised as ethnic groups in 1993, live mainly in Burgenland, but also to some extent in Vienna.

The Ethnic Groups Act of 1976 only recognises indigenous (autochthonous) ethnic groups, which term applies to those who have lived in Austria for at least three generations and who are Austrian citizens.

Religions
78 % of the Austrian population are Roman Catholics, while a further 5 % are Protestants, most of them belonging to the Augsburg confession. About 4.5 % belong to other groups, while the remaining 9 % are nondenominational and 3.5 % provided no information (figures from the 1991 national census).

The following rights are guaranteed by the State to the legally recognised churches and religious communities:
Corpus Christi procession on Lake Hallstatt, Upper Austria

Public worship. Right (legal protection of designations, entitlement to exclusive pastoral responsibility for their members). Status as public-law corporations. Autonomous organisation and administration of their internal affairs. Protection of their institutions, foundations and funds against secularisation. The right to found confessional private schools. Entitlement to religious instruction at public schools.

The freedom of the legally recognised churches and religious communities is guaranteed in Article 15 of the Federal Constitution, with the explicit reservation that they are subject to general legislation. Relations between church and state were regulated for the Catholic Church in the Concordat of 1933/34, for the Protestant Church in the Protestantengesetz of 1961, for the Jewish Community in the Israelitengesetz of 1890, for the Orthodox Church in the Orthodoxengesetz of 1967 and for the Muslims in the Islamgesetz of 1912. Relations with the other legally recognised churches and religious communities were regulated in the Recognition Law of 1874.

According to Austrian law (law on the religious education of children), every young person over the age of fourteen can freely choose his or her religion.

Religious education at Austrian schools is not restricted to the Roman Catholic confession: children belonging to smaller churches and religious communities receive religious instruction in their own confession. Their teachers are paid by the State.

Inhabitants of Vorarlberg dressed in local costume

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L n d e r ( F e d e r a l P r o v i n ce s )

The democratic republic of Austria is a federal state comprising the independent Lnder, or federal provinces, of Burgenland, Carinthia, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol, Upper Austria, Vienna and Vorarlberg.

Centuries of history have given each of the Austrian provinces its own specific ethnic, economic and cultural character. Here, the countrys topographical variety has also played a role. There are marked variations in climate and vegetation which are reflected in the different ways of life, dialects, customs and traditional dress of the individual provinces.

The provincial capitals such as Graz, Innsbruck and Salzburg are regional centres of historic and cultural development, which as former administration points and residences of the provincial rulers played an important part in the history of Austria. This particularly applies to the federal capital, Vienna, which was for many centuries the hub of a multinational European empire.

The population figures for the individual federal provinces and their capitals are based on the latest national census (1991).

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Burgenland
1,530 sq. miles, pop. 270.880
Austrias most easterly province shares borders with Lower Austria and Styria. This region emerged in 1921 from the German-speaking areas of Hungary which were promised to Austria in the Treaty of St. Germain in 1919.

Burgenland is predominantly an agricultural region, its main products being wheat, maize, vegetables, fruit and a variety of wines. Canning factories have been established near the main agricultural production centres. The

Lake Neusiedl, Burgenland

picturesque landscape attracts a steady flow of visitors. Lake Neusiedl, central Europes only steppe lake, is a popular tourist destination. Austrias accession to the European Union has also made Burgenland an interesting place for investors.

The provincial capital, Eisenstadt, (pop. around 10,000) was for many years the home of Joseph Haydn, who lies buried in the towns Bergkirche, or hill-side church. The annual Burgenland Haydn Festival is held in Schloss Esterhzy in Eisenstadt. During July and August, operettas are performed on the lakeside stage in Mrbisch on Lake Neusiedl. The Lockenhaus Chamber Music Festival takes place in July.

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Carinthia
3,680 sq. miles, pop. 547,798
Carinthia is Austrias southernmost province. Surrounded by high mountains, it consists of the mountainous region of Upper Carinthia in the west and the Lower Carinthian basin in the east. The so-called Austrian Riviera on the Wrther See, not far from the provincial capital Klagenfurt (pop. around 89,000), and the attractive lakeside resorts on the Ossiacher See and the Millsttter See are popular tourist destinations for visitors from both Austria and abroad. Apart from the fourth largest lake, the Weissensee, the province has around two

Prtschach am Wrther See, Carinthia

hundred smaller ones. Many visitors to Cainthia choose to combine their holidays with a visit to The Carinthian Summer Festival.

For centuries, a Slovene ethnic group has been living in the southern part of this province. In the lower reaches of the Gail, Rosen and Jaun valleys, German- and Slovenianspeaking Carinthians live side by side.

Important hydro-electric plants in the mountains and along the River Drava make a major contribution to Austrias electricity supplies. Iron ores, lead, zinc, tungsten and magnesite are mined in the province. Carinthias industries are among the most advanced in the world, one example being the electronic components production plant in Villach. Major industries are electrical engineering, chemistry and wood processing, as well as stone and construction materials. The hunting guns manufactured in Ferlach are of world renown. Villach (pop. around 55,000), located near the borders with Slovenia and Italy, is the biggest road and railway junction in the Eastern Alps.

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Erratic blocks in the Waldviertel, Lower Austria

Lower Austria
7,400 sq. miles, pop. 1,473,813
From Upper Austria, the Danube flows eastwards into Lower Austria, the countrys biggest province in terms of area. Since 1986, St. Plten (pop. around 50,000) has been the provincial capital. As in Upper Austria, this province is traditionally divided into smaller administrative parts or Viertel, such as the Waldviertel and the Weinviertel (the wood and wine areas).

Lower Austria is the province with the largest area under cultivation, mainly for agriculture and wine-growing. It is the countrys biggest supplier of agricultural products such as wheat and sugar-beet. Lower Austria also produces excellent wines from the Wachau Valley, the Vienna region, Gumpoldskirchen, Baden and Vslau which are much in demand with connoisseurs.

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Lower Austria, which forms the historic core of presentday Austria, is also rich in natural resources and has a highly developed industrial sector. To the north of the Danube lie Austrias biggest oil-fields, and the OMV refinery at Schwechat, near Vienna, has an annual distilling capacity of 10 million tons. The southern Vienna basin is one of the biggest industrial centres, where textiles and foodstuffs factories are located, as well as major chemical, iron and other metal plants.

Along the Danube and on one of its tributaries, the Kamp, are major hydro-electric stations which meet Austrias growing power requirements. Some of the countrys largest oil and coal-fired power plants are also located in the industrial zone in the environs of Vienna the Korneuburg and Hohe Wand power-plants, for instance, or the coal-fired power station in Drnrohr.

The province of Lower Austria is also of great archaeological and cultural interest; there have been significant finds from the Stone Age, such as the Venus of Willendorf, and from the Roman period, such as the military camp and town of Carnuntum. The abbeys and churches from the Romanesque and Gothic eras and the magnificent monasteries and castles from the Age of Baroque provide artlovers with a rich source for exploration. The Lower Austrian Danube Festival offers a wide range of major cultural events.

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Stretch of the Danube in Schlgen, Upper Austria

Upper Austria
4,624 sq. miles, pop. 1,333,480
The province west of the Enns river is characterised by three different types of landscape. In the north there are granite and gneiss hills, which are separated in the middle of the province from the Alpine foothills by the Danube valley, and to the south lie the limestone Alps and the Upper Austrian part of the Salzkammergut region.

The scenery around the lakes of the Upper Austrian Salzkammergut is among the most beautiful in Austria. The water in the Attersee, Traunsee and Wolfgangsee, to mention just three of the best-known lakes, is not as warm as that of the Carinthian lakes, and the landscape is often somewhat austere. The town of Hallstatt, situated on the lake of the same name, gave its name to an important prehistoric era, known as the Hallstatt Age.

The rolling hills of this province provide plenty of scope for agriculture, while at the same time being Austrias second most important source of oil and natural gas. Along the Danube and one of its tributaries, the Enns, are several major hydro-electric stations.

For decades, business activities in Upper Austria have shown an extraordinary dynamism. Approximately one

16

quarter of Austrias total exports are generated by this province, some two-thirds of which go to the EU. Upper Austria is also one of Europes leading regions in terms of technology, education and employment. The area around the provincial capital, Linz (pop. approximately 203,000), with its modern Danube port installations is a major centre for the production of iron, steel and chemicals. Other important centres of industry are the districts of Wels, Gmunden, Steyr and Vcklabruck. The partner companies forming the Upper Austrian car cluster employ some 55,000 people and account for a turnover of around ATS 70 billion.

The international trade fairs held every year in Wels and Ried exhibit an overview of the provinces industrial and agricultural achievements.

In terms of culture, Upper Austria offers a cultural contrast with its annual International Bruckner Festival in Linz and the modern Ars Electronica Festival, which has gained international renown.

Salzburg
2,761 sq. miles, pop. 482,365
Since time immemorial, the salt which gave both the city and the province its name, has been mined in this region. The province comprises part of the limestone Alps, the western part of the Salzkammergut with its lakes, the eastern Kitzbhler Alps, the northern part of the Hohe Tauern range and the western area of the Niedere Tauern.

The Hochknig mountain in the province of Salzburg

The provincial capital, Salzburg (pop. approximately 144,000), is the seat of the provincial government and also of the Archbishop of Salzburg. As the former home of Mozart, in the years after 1945 this city became a major destination for international tourism. The historic city centre has been preserved as a work of art in its own right. The thermal springs in the Gastein Valley have brought international renown to the spas of Badgastein and Bad Hofgastein. The regions of Saalbach/Hinterglemm, Zell am See and Kaprun are major winter sports centres, the latter also being known for the Glockner-Kaprun hydro-electric complex located in the Tauern range.

The rapid progress in Salzburgs economic sector can mainly be seen in the services sector with its highlydeveloped, specialised industrial fields, many of them export-oriented, and above all in a flourishing tourist trade. Culture and science have not lagged behind. The world-famous Salzburg Festival, founded in 1920, is now supplemented by Herbert von Karajans Easter Festival.

styria
6,325.4 sq. miles, pop. 1,184,720
Styria is frequently referred to as Austrias green province. This is due to its extensive forests which cover about half of it, with meadows, grasslands and vineyards accounting for a further quarter. With its rich resources of iron, and the iron and steel industry which has grown up here, the northern part of the province, the mountainous region of Upper Styria, has earned the nickname the iron province.

Styria is the countrys leading province in terms of mining: nine-tenths of the iron ore mined in Austria as a whole come from the Styrian Erzberg, or ore mountain. Lignite is mined in the western part of the province and there are also rich deposits of magnesite, with magnesite products

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being exported to many countries. The Mining University in Leoben (Montanuniversitt) is a scientific centre for the mining and steel industries.

The iron, steel and engineering industries are located in the Mur and Mrz valleys. A re-structuring process undertaken during the past decade revitalised the outdated industrial areas of Upper Styria. Cellulose, paper and electrical industries are also important for the provinces economy. Many state-of-the art enterprises, particularly in the fields of electronics (such as the chip producer AMS), plastics and environmental engineering, have gained an international reputation. High-tech vehicle manufacturers (Eurostar Automobilwerke, Steyr-Daimler-Puch Fahrzeugtechnik), whose products are exported all over the world, as well AVL-List, renowned for its developments in automotive technology, are centred on Graz. Styrias cluster of
Viticulture in southern Styria

car firms is one of Austrias top business projects. The Styrian capital, Graz (pop. approximately 238,000), is a thriving commercial, cultural and educational centre, whose picturesque old streets are crowned by its historic landmark, the clock tower, which overlooks the city from the Schlossberg. Both the Styrian Autumn Festival and the styriarte Music Festival are major avant-garde events in Austria and have achieved more than purely local significance.

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The Stubai Alps, Tyrol

Tyrol
4,882.4 sq. miles, pop. 631, 410
Tyrol is one of the worlds best-known holiday destinations and, as a result, most people tend to have a preconceived image of the region. This picture is dominated by mountains and forests, winter sports (the Winter Olympics of 1964 and 1976 were held here), old farmhouses set against splendid Alpine scenery and colourful folk customs. While tourism is certainly a strong factor in the provinces economy and brings in most of Austrias foreign currency, Tyrol is also important for the production of hydro-electric power. Major industrial concerns located in this province are Metallwerke Plansee (powder metallurgy), Jenbacher Werke (diesel engines, vehicles), Swarovski (optical instruments, glass gems).

Tyrol is situated at the junction of numerous trans-European communication links. The Inn Valley motorway and the Brenner motorway are classified as E roads, i.e. major European routes. The 14 km Arlberg road tunnel provides the first road link, passable also in winter, between Vorarlberg and Tyrol. The Felbertauern highway provides a direct road link between the northern and eastern parts of the province without leaving Austrian territory.

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Tyrol is also a centre of education and learning, encouraging intellectual dialogue and contemporary art and culture. During the summer months, the provincial capital, Innsbruck (pop. approximately 118,000), plays host to the Festival of Early Music and the Ambras Palace Concerts. The annual European Forum in Alpbach is Europes most important academic congress.

Vorarlberg
1,004 sq. miles, pop. 331,472
Vorarlberg is Austrias most westerly and with the exception of Vienna smallest province in terms of area. The inhabitants of Vorarlberg speak an Alemannic dialect which more resembles that spoken in Switzerland and in the German province of Swabia than the language of the rest of Austria. This province, situated between Lake
Lech am Arlberg, Vorarlberg

Constance and the Arlberg massif, offers a wide range of

scenery and the natural beauty of its landscape attracts many foreign visitors. Apart from tourism, this provinces sources of revenue are industry and power production. Alongside Vorarlbergs traditional textile industry, iron and metal-working, as well as the food and beverage sectors, have gained considerable ground in recent years.

The electricity generated by the provinces large reserves of hydro-electric power not only supplies Austria itself but is also exported to help meet the needs of Germany and the Benelux countries.

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The Arlberg massif on the border between Vorarlberg and Tyrol has gained world renown as a skiing centre. Other areas, such as the Kleine Walsertal, the Montafon region and the Bregenz Forest, have also become well-known tourist destinations. Situated on Lake Constance, Bregenz (pop. approximately 27,000), Vorarlbergs capital and the seat of the provincial government, is internationally known for its annual summer festival; in the early 1980s the new Festival and Congress Hall was opened. Dornbirn is the provinces main commercial centre and also has the highest number of inhabitants (approximately 41,000).

Vienna
160 sq. miles, pop. 1,539,848
Vienna is both the Austrian capital and a province in its own right. The city lies to the east of the country and is surrounded by Lower Austria. Just 40 or so miles away are the borders with Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

One of the main reasons for Viennas rise to a major European city is its ideal position at the junction between the east-west trade route along the Danube and the communication links between the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean. The opening-up of Eastern Europe has made Vienna one of Europes leading industrial and business locations. Vienna is also one of the most prosperous regions within the European Union.

The Austrian capital is the seat of the federal legislative bodies, the federal government, the central authorities and supreme courts, as well as a number of international organizations.

Vienna also plays host to several international conferences; in the mid-1990s it ranked as the second most popular conference venue after Paris. With its magnificent buildings, museums and galleries, which house unique treasures from all the major eras of Western culture and testify to its great past, the Danube metropolis is also one

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Panoramic view of Viennas city centre

of Europes leading tourist centres. Viennas universities, art colleges and varied concert and theatre programmes serve to underline the citys continuing contribution to European cultural life. The Vienna Festival and the Viennale Film Festival are international attractions.

For several centuries Vienna was the capital of the multinational Habsburg monarchy. The city has acquired a special reputation for its music.

Vienna is also Austrias principal economic centre. Numerous companies manufacturing metal products, precision instruments, electrical goods and motors are located in the area, which is also the home of fashions and craftsmanship. The major Austrian banks, savings banks, insurance companies and most of the largest Austrian enterprises have their headquarters in the federal capital. In the spring and autumn, Vienna not only plays host to international trade fairs but also provides the setting for a number of specialised trade exhibitions which serve to underline its importance as an international market.

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History

Todays Republic of Austria is a small state, whose origins can be traced far back into history. Populated since prehistoric times, Austrias location in the heart of Europe means that it has had its share of the continents historical developments. It evolved from a border region into a powerful empire and multiracial state, which collapsed at the end of the First World War. In 1918, the small, newlyproclaimed Republic of Austria had at first to come to terms with its European environment. Austria emerged from the Second World War and the sufferings associated with it as a state that feels secure in its existence and which plays a decisive role in Europe.

From the Dawn of History to a Border Province

The Danube area was settled as early as the Palaeolithic Age, between 80.000 and 10.000 BC. The Tnzerin, a small figure symbolising a dancer, found in the environs of Krems, and the Venus of Willendorf provide the first significant evidence of early cultures. In 1991 the sensational discovery of a mummified male body dating from the Stone Age was made in the glacial ice of the tztal Alps. In the Early Iron Age, from around 800 to 400 BC, Celtic tribes inhabited the territory of what is now Austria, trading throughout Europe in salt and ores.

Around the time of Christs birth, the Roman Empire conquered the greater part of present-day Austria. The provinces of Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia were estab-

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Reconstructed Roman remains, dedicated to the Mithras cult, in the museum at DeutschAltenburg, Lower Austria

lished as border regions. The Romans founded numerous settlements, of which Carnuntum in Pannonia, lying to the east of Vienna, was the largest Roman town on Austrian territory. In the 2nd century AD, Christianity began to spread in Austria as well.

The migration of different tribes led to the decline of Roman power. With the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Roman way of life and culture also disappeared from this area. From the 6th century on, continuous settlement of the region started with the Bavarians, who encountered the Slavs and Avars advancing from the East. The ecclesiastical organisation of the country dates from the 4th century.

The Frankish ruler Charlemagne (747814) established on the territory of present-day Austria the Carolingian march, or border province, between the rivers Enns, Raab and Drava. But 907 saw the collapse of this province following a defeat inflicted by the Magyars. It was not until 955 that Otto the Great succeeded in vanquishing the Magyars and re-conquering the region. In 976, Leopold von Babenberg, a descendant of a noble Bavarian family, was invested with the area between the rivers Enns and Traisen.

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Rule of the Babenbergs

The new rulers of the margravate initially resided in Melk. In 1156 Duke Heinrich II (Jasomirgott) made Vienna his permanent residence. The Babenbergs extended their possessions to the north of the Danube and further to the east and the south. Before the turn of the millennium (996), a document referred to the region of the Alpine foothills under its present name sterreich

(ostarrchi = Austria).

The Ostarrchi document; the first written reference to the name sterreich (=Austria)

In 1156 the Babenbergs secured the transformation of the margravate into a duchy by Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa, which allowed for greater independence from imperial power. In 1192 the Babenberg Leopold V acquired the Duchy of Styria through a contract of inheritance.

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When, in 1246, the childless Duke Friedrich II was killed in the Battle of the Leitha against the Magyars, his lands became the object of his neighbours power politics. The Austrian nobility then sided with the Bohemian king, Ottokar II Pr emysl, who secured the heritage for himself by marrying the last Babenbergs sister. He quickly succeeded in restoring order, re-conquering Styria and subjugating Carinthia through a contract of inheritance. However, the Holy Roman Empires newly-elected king, Rudolf von Habsburg, was not prepared to recognise the Bohemian kings power without his swearing an oath of allegiance. When both sides took up arms, Ottokar was killed in the Battle of Drnkrut in 1278. In 1282 Rudolf invested his two sons with the Duchies of Austria and Styria, thus laying the foundation for Habsburg dynastic power.

Duke Leopold III. A close-up of the Babenberg family tree located at Klosterneuburg Monastery

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600 Years of Habsburg Rule

From the end of the 13th century to the middle of the 15th century the Habsburgs expanded their territory by gaining the Duchy of Carinthia (1335), the Earldom of Tyrol and the Windische Mark (1365). Losses of territory in Switzerland were offset by the acquisition of parts of todays province of Vorarlberg. The gifted Rudolf IV, referred to as The Founder, not only founded the University of Vienna but succeeded in strengthening the position of this family for future generations by forging a document known as the Privilegium maius.

His

capable

successor,

Duke

Albrecht V, was married to Emperor Sigismunds daughter, thus becoming King of Bohemia and Hungary. After the death of his father-in-law he became the first Habsburg to again be elected German king of the Holy Roman Empire. Following his untimely death during a battle against the Turks in 1439, Friedrich V (as emperor, Friedrich III) from the Tyrolean line of the Habsburgs began to rule in Austria and in the Holy Roman Empire. Through his prudent policy of alliances he laid the foundations for the
Emperor Maximilian I. A woodcut by Hans Burgkmair

Habsburg Empire. He married his son Maximilian to the Burgundian heiress Maria. Maximilian used a shrewd marital policy to secure the hereditary succession in Bohemia, Hungary and Spain for his grandsons Ferdinand and Karl. The Habsburg dynasty subsequently divided into the AustroGerman and the Spanish-Dutch lines. In 1526, after the death of the last Jagellonian king Ludwig II in the Battle of Mohcs, Bohemia and Hungary were united with Austria.

The Ottoman Empire, which had been encroaching on Europe ever since the 14th century, posed an ever-greater threat to the continent. Following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks advanced even further westwards and became a permanent danger for the Habsburg lands. Twice, the Ottoman armies reached the gates of Vienna before they were driven back (in 1529 and 1683 First and Second Turkish Sieges). It took several campaigns with heavy losses to banish the Turks and to re-conquer Hungary. Austrias emergence as a major power was mainly due to the brilliant military leader Prince Eugene of Savoy, who served under three emperors (Leopold I, Josef I and Karl VI) and proved to be not only an outstanding military commander but also a fine statesman.

In 1700 the Spanish line of the Habsburgs died out. In the War of the Spanish Succession, fought in Europe, the House of Austria (casa dAustria) did not succeed in winning back the Spanish possessions but managed to maintain its rule over Italy and the Netherlands.

With the death of Emperor Karl VI in 1740, the male line of the Habsburgs came to an end. Karls daughter Maria Theresa succeeded her father as empress of the patrimonial lands, since
An aga of the janizaries

the

Pragmatic

Sanction,

which had been issued in 1713 mainly to ensure the indivisibility of the lands allowed for female succession. The empress, who

married Franz Stephan of Lorraine, found herself faced with a host of enemies who were seeking to seize the Habsburg lands. The Prussian king, Friedrich II, was particularly

29

eager to gain possession of this heritage. Maria Theresa had to fight

Maria Theresa, Franz Stephan of Lorraine as a general, and the future Emperor Joseph II, wearing Hungarian national costume

two arduous wars (the Silesian War, 17401748, and the Seven Years War, 17561763) in order to keep her lands intact, with the exception of the rich province of Silesia, which she lost to Prussia.

Maria Theresas husband, who was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1745 as Franz I, was overshadowed by his wife throughout his lifetime. The great empress implemented a programme of important reforms in her lands. Her son Joseph II abolished serfdom, issued the Toleration Edict and secularised monasteries and church property, thus paving the way for consistent centralism.

The system of Austrian absolutism was severely threatened by the ideas emerging from the French Revolution, which spread to Austria, albeit cautiously. Emperor Franz II, grandson of Maria Theresa and nephew of the executed French queen, Marie Antoinette, joined the coalition against revolutionary France. As a result, Austria suffered severe defeats in the campaigns led by Napoleon Bonaparte.

After Napoleon had crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804, Emperor Franz responded by installing the Empire of Austria. The establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine under the auspices of France led to the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Accordingly, Franz II renounced the imperial crown. In his subsequent campaigns Napoleon inflicted devastating defeats upon Austria and even conquered Vienna twice. However, Archduke Carls victory over the powerful Corsican at the

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Battle of Aspern demonstrated that Napoleon was not invincible. The Congress of Vienna, which was presided over by Austrian State Chancellor Prince Clemens Wenzel Lothar Metternich, the Coachman of Europe, restored the old order in Europe in 1815.

Parade held by Emperor Franz I

In the spring of 1848, the ideas of the middle-class revolution originating in France also spread to Austria. The liberals demanded a constitution and freedom of the press. Metternichs hated police-based system was swept away. However, in October of that same year the uprising was suppressed, with the conservatives gaining on all fronts. The young emperor Franz Joseph I established a neo-absolutist system. His dubious policy of neutrality in the Crimean War (18541856) led Austria into a dangerous isolation. It was thus left to face Sardinia, which was allied to France and supported the Italian independence movement, alone. Following its defeats at the Battles of Magenta and Solferino in 1859, Austria was forced to give up Lombardy and, at the same time, to yield to internal pressure for a parliamentary institution by issuing the October Diploma and the February Edict.

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Political developments in the Austrian part of the monarchy (Cisleithania) were marked by the emergence of the mass parties (Social Democratic Party and Christian Social Party) and the demand for basic civil rights. The first general elections by direct suffrage to the Imperial Council (Reichsrat) were held in 1907.

The long period of peace which prevailed until the First World War was safeguarded by a complicated system of European alliances, with Austria-Hungary joining up with the German Empire and Italy to form a Triple Alliance. However, growing nationalism within the multiracial state caused severe tension. The justified demands of the working classes for better pay and conditions fit for human beings also clamoured for solution.

The assassination on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was only the provocation for the outbreak of the First World War. In four years of futile slaughter the European powers opposed one another, until the entry into the conflict of the United States of America finally brought it to an end. After the defeat of the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, the German Empire and allied Turkey), the European order crumbled. The dual monarchy disintegrated into national states. The remnants were to form the new Republic of Austria.

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Republic of Austria
The unloved Democracy of the Inter-War-Period Constituting a State
In 1918, during the last days of the war, when it was clear that defeat was imminent, the statement made by the American President Woodrow Wilson on the right of nations to determine their own fate acted as a lifebelt. While the manifesto issued by Emperor Karl was well-meant, it came too late. The peoples of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already opted for the creation of independent national states.

On 21 October 1918, 232 German-speaking delegates (102 German Nationalists, 72 Christian Socialists, 42 Social Democrats, 16 from other parties) from the Imperial Council assembled in the Niedersterreichisches Landhaus in Vienna to decide the future fate of the GermanAustrian state. On 30 October this provisional National Assembly elected a State Council (Staatsrat) consisting of 22 representatives. The Social Democrat Karl Renner, who headed the government, presented a draft constitution for this transitional period. There was widespread consensus between the parties as to the future form of government: the German Nationalists and Social Democrats had always been in favour of a republic, while the Christian Socialists were swayed in this direction by a series of articles brought out by the theologian-cum-politician Ignaz Seipel. On 12 November the provisional National Assembly gathered in the Houses of Parliament on Viennas Ringstrasse and proclaimed German-Austria a democratic republic. However, since in their opinion this newlyformed state would not be able to survive on its own, German-Austria was at the same time declared part of the democratic Weimar Republic of Germany.

The newly-elected State Council found itself confronted with an almost insurmountable array of tasks: to draw up a democratic constitution, to foster relations with the neighbouring countries, to prepare the peace conference, to reorganise the social structure and, on a priority basis, to supply the population with provisions for the coming winter.

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A situation of great political unrest prevailed in Austria, with soldiers streaming back from the front and being unable to find jobs. For the purpose of maintaining public security, in rural areas Heimatwehren (Home Defence Forces) were established, while workers and soldiers councils were set up in factories and barracks. The borders of the new state were unsafe: to the south, the SHS State (State of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) was staking its claim to areas of Carinthia, while to the north protection of the German-speaking territories of Bohemia and Moravia could not be guaranteed without the use of armed force.

On 16 February 1919 elections to the Constitutional Assembly were held, in which, for the first time, women were permitted to vote. The Social Democrats emerged as the strongest party, with 40.76 % of the votes (72 seats), followed by the Christian Socialists, who won 35.93 % of the votes (69 seats). The German Nationalists gained 26 seats, and 3 seats went to the remaining parties.

Supplying the starving population with provisions was one of the biggest problems facing the new government. The agrarian areas of the former monarchy were located in the successor states, which at first closed their doors to the new republic. It was only with the help of large loans, which had a devastating effect on the state budget, that Austria was able to survive the first years of hunger.

Considerable progress was achieved in the social sector. Both the provisional and the constitutional National Assembly enacted legislation to secure an eight-hour working day, works councils, unemployment benefits, paid holidays for employees and the reform of the health service.

The outcome of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 was extremely disappointing for Austria. South Tyrol was lost to Italy, and large parts of Carinthia could only be retained through a referendum. German-speaking western Hungary

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(with the exception of Sopron) was ceded to Austria. Since anschluss, or union with Germany, which had been agreed in 1918, was now forbidden by the terms of the Treaty of St. Germain drawn up at this conference, the name of the new state had to be changed from German-Austria to the Republic of Austria. The young republic responded to this measure by naming the treaty a state treaty, arguing that the Republic of Austria had never waged war and could therefore not conclude peace.

Signing of the Treaty of St. Germain in September 1919

The Federal Constitution, which was formulated in 1920 and which, together with its important amendments of 1925 and 1929, is still in force today, is the result of a compromise. Representatives of the parties and the federal provinces presented their opinions, while the legal foundation and the conceptual structure were provided by the lawyer Hans Kelsen, who was later to achieve international renown.

After the First World War, Austrias scope for foreign policy was at first greatly restricted. Despite the circumstances, however, she succeeded in developing positive relations with her new neighbours. A favourable trading agreement

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was concluded with Hungary and the Republic of Czechoslovakia again began to supply Austria with raw materials, also granting it a vital loan. Particularly after the fascists had seized power in the country, Italy became very protective of the new Republic of Austria provided that the issue of South Tyrol was not discussed. Relations with the Weimar Republic were correct and agreeable, with the State Chancellors placing the troublesome question of the anschluss in the hands of private operators.

In view of the disastrous inflation, the long-term economic reconstruction of Austria could only be managed with the help of a loan from the League of Nations. Only a credit amounting to 650 million gold crowns saved the new republic from bankruptcy. The mere announcement of the loan led to an immediate improvement in currency rates.

Years of Relative Stability

While after the catastrophe of the First World War the political forces in the country had co-operated closely with one another and the most important decisions had been made by a coalition of Social Democrats and Christian Socialists, their fundamental ideological differences now resulted in increasing political cleavage. In June 1920, a relatively small incident in Parliament led to the break-up of the coalition. Strangely enough, this suited both parties; the Social Democrats had already decided to step down, which in the end did not benefit the countrys political climate. The ensuing heads of government came from the ranks of the Christian Socialists or in coalition with the German Nationalists. The new leading light among the Christian Socialists was Ignaz Seipel, who with short interruptions headed the government until 1929.

Both politically and economically, a short period of stabilisation ensued. In 1925 Austria issued a new currency in the form of the schilling and the rigid control exercised by the League of Nations was withdrawn. However, the employment situation and the still excessive number of

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civil servants continued to pose problems. The parties were obliged to formulate their positions more clearly in new party programmes, although the verbal radicalism of the Social Democrats Linz Programme gave rise to several misunderstandings and wrong interpretations. Furthermore, the rivalry between the classical mass parties grew in the form of the paramilitary organisations that had existed since 1918. The right-wing Heimwehr (Home Defence Force) and the left-wing Republikanischer Schutzbund (Republican Defence League) regarded themselves as more effective representatives of the respective ideological positions. The martialisation of daily life became a ruinous process for the Austrian Republic.

Demonstration by the Republican Defence League at a Social Democrat politicians funeral

Just how dangerous this situation had become was demonstrated by the events of July 1927. In January of that same year during one of their regular military parades in Burgenland right-wing militia had killed a war veteran and a child. The three men responsible for this act were, however, acquitted by a Vienna jury. The numerous followers of the Social Democratic movement were enraged but the party leaders were undecided in their reaction, which meant that spontaneous and leaderless mass demonstrations came and went without any political consequences. Acts of violence by the incensed masses were counteracted by an order for the police to open fire. The results were disastrous: 89 deaths and several hundred injured

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persons. The Social Democrats launched a general strike, which, however, was largely ignored. The political power within the country had clearly shifted towards the right. All bridges to the political opponents were broken and the intellectual party leaders Ignaz Seipel for the Christian Socialists and Otto Bauer for the Social Democrats opposed each other implacably. Much to the detriment of the Republic, the adherents of the parties took up these inexorable attitudes without restriction.

In 1930 the Heimwehr launched an anti-Marxist programme in the form of the Korneuburg Vow, which showed clear fascist traits. Much to the displeasure of the Christian Socialists, at the next elections the Heimwehr stood as a political party.

The cabinet installed as an interim solution and headed by chief of police Johannes Schober managed to achieve the necessary consensus for implementing constitutional reforms and also succeeded in securing the abolition at the International Court in The Hague of the law of liens and pledges that had been imposed on Austria in connection with the loan taken from the League of Nations. It was unfortunate that, as Minister of Foreign Affairs serving the government led by Otto Ender, Schober had launched a project for a customs union with Germany from which Austria now had to back down. Another decision taken by the Cabinet that of forcing the countrys most influential banking house, Credit-Anstalt, to take over the insolvent Bodencreditanstalt also proved to be a mistake. This led to the collapse of the Credit-Anstalt and Austria could only survive this disaster with the help of a further loan from the League of Nations.

In the 1930s Austria drifted into a precarious situation, both politically and economically. The Pan-Germanists, who had proved their worth as coalition partners, left the government in 1932. This prominent party now only consisted of officials, since its followers had long since migrated to the ranks of the radical National Socialists.

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The parliamentary elections of April 1932 showed the Christian Socialists only too clearly which way the wind was blowing. When the government was re-formed in May 1932 a newcomer, the former Minister of Agriculture Engelbert Dollfuss, took over as head of the Cabinet. He formed his government with the help of the Heimwehr and the Landbund, a party formed of members of the agrarian classes. By a majority of just one vote in Parliament, the resolution to take another loan from the League of Nations was adopted. This did not produce any immediate consequences since the unemployment figures of 600,000 were too high.

The Break with Democracy

Given this scenario, it was hardly surprising that as in other European countries corporatist social systems and authoritarian forms of government were discussed and became implanted in the minds of the people as a remedy. A minor impasse in parliamentary procedure, which in less critical times would have passed by unnoticed, provided Dollfuss with the pretext for dissolving Parliament. For this purpose, the government resorted to an Act passed during the First World War, which during the 1920s had been applied several times, albeit in conformity with the law. With the help of this Kriegswirtschaftliches Ermchtigungsgesetz, the government issued numerous ordinances and Parliament was accused of having dissolved itself. The actual breach of the Constitution, however, only came with the liquidation of the Constitutional Court.

In his foreign policy, Dollfuss relied on the help of Italy and the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, who was striving to oust the Social Democrats from the political scene. He therefore resorted to the policy of steadily dismantling his political opponent, while at the same time the Heimwehr, which was supported by Italy, gained increasing power. Dollfuss now felt squeezed on all sides. In a speech to the Catholic Assembly in 1933, he abolished all existing political parties in order to unite the conservative forces in the Fatherland Front (Vaterlndische Front) and set about installing a corporatist system in keeping with the papal social encyclicals.

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Finding themselves cornered and with very little political scope, the Social Democrats now reacted to an incident in Linz with the use of arms. The ensuing conflict was crushed by the police with extreme brutality and excessive use of arms after three days. Since martial law had been proclaimed, despite international protests nine death sentences were passed and the number of casualties on both sides was enormous. Several Social Democrat leaders and hundreds of their followers fled to Czechoslovakia, where they formed a new organisation. The rift caused by this civil war divided the political camps for decades. Through its unnecessarily brutal treatment of a clearly weaker opponent, the Austrian government suffered an enormous loss of prestige abroad.

Just a few months later, the Cabinet decreed the establishment of a new authoritarian constitution. By concluding the Roman Protocols with Hungary and Italy, Dollfuss endeavoured to gain support against the growing threat of National Socialism. However, neither the rigorous measures taken against this party nor the secret negotiations conducted could halt their aggression. On 25 July 1934 the Nazis attempted a coup dtat, in the course of which Engelbert Dollfuss was murdered. Nevertheless, this attempt, which triggered off several days of fighting, particularly in Carinthia, miscarried. The leaders of the putsch, most of whom were former members of the army, were tried before a military court and thirteen death sentences were passed.

Anxious to preserve its international reputation, Germany, which in the meantime had become dominated by National Socialism, distanced itself from the events in Austria and embarked upon a policy of infiltration. Its main proponent was the new German ambassador to Vienna, Franz von Papen, who a short time before had himself narrowly escaped death during the Rhm Affair.

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The Fight for Survival

Following the National Socialists unsuccessful coup, the President of the Republic, Wilhelm Miklas, asked the former Minister of Justice, the Christian Socialist Kurt Schuschnigg from Tyrol, to form a government.

Schuschnigg sought to pursue the same course as before, with the aim of gaining time against the aggression of the German Reich. Prompted by their escapades in Abyssinia, in the course of 1935, Italy, which just one year before, in July 1934, had amassed troops on Austrias borders, began to side with National Socialist Germany.

Schuschniggs attempts to interest the Western powers in Austrias fate fell on deaf ears, largely because of the poor image projected by his authoritarian government. Furthermore, England was pursuing a policy of appeasement, which meant tolerating the expansion of the German Reich. As a result, Germanys occupation of the Rhineland did not meet with any opposition internationally, while the Olympics held in Berlin during 1936 restored Germanys reputation as a normal country. In order to take account of these new developments, Ambassador von Papen advised negotiating a compromise with the German Reich, which was signed in July 1936. While this gentlemens agreement on the one hand guaranteed Austrias independence, at the same time it officially gave the Austrian National Socialists renewed political scope, which they then used to the full.

Schuschnigg thus felt cornered and the agitation of the National Socialists within the country reached new
Federal Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg after his return from Obersalzberg in February 1938

dimensions. Again, it was Ambassador von Papen who recommended a personal meeting with Hitler at Obersalzberg in Bavaria. The outcome of these discussions was, however,

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disastrous. Hitler put Schuschnigg under enormous pressure: the concessions granted to the National Socialists led to a Cabinet reshuffle on 16 February 1938 and, for the first time, the Austrian Federal Chancellor was forced to include some Nazis in his government. Much too late, Schuschnigg sought the support of the Social Democrats, who had been liquidated as a party some time before.

In the German Reich, it was mainly Hermann Goering, the minister responsible for armament, who was pushing for a strategy of union with Austria as against a policy of economic penetration. This was because Germany, which was bent on rearmament, had a dearth of workers and foreign currency, both of which it hoped to procure quickly by enforcing a violent solution towards Austria. Major protests were hardly to be expected, either from the countries of Western Europe or from Italy. Schuschniggs last desperate attempt to ward off this strategy was to announce a plebiscite, which, however, only served to accelerate German aggression.

The anschluss with Germany, which was proclaimed in March 1938 with the aid of false documents and massive propaganda, was not counteracted with any military action from Austria, since both morally and strategically the country felt too weak to respond. Internationally, there was little reaction: only Mexico, the Soviet Union, Chile and China protested against this measure. With the help of the Austrian National Socialists, power was seized without a hitch. The Austrian cabinet leaders were arrested and then deported to concentration camps. During the following months, Austrias Jews were exposed to unprecedented terror, subjected to mental humiliation and physical torture, robbed of their possessions and expelled from the country. In order to give these actions a quasi-legal basis, on 13 March a mock Council of Ministers was convened which adopted the resolution for the anschluss. This was followed by a referendum held in Greater Germany on 10 April. With the outrageous use of propaganda, the votes of the people were misused to legalise an act of violence.

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The dark Years of Reflection

The Nazi regime quickly took root in Austria, with the system reaching heights of perfection hitherto unknown in the German Reich. The terror machinery set up by the SS and the security service was lent further support by the formerly illegal National Socialists of Austria. Particularly the liquidation of regime opponents and the hideous persecution inflicted upon the Jewish population throughout the German Reich through deliberate or tolerated acts of cruelty reached new, untold dimensions. The Austrian Jews were robbed of their very existence and, by the beginning of World War II alone, 250 anti-Jewish ordinances had been issued.

On 1 April 1938, in a special transportation unit, Austrias political lite were deported to the concentration camps. In the following months, some 130,000 Austrians left their homeland in order to find a secure place of exile, mainly in other Western countries. Those who were subject to the Nuremberg Laws were first divested of almost all their possessions. For Austria, the expulsion of these citizens meant a loss of intellectual substance that was to leave its mark on the country for decades to come. After the end of the Second World War, hardly any of the exiled persons wanted to return to the country that had driven them out.

Shortly after the anschluss, resistance reared its head within the different political groups; Communists and legitimists, one-time Social Democrats and members of the Heimwehr were unwilling to accept the new regime. However, since a single national resistance group as such was never formed, it was easy for the Nazi rulers to unmask their adversaries and to persecute them relentlessly. Because of the deep rifts that existed between the different political groups, it was also not possible to build an effective and recognised exile government abroad. The individual resistance movements formulated different political objectives, some of which appeared almost utopian. It was only the Moscow Declaration of 1943 that

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defined a clear direction, when the Allies declared the restoration of a sovereign Austrian state as being one of their war goals.

It was only during the last months of the war that resistance took on a more active form when members of the resistance movement in Tyrol established contact with American intelligence services. While the Austrians did not succeed in securing military support, they at least managed to provide the Western Allies with information concerning the course of the war. In the autumn of 1944 the Provisional National Committee of Austria (POEN) was established, which for the first time united groups with different political aims. The military resistance movement maintained contact with these groups or at least those which had survived the inferno of persecution following the assassination attempt on Hitler of 20 July 1944. It was also members of the military resistance movement who first established contact with the advancing Soviet troops and informed them about German military plans. Nevertheless, the battle for Vienna raged until 13 April 1945.

A destroyed bridge in Vienna, 1945

For Austria, the consequences of the Nazi regime and the Second World War were disastrous: during this period 2,700 Austrians had been executed and more than 16,000 citizens murdered in the concentration camps. 16,000 Austrians perished in prison, while over 67,000 Austrian Jews were deported to death camps, only 2,000 of them living to see the end of the war. In addition, 247,000 Austrians lost their lives serving in the army of the Third Reich or were reported missing, and 24,000 civilians were killed during bombing raids.

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Return to an Independent State

The plans drawn up by the four Allies for the post-war period were based on the complete defeat of Hitler Germany. Austria was occupied by Allied troops, which divided the country into four zones. In the capital city, Vienna, the zones were partitioned according to district, while the inner city was administrated through a rota system.

Even before the war officially came to an end in May 1945, political parties had formed in Austria which together with the federal provinces, became the driving force behind the declaration of independence. In the eastern part of the country, the Soviets set up a government headed by former State Chancellor Karl Renner, which albeit with circumstantial delays also gained the approval of the Western Allies. The first tasks facing this provisional cabinet were to restore civilian life and to supply the population with provisions. With the support of the Allies, a normal democratic system was soon put in place, and on 25 November 1945 the first democratic elections for more than a decade were held. Former Nazis were excluded from voting and, depending on their offence, in a denazification process conducted by the Austrian authorities were made to answer for the crimes of the past. A general reparation of the financial damages suffered, particularly by Jewish citizens, was undertaken gradually between 1946 and 1949 seven restitution laws were enacted, which referred to both tangible and intangible property that had come into the hands of the State. However, major reparation measures were implemented only during the past few years, one example being the agreement drawn up in 2000 concerning voluntary Austrian payments to former victims of forced and slave labour, who were forced to work on the territory of the present-day Republic of Austria. Negotiations regarding Aryanised private property are still under way.

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The political administration of the country was completely controlled by the Allies. Every legislative regulation and political action required their approval. In December 1945 the Allies gave their consent for the democratically elected cabinet headed by Leopold Figl. Austria and its politicians, who had learnt from the bitter experiences of the past, together turned their attention to the reconstruction of the country and the restoration of full sovereignty.

Since with the establishment of the satellite countries of the Soviet Union Austria found itself at the intersection of two ideological systems, the reconstruction of a country that was to be accepted by the international community required a lot of sensitivity and, above all, a great deal of patience.

The first decade in the post-war history of Austria was characterised by the attempts to achieve a state treaty restoring its sovereignty. As after the First World War, Austria held the view that, as a country, it had not participated in the war since it had previously been deprived of its existence as a state. In consequence, Austria strove for the conclusion of a state treaty with the four Allied powers. However, since with the outbreak of the Cold War these were now implacably opposed to another, Austrias efforts to conclude a state treaty were dragged into the maelstrom of international politics.

The Austrian Minister for Foreign Affairs, Karl Gruber, signing the UNRRA Agreement in 1946

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Due to the generous assistance received under the Marshall Plan, the economic reconstruction of Austria forged ahead surprisingly fast. Informal institutions such as that of social partnership, a negotiating body made up of representatives of employers and employees, were set up to secure social peace. Even the Communist strikes of 1950, which recalled the power take-overs in the countries beyond the Iron Curtain, could be overcome by the basic Austrian commitment towards forming a state.

During the reconstruction period, the system of coalition governments involving the two major parties, the Austrian Peoples Party (VP) and the Socialist Party (SP), enabled basic agreement to be reached regarding Austrias international orientation. Nevertheless, in the wake of the East-West conflict, the negotiations for a state treaty did not bear fruit until 1954. It was only after Stalins death that the new Soviet policy of peaceful coexistence opened up fresh avenues for this Austrian desire. When Austrian politicians brought the subject of neutrality into the discussions, the Soviet Union signalled its fundamental readiness to sign such an agreement. In April and May 1955, Austria used this opportunity in Moscow and Vienna to negotiate a state treaty which finally restored Austrian sovereignty. After decades of war and hardship, the signing of the State Treaty on 15 May 1955 in Viennas Schloss Belvedere was one of the most moving moments in Austrian history.
Signing of the State Treaty of Vienna in 1955. Painting by Robert Fuchs

A Free Country in Europe A Player on the International Stage again

Austria immediately took up its position within the international community. On 15 December 1955 it joined the United Nations, a step to which it had for a long time aspired. On 26 October 1955 the Austrian National Council enacted a constitutional law guaranteeing the countrys permanent neutrality. Together with the State Treaty, this law provided the legal framework for Austrias future foreign policy. Austria very quickly found a highly independent interpretation of its status as a neutral country. Its basic restriction to military neutrality while continuing to participate in international institutions can best be described as a policy of non-intervention which gained universal acceptance.

One of the direct results of the Austrian State Treaty was the return of all the prisoners-of-war from the Soviet Union, which brought great joy to the Austrian people. Among the home-comers were numerous victims of Stalins despotism. The repatriation of Austrian citizens who were exiled by the Nazi regime in 1938 and in the ensuing years is a process that has not been systematically pursued by the Austrian State. Whilst in the immediate post-war period this lapse could be attributed to problems of travelling, in later years, however, it was a serious omission.

It was only natural that Austria, too, should want to benefit from the economic upswing of Western Europe, which had initiated the first step towards integration with the Roman Treaties of 1957. However, this generated friction within the coalition government. While the Peoples Party consistently supported a policy of rapprochement towards the EEC, the Socialist Party and its Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Bruno Kreisky, were in favour of incorporating Austria into the system of the European Free Trade Agreement (EFTA). In 1960, the treaty with EFTA was signed in Copenhagen. Austrias efforts to join the EEC met with harsh comments from the Soviet Union as one of the signatory parties of the State Treaty.

This process of rapprochement only saw a more successful development during the 1970s once the British-French conflict had been resolved and agreement had been reached between the EEC and EFTA in 1972.

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Declaration for Settlement of the Dispute with South Tyrol

In 1946, as a state with restricted sovereignty, Austria had reached an agreement with Italy that guaranteed the German-speaking population of South Tyrol certain rights. However, this Gruber-De Gasperi-Agreement, named after the two Ministers of Foreign Affairs who signed it, was not considered adequate by the people of South Tyrol. When the new Italian Constitution ruled that the provinces of Bolzano and Trento should amalgamate to form the Trentino-Alto Adige Region, with the resulting shift in population figures the people of South Tyrol saw the humble blessings of their autonomy dwindling. Austria brought this problem before the UN General Assembly, which recommended a bilateral solution for the two countries involved.

The situation escalated when terrorist attacks were made on material goods. Several South Tyroleans were arrested by the Italian authorities, stood trial and were heavily sentenced. Austrias negotiations with the EEC were also burdened by this conflict. In 1969, the South Tyrol Package, containing 120 points and including an operation calendar as a timetable, was concluded. This paved the way for a solution to the problem. In the summer of 1992 Austria presented to the United Nations a Declaration for Settlement of the Dispute, which satisfied the previous demands. This gradual process of resolving a bilateral conflict was acknowledged as exemplary the world over.

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The State Treaty as a Foundation

In 1956 the Austrians recognised the true value of the State Treaty when in October of this same year a revolution broke out in Hungary against the Communist dictatorship. Despite American admonitions, there was a very great danger that Soviet troops would cross the borders into Austria. During those critical days of October and November, the Austrian army, which had only been established a short time before with the help of the Western Allies, passed its first test. The streams of refugees which poured into Austria as Hungarys immediate neighbour were managed with great efficiency by the Austrian authorities and, in a strong demonstration of solidarity, the Austrian people helped to supply the homeless with food and clothing.

In Article 7 of the State Treaty, Austria had pledged itself to finding favourable solutions for the ethnic minorities of the Croats in Burgenland and the Slovenes in Carinthia. These measures included putting up bilingual place-name signs, which in the autumn of 1972 led to riots by antiminority groups. In a series of laborious negotiations a compromise was finally reached that foresaw the installation of new bilingual signs. Institutions such as councils composed of members of ethnic groups were also set up in order to monitor the developments. With an amendment to the Austrian Federal Constitution passed in 2000, the protection of minorities was officially incorporated into the Constitution as one of its provisions. In this way, the Austrian Federal Government turned a proposal made by the ethnic group councils in 1997 into reality.

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Political Changes in Austria

In its domestic policies, Austria experienced a decade of continuity in which, despite some signs of wear and certain disputes, the large coalition made up of the Peoples Party and the Socialist Party managed to remain in power. The third party that existed during this period of re-establishing the state, the Communist Party (KP), was consistently losing followers and in 1959 did not gain enough votes to secure a seat in Parliament. In the meantime, national liberal groups had formed a new political camp, initially with the Verband der Unabhngigen (Association of Independents - VdU) and then with the Freiheitlichen Partei sterreichs (Freedom Party of Austria - FP), which, with just eight Members of Parliament, for years occupied a minority position.

Between the coalition parties a new climate began to develop, which was reflected in a policy of conciliation without, however, the necessity of withstanding outside pressure. The SP opened up to the Catholic Church and the parties which had fought against each other in the civil war of 1934 were united in their sorrow over what had happened.

In the mid-Sixties, a new generation of politicians who were not burdened by the experiences of the pre-war period. Both parties felt the desire for reforms. In the Peoples Party it was Minister of Finance Josef Klaus who launched a rigorous austerity programme. In 1966, however, approval of these reforms on the one hand and misgivings about a number of issues concerning the media, on the other, led to the collapse of the large coalition and to a clear majority for the Peoples Party. For the first time in the history of the Second Republic, a one-party government was formed, headed by Josef Klaus. Austrias democracy stood this test with its newly-won maturity. The new Federal Chancellor presented an ambitious reform programme and, as the first government leader of the Republic to do so, included a woman in his cabinet. In the latter half of the 1960s, however, Europe was hit by recession, which hindered the implementation of some of these economic reforms. At the same time, the VP Chancellor saw himself confronted in the SP by a charismatic politician in the person of Bruno Kreisky, who claimed the goals of the 68 movement for his party. Kreisky successfully distanced himself from Communism before the suppression of the Prague Spring, which served to

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strengthen his position. Because of its links with armed Communism perpetrated by Soviet tanks, the KP found itself in increasing isolation.

In the National Council elections of 1970 the Peoples Party lost its absolute majority. The Socialist Bruno Kreisky initially formed a minority cabinet, which enjoyed the support of the Freedom Party. After the adoption of new voting legislation which benefited the smaller parties, during second elections in 1971 Kreisky gained a clear majority. As a single-party government, the Socialists continued to pursue their policy of general liberalisation and openness, while their efforts towards democratisation and increased emancipation in a number of different areas found approval with their voters. With its good international connections, the Kreisky governments foreign policy enhanced Austrias position in the world. The prevailing economic boom facilitated the Socialist Partys advance to a middle-class workers party.

Like many other European countries at the time, in the 1970s Austria became entangled in the web of international terrorism, which was reflected here, too, by the kidnapping of hostages and terrorist attacks.

When, in 1979, the Vienna International Centre was handed over to the United Nations as their third permanent headquarters, this constituted an important milestone for Austrias international reputation. The promotion of Vienna as an international centre was borne out by major conferences hosted by the city, such as the SALT II Conference. As part of its active policy of neutrality, Austria has participated in a number of peace-keeping operations and also lent strong support to the Middle East peace process by acting as a mediator.

After thirteen years of the Kreisky government, a change in political weighting began to manifest itself. Its misjudgement of the Austrians fear of atomic energy, which

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In 1979, the Vienna International Centre was handed over to the United Nations

became manifest when the establishment of a nuclear power plant at Zwentendorf was rejected in a referendum, and the ensuing growth of the ecological movements led to the Socialist Partys loss of the absolute majority in 1983. Bruno Kreisky resigned. His successor, Fred Sinowatz, formed a socio-liberal coalition with the Freedom Party, thus demonstrating Austrias progress towards democratic maturity.

The discussions focusing on the establishment of a hydroelectric power plant in a natural reserve on the Danube reinforced the attractions of the environmentally-oriented parties. Furthermore, in 1986 the socio-liberal coalition ran into problems when the Freedom Party elected a new party leader in the person of Jrg Haider, who abandoned the former liberal course. As a consequence, the new Socialist Chancellor Franz Vranitzky decided to discontinue his partys alliance with the FP and to again seek a partnership with the Peoples Party. Together, the two leading parties bore the brunt of the international problems resulting from the Waldheim crisis. In economic affairs, Vranitzky steered a new course in that, faced with the problems of the nationalised industries, he showed his willingness for privatisation and paved the way for European integration within his party.

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The Winds of Change in Austria and Europe

With the collapse of Communism in the countries of Eastern Europe, Austria was no longer positioned at the junction of two different social systems. This change necessitated a re-orientation of Austrias foreign and security policy. The fall of the Iron Curtain met with great emotional approval; many Austrians who had fled Eastern Europe in 1989 now witnessed with satisfaction the end of the hated regime.

When in the 1990s the multiracial state of Yugoslavia disintegrated because of its national differences and the changed expectations of its peoples, Austria had already issued early warnings about the consequences of these developments. To help the victims of these wars it set up the exemplary Nachbar in Not (Neighbour in Need) relief programme, which rendered much-needed assistance both in the Bosnian war and during the fighting in Kosovo in 1999.

The Austrian Minister for Foreign Affairs, Alois Mock, and his Hungarian counterpart, Gyula Horn, symbolically cut through the Iron Curtain at Klingenbach

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1989 was a year of change, also for Austria, in that the Minister of Foreign Affairs at the time, Alois Mock, handed over to Brussels the formal application of his country for accession to the European Community. This was a historic decision taken by the two parties united in the coalition government. The former reservation of Austria maintaining its neutrality did not encounter any problems in Brussels and in 1993 concrete negotiations began. They progressed rapidly, the only exceptions being in the areas of agriculture and transit traffic, where discussions went on until the very last minute. In a referendum held on 12 June 1994, the Austrian population voted by an impressive majority of 66.4 % for accession to the European Union. Since 1 January 1995, Austria has been a full member of the EU; in the latter half of 1998 it held the Presidency of the EU Council for the first time.

During the past decade the Austrian party landscape has undergone a process of change in that increased voter mobility has shown a trend towards several smaller or medium-sized parties. In 1993, owing to differences of opinion with respect to issues concerning foreigners, five members of the Freedom Party, led by Heide Schmidt, seceded to form their own parliamentary fraction the Liberales Forum (Liberal Forum LIF). The Freedom Party then enhanced its position at every election. In the National Council elections of 1999 the Freedom Party overtook the conservative Peoples Party for the first time, thus becoming the second-strongest party in the country with an equal number of seats. The allocation of seats in Parliament now reads: Socialist Party (SP) 65, Freedom Party (FP) 52, Peoples Party (VP) 52, The Greens 14. The Liberales Forum (LIF) is no longer represented in Parliament. On 4 February 2000, the Peoples Party and the Freedom Party together formed a coalition government.

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The Parliament building on Viennas Ringstrasse

Government and Politics

During the past decades observers both at home and abroad have repeatedly remarked that the Austrian political system shows some distinctive features. The unusual situation of two large, dominant parties on the one hand and the overriding principle of social partnership as a strong social and political factor on the other, for a long time left its mark on the development of the republic. A fundamental consequence is Austrias remarkable political stability and governability today. Participation in elections was not only exceptionally high but also showed great continuity. The spirit of compromise, conciliation and consensus among the countrys lite was the characteristic feature of the political culture, which was thus far removed from the atmosphere of intense conflict that had pervaded the First Republic. Austrias status as a neutral country provided the framework for her international position and activities but did not exclude her integration in the world of Western democracies.

Since the 1980s, political changes have been leaving their imprint also on Austria. Electoral mobility has

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substantially contributed to transforming the party landscape. Competition between the parties has increased, while social partnership less frequently acts as a mediator and has lost some of its influence. The media have become an important political factor, and Austrias internationalisation has been further enhanced by its accession to the European Union.

Compared with the beginning of the 20th century, but also with the Second Republic, on the eve of the new millennium the Austrian political system displays greatly altered features.

Development and Fundamental Principles of the Austrian Constitution

The constitution of a given country sets out the fundamental rules to be followed in the realm of politics and society. The Austrian constitutional laws are made up of the Austrian Federal Constitution itself and of a large number of constitutional acts and state treaties. Parts of the constitution date back to the 1860s. The Austrian constitution is based on the Federal Constitution Act of 1920 as amended in 1929.

Important stages in the development of the Austrian constitution were the citizens revolution of 1848 and the onset of political liberalism from 1867 on. In the revolutionary post-war period of 1918/19 the principles of parliamentary democracy prevailed over the concepts of a corporative state, leaving their mark on the constitution of 1920.

Following a major amendment to the constitution in 1925, in 1929 partly bowing to pressure from the fascist Heimwehr (Home Defence Force) the Austrian Federal Constitution was again revised, to the effect that the position of the Bundesprsident was reinforced vis--vis parliament. From now on, he was elected by the people and was accorded much greater responsibilities.

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On 4 March 1933, discussion over a point of order and the ensuing voting crisis in parliament gave the Federal Government an excuse to exclude the Nationalrat (National Council Lower House) from the political process. Since all three presidents of the Nationalrat had resigned, no one was in a legal position to close the parliamentary session. An attempt by the third president, Sepp Straffner, to summon the Nationalrat for 15 March 1933 was counteracted by the government calling in the police. The Dollfuss government later maintained that parliament had dissolved itself. Social Democratic Members of Parliament tried to contest the procedure at the Constitutional Court, but were prevented from doing so by a government ploy to force Christian Social members of the court to resign, thus immobilising the entire court. This act signified the ultimate breach of the constitution. On 30 April 1934 the democratic constitution was declared null and void through an emergency ordinance issued by a specially convened rump parliament, and on 1 May 1934 a new constitution was proclaimed, based on the principles of a corporate state. The Dollfuss government thus established an authoritarian and corporative political structure, which was obliterated on 12 March 1938 with the military occupation of Austria by the troops of fascist Germany and the ensuing integration into the Third Reich.

Following Austrias liberation in April 1945, the Provisional Government adopted the Verfassungsberleitungsgesetz (Transitional Constitutional Act) of 1 May 1945, which restored the constitution to the same state as before the breach of 1933/34. Expressly enumerated were those provisions affecting the constitution that should be considered as abolished. The State Treaty of 1955 explicitly stated that The allied and associated powers recognise that Austria is re-established as a sovereign, independent and democratic state.

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A decisive factor that swayed the course of the State Treaty negotiations was Austrias permanent neutrality. The fact that Austria offered the prospect of permanent neutrality served to accelerate conclusion of the negotiations, which had reached deadlock by the end of 1954. Austrias status as a neutral country was adopted in a constitutional act enacted on 26 October 1955, yet it is not contained in the State Treaty signed by the Allied and Associated Powers. The constitutional act states: Of her own free will ... Austria declared her permanent neutrality for the purpose of the permanent maintainance of her independence.

Following a referendum, on 1 January 1995 Austria joined the European Union, thus becoming part of a supranational organisation. Community law is autonomous and is to be applied directly. It takes precedence over national legislation and also over national constitutional laws, with the exception of the fundamental principles anchored in the constitution.

From the Federal Constitution Law and the almost 400 individually published constitutional acts a number of fundamental principles, the so-called Baugesetze, or core laws, have emerged. These fundamental principles are, as such, not formally embodied in the Constitution, but are subject to interpretation.

The Austrian constitution is based on the undisputed principles of democracy, the republican state form, federalism and the rule of law. As the ultimate authority, the Constitutional Court decides on whether an amendment to the constitution represents a revision of the entire constitution or not.

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Article I of the Federal Constitution sets out the democratic principle: Austria is a democratic republic. Its law emanates from the people. The essence of the democratic principle is that all binding norms must in principle be generated by the people. Most of the decisions, however, are made by proxy, i.e. by elected representative bodies acting on behalf of the people. Nevertheless, the Austrian Constitution also includes a number of instruments of direct democracy, such as popular initiatives, plebiscites and referenda, which are by no means insignificant by international comparison.

Since its inception for historical reasons, the republican principle has mainly been a mechanism for rejecting the monarchy as a form of government. It requires that the State be presided over by an elected head of state.

The federal principle is laid down in Article 2, para. 1: Austria is a federal state. This principle affirms that the functions of the state are to be distributed between the federal government, which represents the state as an entity, and the Lnder, which represent the component parts of this state. However, the actual distribution of responsibilities between the government and the Lnder shows that the federal principle in Austria is not yet fully developed.

The principle of the rule of law is embodied in Article 18, paras. 1 and 2, of the Constitution: All public administration must be based entirely on law.

Apart from these four principles, the Constitution contains a number of other points whose abolition could be regarded as a major constitutional amendment: the division of legislative and executive powers, the principle of independence, and the prohibition of another anschluss with Germany, stipulated in Articles 3 and 4 of the State Treaty of 1955, as well as multi-party democracy and the permanent prevention of fascist and National Socialist activities.

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Fundamental rights and freedoms have always been of the utmost importance and continue to be accorded high priority in the Austrian constitution. When the Federal Constitution Law was adopted in 1920, the fundamental rights and freedoms as laid down in 1867 were incorporated and to this day form part of the Austrian constitution. Because the individual political parties represent very different basic values, the democratic republic has not yet succeeded in compiling a modern, comprehensive list of fundamental rights. Most fundamental rights apply not only to Austrian citizens but also to foreigners and stateless persons, i.e. they are basic human rights. Among them are the inviolability of property, individual freedom, the right to fair trial, the right to privacy in the home, the privacy of correspondence, freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom of faith and conscience and the freedom of science and its teachings.

Within the context of international organisations, particularly the United Nations and the Council of Europe, Austria participates to a high degree in the further development of human rights. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights has been in force in Austria since 1958; in 1964 it was incorporated entirely into the constitution. It contains, inter alia, the right to life, the prohibition of torture as well as of inhuman and humiliating punishment, the prohibition of forced labour, prohibition of the deportation of Austrian citizens, the freedom to emigrate, respect of private and family life and the right to marry and have a family.

Among the fundamental rights, special political significance is accorded to the protection of minorities, as embodied in the State Treaty of St. Germain (1919) and the State Treaty of Vienna (1955).

Fundamental social rights are laid down in Austria only in a general legal context but are not anchored in the Constitution. These rights are based on the European Social Charter and the UN Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

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Central Institutions of the Austrian Political System

Legislation and Parliament
The Austrian legal system is based on a strict legality principle: All public administration must be based entirely on law. (Art. 18 of the Federal Constitution Law). As is the practice in most countries, legislation is usually proposed by the government. Currently, some 60 % of bills are initiated by the government, although Members of Parliament also take important initiatives. Other forms of legislative initiatives such as those put forward by the Bundesrat (Federal Council Upper House) and via popular initiatives play a relatively minor role.

Generally, bills are drafted in the relevant ministries and are often discussed informally with representatives of the interest groups concerned, the most important being the national associations included in the system of social partnership, i.e. the Austrian Trade Union Federation (GB), the Federal Chamber of Labour, the Economic Chamber of Austria and the Presidential Conference of the Chambers of Agriculture. After co-ordinating with other ministries and receiving their approval, as well as that of the associations and chambers, the individual ministries draw up the bills that are to be presented to the cabinet for adoption. Since a bill must be adopted by unanimous vote, political consensus between the parties represented in the government and consensus between the different ministries is mandatory. The bills that are accepted by the cabinet are then passed on to the Nationalrat as government bills. There they are discussed and partly revised in the relevant committee with the assistance of members of the government, civil servants and experts, who are often called in from the associations of social partners.

The committee bill, i.e. the text containing the revisions approved by the committee, is then submitted for adoption by the Nationalrat. Further changes can be made in the plenary, and are indeed made quite often. The voting process requires a quorum of a third of all Members of Parliament, and normally a simple majority. Constitutional acts, constitutional provisions embodied in general law and legislation pertaining to schools require a qualified majority of two-thirds of the votes.

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As a general rule, the individual political parties or parliamentary fractions act jointly in the committees and the plenary, with the governing parties being bound to one another by coalition discipline. Most laws, however, receive the approval of at least one opposition party.

The former Reichsratssitzungssaal in the Parliament building

The Bundesrat has the right to veto any law enacted by the Nationalrat but must avail itself of this right within eight weeks of being notified of the enactment. If the Bundesrat objects to a law enacted by the Nationalrat, the latter may with a higher quorum sustain its original decision and carry the resolution through (Beharrungs-

beschluss). This ends the parliamentary law-making process; the law is then verified and published (Article 42 of the constitution). After adoption of the resolution in parliament and before publication in the Federal Law Gazette, a new law must be verified by the Bundesprsident and counter-signed by the Bundeskanzler and the relevant minister (Article 47 of the Federal Constitution Law).

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The execution of federal laws is incumbent upon the members of government mentioned in the relevant act or specified in the law defining the competencies of the different ministries (Bundesministeriengesetz) and in part upon the federal government as a collegiate body. In practice, enforcement of the legislation is the domain of the administration, i.e. of the ministries and their subordinate offices. A substantial part is undertaken by indirect federal administration, that is by the provinces executing federal law. Only in a few, but important, fields, such as finance, justice and the police, does federal administration reach the citizen. In all other areas, the administrations of the nine Lnder, particularly the Bezirk administrations of Austrias 83 political Bezirke and 15 statutory towns, represent the last link in the administrative chain.

Federal legislation and administration are subject to multiple control. Political control is exercised by parliament and particularly by the opposition parties. Legal control of the legislative process is the responsibility of the Constitutional Court. Financial control of law enforcement is done by the Court of Audit, and control of irregularities by the Volksanwaltschaft (Commission for Complaints from the Public).

A plenary session of the National Council

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The Federal Government

The Bundesprsident appoints the Bundeskanzler and, at his suggestion, the other members of the government. The newly-formed Federal Government must, within one week of its appointment, present itself to the Nationalrat. On this occasion, and at any other time, the Nationalrat may issue a vote of no confidence, either in the federal government as a whole or in any of its individual members, which would automatically lead to their removal from office. It has so far been constitutional practice that the Bundesprsident plays a subordinate role in the formation of a government, limiting himself de facto to appointing the government which evolves from the majority in the Nationalrat and as a result of the negotiations between the parties. Experts in constitutional law refer to the presidents renunciation of a role (Welan) since, according to the constitution, he is not obliged to consider majorities. The Bundeskanzler but not other members of the government as well as the federal government in its entirety may also at any time be dismissed by the president. However, this has never actually happened and would be regarded as a breach of convention. On the contrary, in critical situations the Austrian Bundesprsidenten have always endeavoured to maintain continuity and stability of government.

The Second Republic has experienced different forms of government, which have greatly influenced the way in which the Austrian political system works. From 1945 to 1947, government affairs lay in the hands of all parties; this period was followed by a large coalition formed by the Austrian Peoples Party (VP) and the Socialist Party (SP), which lasted until 1966. In the elections of that same year the VP won an absolute majority of seats and consequently formed a government on its own. In 1970 the Socialist Party gained a relative majority. Since all possible coalitions had either been excluded by prior decisions of the parties (SP-FP, VP-FP) or failed to materialise in the course of negotiations (SP-VP), a minority government was formed with the parliamentary

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support of the Austrian Freedom Party (FP). In 1971, new elections were held for the purpose of securing a government with a majority in parliament. This time the Socialists gained the absolute majority of votes. Since they managed to repeat this success in 1975, and again in 1979, they continued as a one-party government. In 1983 the Socialist Party lost 5 seats in parliament, which resulted in the formation of a small coalition with the Freedom Party. In 1986, following a change in the Freedom Partys leadership, the Socialists decided to discontinue this coalition. After parliamentary elections to the Nationalrat in that same year, a new large coalition was formed, this time headed by the Socialist Party. The parliamentary elections to the National Council of 3 October 1999 marked the end of the efforts to continue the coalition between the Socialist Party and the Peoples Party. On 4 February 2000, a coalition government was formed between the Peoples Party and the Freedom Party.

The Austrian Governments since 1945 Leopold Figl (VP) Julius Raab (VP) Alfons Gorbach (VP) Josef Klaus (VP) Bruno Kreisky (SP) Fred Sinowatz (SP) Franz Vranitzky (SP) Viktor Klima (SP) Wolfgang Schssel (VP) 1945 1953 1953 1961 1961 1964 1964 1970 1970 1983 1983 1986 1986 1997 1997 2000 since 2000

Article 69 of the Federal Constitution Law confers on the Federal Government in its entirety the responsibility for those principal administrative affairs of the Republic of Austria that are not expressly reserved for the Bundesprsident. As a collegiate body, the federal government performs only those tasks that it has explicitly been assigned, either by law or through a resolution adopted by the president. All other duties are to be carried out by the relevant minister.

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The most important legal responsibility of the federal government is the passing of bills. All bills presented by individual ministers must be approved by the entire government since the principle of unanimity applies. This means that every minister has the right of veto; in other words, no resolution may be adopted against the will of even one member of the government.

From the legal point of view, the Bundeskanzler is only primus inter pares, which means that he has no authority to give the ministers instructions. Nevertheless, he is in a strong position since the constitution gives him the right to propose the appointment or dismissal by the Bundesprsident of any other member of the government. However, in political practice this power is considerably reduced in coalition governments, where the Vizekanzler (Vice-Chancellor) generally the leader of the second party in office virtually acts as a second chancellor. Without his consent and/or request, the Bundeskanzler does not make use of his constitutional authority over those members of government who come from the ranks of the other party. Under the terms of the Austrian constitution, the Bundeskanzler is also accorded co-ordination rights. In practice, however, his influence over the ministers of his own party extends far beyond that of coordinating their activities, since he also assumes the traditional role of the party leader. The same applies to the Vizekanzler with respect to those members of government who come from his own party.

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The Bundesprsident (Federal President)

The Bundesprsident is elected directly by the people. If no one candidate attains an absolute majority of the vote, the two candidates with the best results enter a second round of voting. The president holds office for six years, which is the longest term served by any directly elected state authority. Re-election is possible for a second term of office immediately following the first.

The Austrian Federal Presidents since 1945 Karl Renner Theodor Krner Adolf Schrf Franz Jonas Rudolf Kirchschlger Kurt Waldheim Thomas Klestil 1945 1950 1951 1957 1957 1965 1965 1974 1974 1986 1986 1992 since 1992

In the daily course of politics, the Bundesprsident is only marginally involved in government affairs. Apart from his responsibilities in appointing and dismissing the government and dissolving parliament, he may take action only at the request of the federal government and pending approval of the members of government concerned. Important presidential duties include the appointment of government officials and the representation of the Republic of Austria internationally. Here, the presidents possibilities are limited to saying No and to rejecting proposals.

Elections
All the political institutions foreseen in the Austrian constitution are established directly or indirectly through three elections. These determine the composition of the Nationalrat (the representation of the people in the Austrian parliament), the Bundesprsident (the head of state) and the nine Landtage (the parliaments of the individual Lnder). All Austrian citizens who have reached the age of 18 are eligible to vote at these elections, which are based

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on universal, equal and direct suffrage. In addition, local elections are held in which EU citizens living in Austria are also entitled to vote, as well as elections to designate the Austrian representatives of the European Parliament. Furthermore, there exist instruments of direct democracy, namely referenda, plebiscites and popular initiatives, which enable the population to participate directly in the politics of their country. So far, only two referenda have been held: in 1978 concerning the operation of the nuclear power station in Zwentendorf and in 1994 regarding Austrias proposed accession to the European Union. Popular initiatives, on the other hand, were and continue to be put forward much more frequently.

The Nationalrat is elected every four years or, at its own request, after a shorter period of time, on the basis of a three-phase electoral system of proportional representation. Each elector has one vote, which is cast for one party. However, at the regional as well as the provincial level, there is also the possibility of casting a preferential vote for one particular candidate on the selected partys list. The parliamentary seats are distributed among 43 regional constituencies, nine provincial constituencies and at the federal level. In order to be represented in the Nationalrat, a party must gain at least one regional seat or 4 % of the total votes.

The members of the Bundesrat are elected by the parliaments of the Landtage on the basis of proportional representation. The term served by the Nationalrat corresponds to that of the designating Landtag, which is five or six years. The political composition of a provinces delegation to the Bundesrat reflects the distribution of seats in its own regional parliament, so that the political landscapes of the Bundesrat and Nationalrat are essentially similar.

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Governments of the Lnder

The administration of a Land is overseen by its regional government. In most Lnder with the exception of Vorarlberg, Salzburg and Tyrol (the latter two since 1999) this government is proportionally composed of the parties represented in the Landtag. The Landesregierung (regional government) is headed by the Landeshauptmann (provincial governor). In matters concerning the Land, a Landeshauptmann similar to the Bundeskanzler with respect to the ministers has no authority over the other government members (Landesrte). On matters of importance to the Land, the Landesregierung (regional government) makes decisions as a collegiate body. As regards indirect federal administration, the Landeshauptmann acts as the administrative authority, bound on the one hand by instructions from the federal ministers, and authorised, on the other, to give instructions to the Landesrte.

Administration of Justice and Control

For around 150 years, jurisdiction in Austria has undisputedly been a separate power of the state and is also respected as such. Under the terms of the Austrian constitution, the courts of justice are independent; in the exercise of their office the judges are not bound by any instructions and may generally not be dismissed. For the courts, as well as for the administration, the principle of lawfulness applies.

In addition to the civil courts and criminal courts, the administrative court and constitutional court also exist as public law courts. The Administrative Court examines decisions taken by the administrative authorities, in order to ensure their legality. In addition to its special responsibilities, such as that of contesting an election result or determining the legal responsibilities of the major government bodies, the main task accorded to the Constitutional Court is that of reviewing laws in order to ensure their conformity with the Constitution and of examining regulations and administrative decisions with respect to their legality.

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It is a characteristic feature of Austrian jurisdiction that in certain specific areas private persons may also participate in the process. Both in commercial jurisdiction and in industrial and social jurisdiction, lay judges usually serve in the senates. The participation of private persons in criminal proceedings has also proved successful. The system of Schffengerichte (magistrates courts), where lay assessors, aided by professional judges, decide whether someone is guilty and how they should be sentenced, and the system of Geschwornengerichte (juries), where only lay assessors take such decisions, is firmly established in the publics awareness.

Austrias membership of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) has brought some fundamental changes to the Austrian system of justice. According to the ECHR, decisions in both civil and criminal cases have to be taken by a tribunal. This need not be a court in the formal sense, but it must be an independent body.

For a long time, the Austrian constitution represented the highest level of the national legal system, which ranges from the constitution to laws and regulations, verdicts and rulings. The increasingly international nature of the law and, in particular, Austrias accession to the European Union have expanded the traditional structure to include the supranational legislation of the European Community. This trend towards the internationalisation of the law is also expressed in the administration of justice. In addition to the Austrian supreme courts the Constitutional Court, the Administrative Court and the Supreme Court of Justice the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg as well as the EUs European Court of Justice (ECJ) in Luxembourg now also play a role.

In our modern information society, control is exercised not only within the state, as in the case of one state power, e.g. jurisdiction, controlling the other two powers (legislation and administration). The task of controlling state activities is also performed by the general public, particularly representing that public by the modern mass media. Both the printed media and radio and tele-

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vision are involved. The media work under conditions of freedom and independence guaranteed by the Constitution.

Other controlling bodies are the Court of Audit and the Volksanwaltschaft. The first has the task of examining the conduct of the federal government, the Lnder, the municipalities and other legal entities subject to public law, particularly with regard to their economic efficiency and effectiveness. Like the Volksanwaltschaft, the Court of Audit is an auxiliary legislative body. The Volksanwaltschafts central task is to review the (federal) administration for irregularities. While it has no decision-making competence in legal terms, it exercises control effectively by pointing out irregularities and preparing reports about them. This means that the Volksanwaltschaft has de facto become a widely accepted contact point for people who have problems with the administration, but do not or no longer have recourse to a right of appeal.

Our information society now gives the general public the technical means for gaining direct access to the administration of justice and control of the state. As an example, RIS (Legal Information System of the Republic of Austria) makes available on the Internet (http://www.ris.bka.gv.at), free of charge, all the general norms of federal and state law, as well as the individual statutory provisions of decisions taken by the Constitutional Court and the Administrative Court.

Human rights, as set out in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), serve as guidelines, both for the administration of justice and for the control of state activities. The supreme courts, in particular, are increasingly aware of their responsibility for implementing human rights. Human rights are also a key reference point in the control of state intervention and of infringements of an individuals privacy.

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Party System and Political Parties in Austria

Writing about Austrias political parties and their relationship with one another for a long time meant describing a situation of continuity and exceptional stability, but also of great tension. These firm political demarcations, which were rooted in the last third of the 19th century and continued until the 1960s, are best defined as ideological camps (Wandruszka), meaning socially coherent, sharply contoured and well-organised ideological parties. Particularly in the inter-war period, their relations with one another seemed to be characterised primarily by militancy and intransigence. For decades, quantitative dimensions such as the sizes and followings of the Christian-Conservative, Social-Democratic and (the much smaller) German-Nationalist camp did not alter substantially. They also survived the deep fissures appearing in Austrian history since the 1930s.

In the period from 1945 to the 1960s there existed what could be termed a quasi-frozen two-and-a-half parties system. This was characterised by a particularly strong concentration on two parties (the Peoples Party and the Socialist Party together usually held more than 90 % of the seats in Parliament), great stability in terms of the distribution of power, low voter mobility and a high degree of conformity and compliance on the part of the numerous party members.

Factors of social change, such as the growth of the tertiary sector and a change of values, the transformation of the media system and the emergence of new concerns (e.g. ecology), lessened the bonding strength of the aforementioned ideological milieus. A new spirit of dynamism manifested itself in the Austrian party system.

Since the 1980s, the range of parties has expanded, both in terms of their number and particularly with regard to the themes they cover. In place of the former VP and SP hegemony, in mid-1999 we find in Parliament alongside the three medium-sized parties (the Socialist Party, the Peoples Party and the Freedom Party), two more, small parties (since 1986 the Greens, and from 1993 to 1999 the Liberal Forum). This situation, which is a relatively new

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one for Austria, plus the related changes in the medial and social environment also have important consequences for the strategies to be followed by the parties:

The decrease in the number of regular voters has made election results less predictable Increased voter mobility has intensified the parties orientation problems Differing expectations, the reduced bonding strength of ideological solidarities and contents, together with new political concerns, challenge the integrative ability of the parties to a greater extent than before.

All in all, the Austrian parties are facing much stronger competition than hitherto.

Based on the Party Law of 1975, there are currently more than 400 parties registered with the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Despite this great number, only a few parties actually play a decisive role in Austrias political system:

Sozialdemokratische Partei sterreichs (Social Democratic Party of Austria SP) http://www.spoe.at Freiheitliche Partei sterreichs Die Freiheitlichen (The Freedom Party of Austria FP) http://www.fpoe.at sterreichische Volkspartei (Peoples Party of Austria VP) http://www.oevp.at

The Greens http://www.gruene.at

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Organised Interest Groups and Social Partnership

The System of Federations
The system of organised interest groups and intense cooperation between influential interest groups and the government is an internationally recognised characteristic of Austrias political structure. It is, however, certainly not the case that there is a lack of diverging social interests in Austria: alongside a great many associations, there are also a number of legally established institutions such as the chamber of physicians, the chamber of lawyers, the chamber of notaries and the chamber of public accountants.

However, it cannot be ignored that a handful of large national federations play a key role, both in the policies of the interest groups and in the political decision-making process. The interests of employees are represented by the sterreichische Gewerkschaftsbund (GB Austrian Trade Union Federation) and the Bundesarbeitskammer (Federal Chamber of Labour), those of the employers by the Wirtschaftskammer sterreich (Economic Chamber of Austria) and the Prsidentenkonferenz der Landwirtschaftskammern (Presidential Conference of Chambers of Agriculture). While the GB was established in law as an incorporated association, the chambers were set up as public corporations. Quite apart from the fact that these national federations are not competing with one another, their particular position derives from the institutionalorganisational, ideological and political characteristics. These interest groups are to a large extent equipped with monopolies of representation. While this is de facto the case with the GB, with respect to the chambers this position is the result of statutory compulsory membership, accompanied by mandatory payment of a membership fee. By international standards, the GB has a relatively large membership. The Federal Chamber of Labour comprises all workers and employees who are in private employment public officials are excepted. Apart from

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farmers and members of the independent professions, all self-employed persons are compulsory members of the Handelskammern (Chambers of Trade). The members of the Landwirtschaftskammern (Chambers of Agriculture) are, almost exclusively, self-employed persons working in agriculture and forestry.

The national federations are equipped with extensive internal competencies which enable them to speak with one voice. The political privileges enjoyed by them are particularly evident in their possibilities for participating in the political decision-making process.

By comparison with the inter-war period, after 1945 great changes regarding the objectives and strategies of the major interest groups have become apparent. In pursuing their respective interests, in important economic and social questions the different federations also take common economic goals into account. These goals are economic and employment growth, purchasing power stability and competitiveness. The dominant strategy of compromise is characterised by the catchphrase of a class struggle on the green table. This policy pursued by the federations is accepted by the majority of their members. The incorporation of federations into the political decision-making process still meets with very favourable response from the general public.

Social partnership
Even if, internationally, Austria is not considered to be a special case, there is still widespread agreement on the fact that cooperation and the coordination of interests between the federations is one of this countrys distinctive features. The common definition for this type of cooperation is social partnership.

The federations and chambers work in close contact with one or other of the two political parties, the Austrian Peoples Party or the Social Democratic Party of Austria. The considerable economic growth and rise in employment and wages during the 1950s and 1960s created a favourable basis for the exchange

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of economic and socio-political interests. All this contributed to the widespread establishment of the Austrian system of social partnership in the 1960s. If the 1970s could be regarded as its heyday, the 1990s, in particular, have witnessed a change in this systems significance.

Social partnership is neither anchored in the Austrian constitution nor laid down in any specific act. It is rooted in the free will of the players concerned. To a large extent, it is implemented informally and confidentially and is not normally accessible to the general public.

The umbrella federations of the social partners wield great influence as regards political opinion-forming and decision-making. Their co-operation has thus often been criticised as a secondary government, although the political omnicompetence often attributed to the social partners has, in fact, never existed as such. The co-operation and coordination of interests among the associations and with the government have only ever applied to specific fields of politics, such as income policies and certain aspects of economic and social policies, (e.g. industrial safety regulations, agrarian market legislation, labour market policies and principles of equal treatment). In these areas, during the past decades the social partners have substantially contributed to Austrias economic, social and political stability evidence of which can be found in economic growth, in the rise of employment, in the expansion of the welfare state and also in the often quoted social peace.

Several avenues for political decision-making are open to the large national federations. A traditionally used channel is their close relationship with one or the other of the long-standing government parties, i.e. the Social Democratic Party or the Austrian Peoples Party. In addition, the federations are incorporated, both formally and informally, into the political opinion-forming process of the relevant ministries, as evidenced by their participation in a number of committees, advisory boards and commissions. Even at the parliamentary level, involvement of experts from the federations and chambers is a normal

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practice. Austrias accession to the European Union has expanded the federations scope in that they not only have privileged access to relevant information and documentation. Of even greater importance are their possibilities for influencing the Austrian position in proposing EU legislation. All in all, by comparison with many other countries, this means that the large national federations in Austria have excellent possibilities for shaping the policies relating to their interests.

However, social partnership in the true sense of the word goes beyond this: its core task consists of the balancing of opposing interests in the aforementioned political fields through contextual compromises among federations or between the federations and the government.

Since the 1980s, economic, social and political changes have become apparent in Austria, too. Evidence of this lies in reduced economic growth, rising budgetary deficits, increasing competition and unemployment, and an expanding rivalry between the political parties. Against this backdrop, it has not only become more difficult for the federations to align the different interests of their members to a common denominator: reduced turnout in elections to the chambers and the general calling into question of compulsory membership are symptoms of change. In addition, it is not only becoming increasingly difficult, but also rarer, to strike a balance between the federations interests. Well-known institutions, such as the Parittische Kommission fr Lohn- und Preisfragen (Parity Commission for Wages and Prices), which particularly in the comments of foreign observers has been widely recognised as a central institution of the Austrian social partnership, have lost some of their significance. The changes are mainly manifest in the re-weighting of the influence of the players involved in the political decisionmaking process; the government has gained formative power and influence. In important budgetary, economic and socio-political questions it decides both the procedure and the core contents. Austrias accession to the European Union has reinforced this development. At the

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same time, however, EU membership also entails a loss of terrain for the federations. Decisions on topics such as agricultural, competition and monetary policies are decided at EU level. Here, the influence of the federations is essentially limited to formulating the Austrian position, which is just one out of 15.

All this does not currently mean that the system of social partnership has come to an end. There are also visible signs of continuity. The privileged position of the national federations remains unchanged. In the political decisionmaking process a balance of interests can still be achieved. However, the influence has lessened. Not the end, but certainly changes and reforms of the social partnership, are currently on the agenda.

Austria as a Member of the European Union

In the 1980s, the theme of European integration played an ever-increasing role, also on the political stage of Austria. In 1989, by a large majority, the Nationalrat accorded to the federal government the task of entering into negotiations with the European Communities regarding Austrias accession. In July 1989 the application for membership was submitted to Brussels.

Accession negotiations and referendum

The negotiations conducted between the European Communities and Austria with regard to her eventual accession in the spring of 1993 were preceded by a positive appraisal, or avis, by the Commission. This testified to Austrias stability and economically favourable situation as an accession candidate.

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At the national level, Austrias proposed accession to the European Union was regulated in an amendment to the constitution in 1994. Membership of the EU affected a number of fundamental principles embodied in the Austrian Federal Constitution Law, such as the democratic principle of legislation by the elected representatives of the people: at EU level, legislation is primarily enacted by the Council of Ministers, and even the European Parliament does not represent the Austrian people as foreseen in the constitution. The principle of the division of powers underlines the separation of the legislative from the executive power in the State, whereas at EU level it is essentially the national officials who exercise the legislative function. The principle of the rule of law was affected inasmuch as, in view of the interpretation monopoly of the European Court of Justice over EU legislation, the competence of the Austrian Constitutional Court was restricted. The federal principle was also affected, both with respect to the division of responsibilities between the Bund and the Lnder and as concerns the participation of the Lnder in federal legislation. Thus, accession to the EU entailed a total revision to the Austrian Federal Constitution and was therefore subject to a referendum. Held on 12 June 1994, this resulted in a clear call for membership. Of the approximately 4.725,000 valid votes cast, almost twothirds (66.4 %) voted in favour of Austria joining the European Union.
Austrias Presidency of the EU Council during the latter half of 1998

Austrias participation in EU institutions

As a member of the EU, Austria is represented in all its bodies and institutions and holds 21 seats in the European Parliament. Regular European elections were held for the first time in Austria in June 1999. Until October 1996, 21 Members of Parliament designated by the Nationalrat in accordance with the number of seats held by each party in the national parliament had represented Austria in the European Parliament. In 1996, by-elections had taken place for the remaining duration of the term until the next European elections.

Austrias current political representation in the EU Parliament is based on the result of the elections held on 13 June 1999. The Social Democratic Party of Austria (SP), which gained one more seat, is now on an equal footing with the Peoples Party (VP). Whereas the Greens registered an increase in seats, the Freedom Party (FP) and the Liberal Party (LIF) lost some. This means that the LIF is no longer represented in the EU Parliament. In the first regular elections to the European Parliament in Austria, turnout was much lower than in the by-elections of 1996.

Austrians hold a number of key positions in the EU: the Austrian member of the European Commission, Franz Fischler, is responsible for agriculture and rural development. Austrians also sit in the European Court of Audit, the European Court of Justice and the European Court of First Instance, while in the Committee of the Regions in Brussels, which represents regional and local interests, Austria has 12 members: the nine Landeshauptleute and three members from either the sterreichischer Stdtebund (Austrian Municipal Federation) or the sterreichischer Gemeindebund (Austrian Communal Federation). At the highest political level, Austria for the first time held the EU-Presidency from 1 July to 31 December 1998.

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The Austrian political system in a multi-level political environment

Many decisions that were formerly taken at a national level are now made by the EU. Here, the representatives of the national executive bodies in the Council of Ministers and, depending on the subject matter, also the European Parliament, have the final say in the enactment of legislation. European law is most important in the economic sector (e.g. agricultural policy and the free movement of goods, services, capital and persons). However, the fact that today hardly any area of national politics remains unaffected by European integration is borne out by such topics as environmental protection, labour law and university studies.

Despite the shifting of numerous legislative responsibilities to the supranational level, it should be emphasised that the Austrian political arena continues to play a very important role. On the one hand, within the EU Council of Ministers and its subordinated working groups, members of the national governments and administrations together take decisions on the central themes of European politics. On the other hand, national policy-makers remain at least partly responsible for extensive areas of government activity. Domains such as foreign trade and monetary policy, where competencies have been wholly transferred to the Union, are still only the exception to the rule of divided responsibilities. In the fields of environmental and social policies, for example, the national level has by no means been superseded by the European one. Important decisions are taken both within Austria and by the Union, and these decisions influence one another mutually.

With regard to the implementation and application of EU legislation, domestic political networks continue to play a key role. In many areas, the EU acts almost entirely on the basis of its directives, which have to be incorporated into the respective countrys legal system by the national legislator. All in all, Austrias membership of the European Union has had the effect of strengthening the roles of the national government and administration.

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Parliament, the Lnder and the judiciary

In Austria, attempts were made to counteract the general loss of parliamentary influence which had been observed before in other member states by giving the national parliament comparatively extensive possibilities for influencing EU policies. Despite this, in Austria, too, Parliament the Nationalrat, in particular is one of the losers of the integration process. Although the constitutional reform of 1994 provided for the possibility that Austrian negotiators in the EU Council of Ministers could be obliged to uphold the mandates given it by the Austrian parliament, in political practice this did not serve to counteract the strengthening of the executive power that results from the EUs institutional structure. After four years of EU membership, the number of binding parliamentary mandates was around 30. On the other hand, even in the first year following Austrias accession to the Union, the Nationalrat received information about 17,000 EU projects. Before accession, the Austrian parliament had considered lack of information as the main danger but, since 1995, the processing of vast amounts of information on the EUs numerous political decisionmaking procedures has become the central problem from the national point of view. While the main committee of the Nationalrat generally deals with EU matters just twice a month, even in 1990 the number of days spent in meetings of Council working groups rose to around 2100 and those in the expert Council meetings to approximately 138.

The right to participate in Austrias cooperation with the EU has also been conferred on the Lnder and municipalities. However, the implementation of such rights faces the same practical problems encountered by the Austrian parliament, which impedes their effectiveness. In conclusion, it can be said that the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg offers to Austrians a new means of reviving old conflicts and of eventually solving them in the second round, whenever this was not possible at national level.

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Austrias Position within the International System

Neutrality, international involvement and foreign policy
Contrary to the First Republic, after 1945 Austria succeeded in developing a strong identity as a state and a nation. On 26 October 1955 the Nationalrat adopted the declaration of permanent neutrality. Austrias non-alignment and neutrality formed the basis of its newly-gained identity. It became increasingly apparent that neutrality signified neither isolation nor equidistance from East and West. Austrias political affiliation with the world of western democracies was evident.

Austrias involvement in international affairs is demonstrated at a number of levels: following the signing of the State Treaty of Vienna in May 1955 and the resolution on permanent neutrality, at the end of that same year Austria became a member of the United Nations and in 1956 of the Council of Europe. In 1960 she joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). The 1970s marked the heyday of Austrias political prestige within the United Nations, with Austrians heading important UN Commissions. From 1973 to 1974, Austria was a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. In 1971, and again in 1976, the Austrian Kurt Waldheim was elected Secretary General of the United Nations. In 1972, extensive free trade agreements (excluding the agricultural sector) were signed with the European Community. Austria proved to be a place of international encounters, with the meeting between John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev in 1961 marking a first highlight. Austria has become one of the headquarters of international organisations and has also participated in UN peace-keeping operations.

A policy of active neutrality, as practised in the 1970s by the government of Bruno Kreisky and equated with foreign policy, consisted of diplomatic visits, multilateralism,

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above all within the United Nations, support of the dtente process between East and West, involvement in the NorthSouth conflict and an emphasis on the global dimensions of foreign policy. Vienna became the headquarters of the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) and UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization). Right from the start, Austria participated in the CSCE process (Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe). Together with other neutral and non-aligned states, Austria formed the N+N group, which offered mediation and good offices and championed the policy of dtente.

A conference held by the IAEA in the Austria Center Vienna

In the 1980s Austria redirected its foreign policy towards Europe. This was reflected in a strengthening of contacts with its neighbours and, increasingly, of European integration in the ensuing dynamics of the European Communities. Following the political and economic collapse of the Socialist countries, Austria intensified relations with her Eastern neighbours. During the conflict in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, in 1991, together with Germany, Austria called for the rapid recognition of Slovenia and Croatia and formed close economic and political ties with these, as well as with other central and eastern European countries.

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Austrias membership of the Council of Europe constituted a further component in her multilateral foreign policy. On several occasions, Austrians served as Secretaries-General of the Council of Europe: the former Minister of Foreign Affairs Dr. Lujo Toncic-Sorinj held this position from 1969 to 1974, Franz Karasek from 1979 to 1984, and Dr. Walter Schwimmer has been in this office since 1999. Peter Leuprecht, who had served with the Council of Europe since 1961, was elected Deputy Secretary-General of the Council in 1993. On 8 and 9 October 1993 the Council of Europe held a summit in Vienna. In the areas of disarmament and the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, Austria contributed from the outset to the Ottawa process, which on 1 March 1999 led to the signing of a convention on a total ban of anti-person mines.

Austrias international role in the 1990s is also documented by other events: its membership of the UN Security Council in 1991/92 coincided with the Gulf War and the onset of the conflict in Yugoslavia. Austria has on several occasions sat on the UN Human Rights Commission, latterly from 1997 to 1999. It continues to play an active and mediating role in the UN, as exemplified by its forthcoming Presidency of the OSCE (Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe) in 2000.

Vienna has succeeded in expanding its traditional role as the seat of International Organizations (UN Specialized Agencies, Secretariat of the OPEC - Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, Secretariat of the OSCE), which it partly owes to its neutrality. It is now also the headquarters of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) and the provisional Technical Secretariat.

Membership of the European Union

Following the Austrian governments decision in 1989 to go solo to Brussels, in the early 1990s a series of diplomatic visits and relevant negotiations ensued. Accession to the EEA (European Economic Area) constituted a transitional step towards membership of the European Union. Joining the EU transformed Austrias foreign policy in the wider sense into a European internal policy, while classical foreign policy was thereafter formulated indirectly, in conjunction with the EU partners. Member-

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ship of the EU has legally restricted Austrias scope for an independent foreign policy, along with that of all other EU members who do not participate in the CFSP (Common Foreign and Security Policy).

Security policy
In the course of time, the meaning of Austrias neutrality has often changed according to circumstances, but was managed with flexibility. Even membership of the United Nations was not compatible with the Swiss Model. According to the Hague Convention of 1907, the authorisation to permit combat aircraft and tanks to pass through Austrian territory, given to the Anti-Iraq Coalition in 1991 during the second Gulf War, was not compatible with the classical definition of neutrality. Further steps towards altering the meaning and significance of neutrality have been Austrias accession to the European Union (1995), its status as an observer in the Western European Union (WEU) in 1995, the signing of the Amsterdam Treaty (1998), which incorporates the Petersberg Programme and foresees a common defence policy along with the possibility of a common defence force, the participation of an Austrian transport in IFOR (Implementation Force) and SFOR (Stabilisation Force) in Bosnia, as well as participation in NATOs Partnership for Peace Programme (PfP).

Austrian UN soldiers

Even after the end of the East-West conflict, the ban on stationing foreign troops on Austrian territory and on membership of a military alliance, which forms the core of the Constitutional Act on Austrian Neutrality, remains valid. Austrias position as a neutral country is incompatible with the obligation to render military assistance as understood by NATO and WEU. The non-membership of military alliances opens certain avenues, as became apparent during the Kosovo crisis of 1999, when non-NATO countries were time and again drawn into the efforts at reconciliation.

Austria wishes to play an active part in the tasks incorporated into the Amsterdam Treaty, i.e. to participate in humanitarian actions, rescue operations and peacekeeping missions, as well as in crisis management operations and peace-making measures. As a member of the European Union, Austria has an equal share in the planning and decision-making process of such activities.

The Declaration of the European Council on Strengthening the European Common Security and Defence Policy, signed in Cologne in June 1999, bore this out to a large extent. Members of NATO, neutral and non-aligned countries may participate in EU crisis management fully and on an equal footing. The obligation to render military assistance in accordance with Article 5 of the NATO Treaty and Article V of the Brussels Treaty, which is incompatible with neutrality, applies only to those Member States that are already party to these treaties. The specific nature of the security and defence policies is not prejudiced. Member States will retain in all circumstances the right to decide if and when their national armed forces are deployed. In principle, Austria may participate in all missions with the exception of war.

Austria has for a long time played an active role in peace-keeping missions. Since 1960, some 40,000 persons (soldiers, police, civilian experts) have participated in over 30 operations in foreign countries. This shows that Austria is well aware of its responsibilities for maintaining international security.

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T h e E co n o m y

Structure and Conditions

Since its accession to the European Union in 1995, Austria has undergone considerable structural revisions and adjustments. Despite their far-reaching effects, these changes have been relatively well accepted by the economy. They primarily concern the forthcoming liberalisation of the telecommunications and energy sector and the privatisation of banks and industries, which are gradually creating the modern and globally required conditions that will enable Austria to maintain its competitive edge on the international front at the turn of the century. After all, in terms of GDP per capita, Austria is one of the richest countries, not only of the European Union but also in the world. Furthermore, the numerous mergers of companies beyond Austrias borders for example, in the food sector, in trade, in the building industry and in banking are a relatively new aspect and are gradually changing the traditional structures.

Since 1 January 1999, Austria has also been a member of Stage III of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) this centurys biggest integration project, which involves the introduction of the common European currency, the euro. While this entails forgoing the possibility of an independent national monetary and exchange rate policy, at the same time it means that Austria has become a member of the worlds second-largest economic area. The fact that the economy of this area depends only to around 15 % on foreign demand serves to enhance the effectiveness of the financial policy that is geared to the euro area, as compared with the policy formulated for individual countries prior to EMU. In other words, the loss of the

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scope to manoeuvre autonomously in monetary policy is offset by the increased effectiveness of a common EU economic policy. In addition, Austria is participating as an equal partner in the formulation of the European monetary policy within the framework of the European System of Central Banks. This common responsibility, shouldered by all the participating countries, calls also for Austria to engage in a greater international coordination of its economic and fiscal policies. Furthermore, this means harmonising the fiscal and structural policies for the labour, capital and goods markets, which have remained under domestic responsibility, with the demands of a single monetary policy. A prerequisite for this is to comply with the conditions of the Stability and Growth Pact. In 1998, Austria presented a medium-term Stability Programme, which lays down the medium-term GDP development and, based on it, a budget plan, as well as further reform measures to be undertaken by 2002. The basis of the Austrian programme is the reduction of the general government deficit to 0 % of GDP in 2002.

A collage of euro banknotes

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Austrias membership of the Monetary Union means that it now plays an even greater part in the global movement of Europe. Harmonised regulations are being drawn up in accounting and in the preparation of financial statements so that the disclosure rules will be the same throughout the euro area. This will ensure transparency, will minimise the risks and will give international investors an additional incentive. The European currencies will no longer be played off against each other; economic losses resulting from currency turbulences will be prevented and the exchange rate charges within the euro area will be abolished. Europes politicians will gain more scope in international trade policy, as well as in questions concerning the enlargement of the European Community. By mid-1999 the legal and organisational conditions were put in place to ensure that, even during the transitional phase (until 2002), the private sector will be able to use the euro in other words, there will be freedom of choice for accounting and financial statements, as well as for tax declarations, and both currencies will be indicated on official notifications.

The change in the economic structure is characterised by the gradual but constant shifting of three sectors. The primary sector concerns agriculture, the secondary manufacturing and the tertiary sector the services area. In terms of employment and value added, the secondary sector has increased at the cost of the primary one. Later on, the growth of the services area pushed back the primary and secondary sector. The reasons for this are, on the demand side, the changing needs based on income growth and, on the supply side, the productivity increases. In 1951, a third of the Austrian population was employed in agriculture and forestry, 38 % in manufacturing and around 30 % in the services sector. According to the 1991 population census, during this year only 6 % of the working population were employed in the primary sector, around 36 % in the secondary sector and 59 % in the tertiary sector. In terms of employment, since 1973 the services sector has been the most important area of the Austrian economy.

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1973 also saw the highest figures 676,000 for those employed in the domestic sector. Since then, this number has decreased. In 1995, for example, the number of persons employed only came to 466,000. This constituted a decrease of around 200,000 people working in industry during the period 1973 to 1995. At the same time, the share of service professions in industry rose, as did the practice of outsourcing. This latter means that an increasing number of industrial firms are now having services relating to the manufacture of products that were formerly carried out within the company done by outside experts. This structural change has resulted in an increase of the industry-related services, which, however, is no longer limited to the realm of industry.

A gunsmith in Ferlach, Carinthia

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In 1999, some 180,000 persons were employed in the various industry-related services. The growth figures for the past decade are far higher than for the economy as a whole. In 1995, the valueadded amounted to ATS 126.2 billion, which sum was earned by more than 26,000 companies. The share of self-employed persons came to 14.3 %, which is substantially higher than that of the nonagricultural private business sector. The industry-related services (IDL = industrienahe Dienstleistungen) are therefore characterised by small and medium-sized enterprises. The groups with the most employees are firms dealing with legal and tax matters, as well as management consultants, followed by companies offering security and cleaning services and technical services.

Austrias industrial sector still occupies a leading place within the EU. According to a comparison drawn up by the sterreichisches Institut fr Wirtschaftsforschung (Austrian Institute for Economic Research WIFO), since 1985 Austrias share in the European Unions industrial production has risen from 2.1 to 2.7 %. This means that Austria has now overtaken Finland and is approaching Sweden. In terms of economic growth, Austria ranks among the leaders within the EU countries, alongside Ireland, Spain and Portugal. In the research- and capitalintensive sector, however, little growth is registered. Economic growth has manifested itself more in the area of traditional industrial goods and in the labour-intensive sectors. The following industries in Austria have a more than 5 % share in the EUs value added: the reproduction of audio, visual and data carriers, sports equipment, radio, TV, photo and video technology, wooden construction elements, prefabricated parts and semi-finished goods with the exception of electric motors, generators and transformers. According to the WIFO analysis, Austrias industry is competitive. This is borne out, inter alia, by the fact that, along with Germany and the Netherlands, Austria ranks among the top three in Europe in terms of productivity.

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Intelligent (Sony) products are manufactured in Austria

According to a survey conducted among leading managers and companies in Austria in mid-1999, the countrys image as an attractive business location has been enhanced during the past four years. Positive factors are the high quality of the workforce, the promotion of industrial clusters and the high standard of living. The weak points are the high non-wage labour costs and excessive

bureaucracy. While efforts are being made to reduce both these aspects, this process can only be a gradual one, given the importance of assuring the highly-developed welfare state, which is, in turn, a decisive factor in maintaining Austrias stability.

In assessing Austrias competitiveness, the Weltwirtschaftsforum (World Economic Forum WEF) recently accorded it a positive standing by ranking it at place 18 for 2000. However, both the massive public expenditures and the high income tax rates still found criticism. The WEF rated the qualities of Austrias managers as excellent.

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Economic Data
Public debt will drop from 64.5 % of GDP in 1999 to 64 % in 2000 and will decrease further to 63.6 % in 2001. The deficit of all public budgets will be reduced from 2 % (1999) to 1.7 % of GDP in 2000. For 2002 and 2003, a balanced budget for the State as a whole will be striven for. The inflation rate will rise from 0.6 % in 1999 to 2.3 % in 2000.

According to a forecast made by the Wirtschaftsforschungsinstitut (Austrian Institute for Economic Research WIFO), economic growth for 2000 will amount to 3.5 % and for the year 2001 to 2.8 %. Productivity growth for the economy shows 0.7 % in 1999 and is expected to reach 2.5 % in 2000. This places Austria on a good average within the euro area, which can mainly be attributed to a substantial increase in consumption. The net mass income will expand by 2 % in 2000.

With an inflation rate of 0.6 % registered in 1999, Austria holds a laudable position within the EU. This extremely low rate can partly be attributed to the liberalisation process in the area of telecommunications, to seasonal products and to tariff reductions triggered by the continual opening of the market in the electricity and gas sector. According to a forecast made by WIFO, the rate of inflation in Austria in 2000 will be 2.3 %.

Unemployment figures also show a positive development. For 1999 as a whole the number of employed persons stood at around 3.1 million there were on average 16,000 people per year less without work than in the previous year. In addition, there were more than 28,000 new jobs. As a result, the national unemployment rate fell from 7.2 % in 1998 to 6.7 % one year later. For 2000, a rate of 5.9 % is predicted. According to estimates made by the EU, 2000 will show an unemployment rate of 3.5 %. This means that, by international comparison, Austria has again recorded a remarkably low unemployment rate. 40 to 50 % of the new jobs are on a part-time basis. The highest rise in employment figures is registered for the relatively highly skilled jobs in the industry-related and other services. Most of the new jobs are in the field of EDP, in management consulting companies, in real estate and in health care and education.

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Federal Budget 2000

The federal budget estimate foresees expenditures of ATS 781.5 billion, revenues of ATS 726.8 billion and a net deficit of ATS 54.6 billion. Exempt from these stringency measures are the areas of science and research, education and training and public safety. In the area of personnel costs and transfer expenditures, cost-cutting measures were also implemented: in 1999 wages increased only moderately, with established posts being reduced and the severance and outsourcing programme being continued. With the exception of pensions, transfer payments have not been adjusted. Subsidies and ongoing expenditure on materials have been stabilised.

In the realm of pensions, based on the programme drawn up in autumn 1997, funds from unemployment insurance were re-allocated to the pension insurance system, with all earned income and that of the minimally employed being incorporated into the compulsory social insurance scheme. Early retirement was halted and the self-financing of small businessmen and of farmers increased. Other sources of revenue came from the release of reserves, privatisation and the sale of real estate of the Bundesimmobilien GesmbH.

Labour Market and Employment

The employment strategies of the Austrian Federal Government are directed towards a meaningful and sustained convergence of the supply and demand of human resources. One of the focal points of the Labour Market Service (AMS = Arbeitsmarktservice) is still the employment programme for young people, for which the federal government, too, has launched special initiatives. The second area in line with the National Action Plan on Employment (NAP) is the continued focus on jobs for women. For example, the number of women who benefit from AMS programmes now amounts to 50.4 %, which is considerably higher than the share of unemployed women (45.6 %) in unemployment statistics as a whole.

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In order to reduce long-term unemployment, AMS has developed programmes that are tailor-made to individual needs, which ensure the immediate and specific use of labour policy instruments. Furthermore, project-oriented integration measures such as non-profit employment projects, socio-economic institutions and non-profit labour allocation, are directed towards retraining the long-term unemployed and helping them to find work. During 1999 as a whole, almost 24,000 people without a job attended training courses run by the AMS, with a view to enhancing their qualifications.

In 1999, the expenditure for labour policies amounted to almost ATS 40 billion for passive benefits (unemployment benefits, emergency assistance, maternity leave payments, special emergency assistance, special support) and to slightly more than ATS 11 billion for active expenditure such as counselling, job placement, training, and wage subsidies.

All in all, in 1999 there were 3.478,800 gainfully employed persons in Austria, of which 3.107,900 are salaried employees. 221,700 persons are unemployed. In 1999, employment figures reached a record high. According to estimates made in Austria, the unemployment rate stood at 6.7 %, while based on EU calculations this figure was 3.8 %. There is a clear trend towards part-time work. Experts predict that on the job market of the future almost half the number of all those gainfully employed will only be working part-time. In Austria, the statutory hours that constitute full-time employment are 38.5 hours per week. As in the other industrialised countries, it is primarily women who are either pushed into part-time employment or who themselves voluntarily seek it. In Austria, every fifth working female is employed on a part-time basis (22.8 %), as against only 2.7 % of her male counterparts.

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Apart from the high standard and specific structure of the Austrian educational system, which is a basic prerequisite for the labour market, another major factor in obtaining employment is flexibility. Here, the aim is to keep flexible working hours in a balanced relationship with societys need for protection. Again, the system of Austrian social partnership plays a major role, although together with the Church the trade unions have taken a strong stand against radical flexibilisation.

The Arbeitszeitgesetz (Law on Working Hours), which was passed in Austria in 1997, certainly foresees tailormade working time models. However, the condition that the trade unions and the Federal Chamber of Labour negotiated for inclusion in this document is one that fits the picture of the typical Austrian social partnership: at sectoral level, the trade unions have secured themselves a say in the question of collective bargaining agreements.

But the public services sector, too, has shed its hitherto rigid strait-jacket with respect to working hours. For example, the regular compulsory working time has been distributed flexibly to the individual days and weeks of a longer calculation period. The drop in salary is compensated by longer leaves of absence and flexible regulations governing part-time work. In order to maintain the entire organisational system, these flexible offers are subject to the approval of the local staff representatives.

The new teaching professions created by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Labour have also led to the creation of new apprenticeships. Eight teaching professions are offered in new sectors, which in turn generates new potential for new apprenticeships in the services sector. Furthermore, the electrical and metallurgical sectors have undergone considerable changes in order to meet the new technological challenges. The new professions are primarily in the fields of computer science, micro-technology, mechatronics, reprography, pre-

fabricated house-building, new techniques in the field of textiles and innovations in the fields of metallurgy and electro-technology.

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Industrial Production 1999

Trade association Sales in billion ATS (1999) 156.0 130.2 127.3 93.3 87.8 82.3 61.9 52.9 43.9 41.2 37.4 35.6 29.3 21.1 20.5 18.9 14.8 14.0 12.1 11.5 10.7 7.2 5.5 4.1 1,119.2 Share in % No. of Share employees in % (as at December 1999) 59,479 61,252 43,856 29,636 24,196 46,069 3,610 25,601 25,339 9,188 17,526 13,745 17,915 6,439 8,977 4,499 2,682 3,414 7,786 7,288 8,010 3,386 3,885 1,700 435,480 13.7 14.1 10.1 6.8 5.6 10.6 0.8 5.9 5.8 2.1 4.0 3.2 4.1 1.5 2.1 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.8 1.7 1.8 0.8 0.9 0.4 100.0

Electrical and electronics industry Engineering and steel construction industry Chemical industry Foodstuffs and luxury commodities industry Vehicle industry Iron and metal goods industry Oil industry Building industry (structural and civil engineering) Wood processing industry Paper industry Minerals and ceramics industry Iron manufacturing industry Textile industry Timber industry Paper and cardboard processing industry Metal industry Gas supply companies Energy supply Glass industry Foundries Clothing industry Mining industry Leather processing industry Leather manufacturing industry Total

13.9 11.6 11.4 8.3 7.8 7.4 5.5 4.7 3.9 3.7 3.3 3.2 2.6 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.4 100.0

Figures taken from the European Business Trends in the Production Area, published in 1995. These business statistics are based on a concentration sample which accounts for at least 90% of the production in the relevant sector (2-figure NACE). This means that numerous small business are not included in the survey.

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Hi-tech
All in all, 1999 was a positive year for the Austrian economy. Hi-tech companies showed particularly strong growth, with the Siemens Austria Group being one of the enterprises that recorded the highest profits. With a turnover of ATS 50.65 billion and 19,131 employees, the yield produced by Austrias largest technology group amounted to over ATS 3.5 billion. This is mainly due to the boom on the international market for electronic building elements. The Siemens works in Villach and Deutschlandsberg, as well as the plants in Eastern Europe controlled by Siemens Austria, greatly increased their profits.

Tourism
Tourism is one of the main pillars of the Austrian economy. Austria is a mountainous country and one of the natural countryside reserves of Central Europe. In 1999, 17.4 million foreign visitors (arrivals) visited Austria and 8 million Austrians spent their holidays in their own country. All in all, there were 112.6 million overnight stays, of which foreign visitors accounted for 81.56 million.

Visitors by nationality (figures based on overnight stays)

Germany Benelux Countries Great Britain Italy France USA Eastern Europe

53,030 9,270 2,775 2,675 1,722 1,565 3,317

Tourism is one of the main pillars of the Austrian economy

Direct Investment Setting up Companies

During the past few years Austria has considerably enhanced its attraction as a business location. The inflow of foreign direct investment in 1999 amounted to ATS 23.4 billion, 72 % of which came from the EU Member States. In 1999, Austrias direct investments in other countries totalled ATS 17.5 billion.

BMW works in Steyr, Upper Austria

The state-owned business development company Austrian Business Agency (ABA), founded in 1983, is continuing its successful course. During the first six months of 2000 this organisation helped no less than 78 companies (by comparison with 46 in 1999) to set up business in Austria, with the total investment volume amounting to ATS 3.768 billion (1999: ATS 1.985 billion). During the first six months of 2000 the investors looked after by the ABA created 4,018 jobs in Austria. Among the countries assisted in this way, Germany leads with 19 companies, followed by Switzerland with ten and the USA with nine. Eight companies come from Italy, four from Great Britain and three from Taiwan, the Netherlands and Slovakia, respectively. 37 companies have chosen Vienna as a business site, ten have opted for Upper Austria and eight for Lower Austria. According to an analysis made for the different sectors, the main emphasis lies on telecommunications and consulting (eight projects each), electronics and hardware

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(seven projects), software (six projects) and metals (five projects). The 78 projects are distributed among 34 service providers, 25 marketing operations, 13 European and Eastern European companies, four production undertakings and two research and development institutes. Six projects are based on expansions, three on acquisitions and one was launched as a joint venture. The ABA is currently assisting a total of 468 companies which are interested in setting up business in Austria and the overall trend is rising.

Inter-sectoral networks - Clusters

A cluster is an inter-sectoral network of leading companies and direct and indirect suppliers, which offer similar or complementary services. Cooperation in the field of marketing, procurement, training and strategy enables companies to take advantage of economies of scale and scope.

As the first initiative of this type in Europe, AC-Styria undertook the step to becoming a financially independent body. Austrias cluster of car firms in Styria has set an international precedent. Founded three years ago, in 1999 AC-Styria reorganised itself into a service-oriented Limited Liability Company. As a service provider, this network, which embraces some 160 companies with 13,000 employees, offers service packages to its member companies. The Automobil Cluster Styria GesmbH is managed by six shareholders, who are elected by six electoral bodies made up of the members of the cluster. In these, not only leading companies such as Steyr-Daimler-Puch Fahrzeugtechnik, AVL-List, Eurostar and Magna are represented, but also the many small and medium-sized enterprises which act as service providers and suppliers of component parts or systems. The 160 enterprises include some 20 institutions the Trade Union Federation and the Federation of Austrian Industrialists, as well as different polytechnics and universities. The creation of this cluster has generated around 3,000 additional jobs. Attractive subsidies are provided by the governments of the provinces, and certain regions outside Graz have been declared EU Target II areas. Every year in Graz, thousands of high-

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quality cars leave the conveyor belts at Magna Steyr and Eurostar. In Steyr, an estimated 15,000 Steyr, AF and MAN lorries are put on the road every year, while in Vienna-Liesing almost 6,000 special vehicles per year are developed and manufactured for international export by MAN, Steyr and AF. In Styria and Upper Austria, suppliers are forming clusters and setting up joint research centres, which also incorporate the universities. A diesel engine cluster grouped around BMW-Motorenwerk in Steyr and AVL in Graz continues to assure Austrias leading edge in the motor engines sector. The European development centre of Magna International, one of the worlds biggest car suppliers, is located in Lower Austria. Friction bearings made by Miba in Laakirchen are exported all over the world, while VOEST-Alpine Stahl in Linz is one of the leading manufacturers of metal parts for car bodies. Almost all Formula I teams are supplied with special driving elements manufactured by Austrian companies.

A car cluster in Styria

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Networking and cooperating in a team spirit these are the pillars of the cluster structure. This scenario also stimulates the small and medium-sized enterprises that dominate Austrias business landscape to engage in innovative and hi-tech production, an aspect that is particularly important for this country. High-quality networks consisting of companies with a wide range of products, training and research institutions and diverse service providers which interlink in many different ways should become the backbone of the domestic economy. This not only creates great development potential, but also increases the competitiveness of the region and enhances the assets and strengths by gearing them to value added chains.

A further cluster in Styria, grouping together some 300 companies, focuses on innovative wood products. In Salzburg, two clusters exist for telecommunications and wood processing and in Lower Austria one has been set up that combines the fields of water, energy, environment, food and alternative sources of energy. The Federation of Austrian Industrialists is currently trying to form a training cluster, while 17 Austrian companies manufacturing environmental products have grouped themselves into the 13th export cluster. With a total turnover of ATS 60 billion and an export ratio of 40%, this network aims in the future to market its joint know-how in the field of environmental technology and waste management in countries other than Austria. All in all, clusters have come to play an increasingly important role recently.

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The A 321 airbus belonging to Austrian Airlines

Transport and Telecommunications

Austria has five airline companies Austrian Airlines (AUA), Tyrolian Airways, Lauda Air, Rheintalflug Seewald GesmbH and Air Alps Aviation that fly to international destinations with aeroplanes built for 20 or more passengers. The country boasts six international airports in Vienna, Salzburg, Graz, Innsbruck, Linz and Klagenfurt. Beginning with the summer flight schedule at the end of March 2000, the AUA Group (AUA, Lauda Air, Tyrolian Airways) will join Star Alliance. Star Alliance has eight members: United Airlines (USA), Lufthansa (Germany), SAS (Scandinavia), Air Canada, Varig (Brazil), Thai Airways (Thailand), Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand. In October 1999, Japans All Nippon Airways (ANA) joined the group and in 2000 AUA and Mexicana Airlines will also become members. The AUA Group contributes ATS 26 billion in terms of turnover, 8 million passengers, some 7,200 employees, 90 aeroplanes and flights to 123 destinations in 67 countries. Within this alliance the members remain autonomous and there is no mutual acquisition of capital interests, with cooperation focusing on scheduled flights.

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Austria is to become the core of the TransEuropean Networks (TEN)

The Federal Railways (BB) are preparing themselves for the opening of the EU railway market with a number of specific measures. In 1999, ATS 11.7 billion was invested in the railway network. Following the example set by the acquisition of Express/Interfracht in early 1999, the aim is to purchase other forwarding agencies. The take-over of the forwarding agents Express and Interfracht, which are well represented in Eastern Europe, expanded the BBs turnover in goods traffic to around ATS 14.1 billion. During the next four years these figures are expected to increase to ATS 20 billion, with the transport volume expanding from almost ATS 78 million tons to 110 million tons. As regards passenger traffic (in 1999 there were 275.7 million passengers), the BB plans joint ventures with the German and the Italian Railways. The extension of the western railway route between Vienna and Munich is expected to reduce the travelling time to four hours during the next ten to fifteen years. In mid-July 1999, the BB awarded a major contract of over ATS 4 billion to Siemens Austria for the production of a hundred new high-speed Taurus locomotives, a model which these two companies developed jointly, as well as for 30 diesel locomotives. The final assembling of the Taurus locomotives will be done at the BB works in Linz, thus assuring the domestic value added. The 75 Taurus locomotives which were ordered in 1997 were delivered in 1999. The investments are aimed at enabling the trains to reach a maximum speed of 200 km/h on the western route.

In mid-1999 legislation was passed, the aim of which was to regulate the rail transport market, with a rail regulator ensuring fair competition during the opening up of the railway markets.

Although by comparison with the railways roads are losing market shares, investments in this area are still being made: in mid-July 1999, the Nationalrat

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decided to allocate ATS 15 billion to the expansion of the road network in Lower Austria. By 2010 it is planned that the North Motorway be extended to reach the Czech Republic, an essential factor in view of the EUs planned Eastern enlargement, and that the motorway ring round Vienna and two new bridges over the Danube are constructed. The predicted costs of ATS 15 billion will be borne entirely by the federal government, the project being financed from the revenue generated by the motorway sticker and by the envisaged road pricing system for lorries.

By the end of 1999, 4.009,604 cars, 346,052 mopeds, 218,614 motorcycles and 335,772 lorries (including petrol tankers) had been registered. In 1999, 314,182 cars and vans were registered for the first time.

1998 marked the beginning of the liberalisation of the telecommunications sector in Austria, in the wake of which Telekom-Austria (TA) saw itself faced with increasing competition from private providers and was forced to undergo large-scale restructuring. (In 1999, 27 telecommunications providers were operating on the Austrian market). Apart from reducing their tariffs, the TA now offers new products such as Internet and additional telephone services. Furthermore, staff reductions involving some 5,000 employees are envisaged out of a total of 19,347 workers from the Telekom Austria Group.

At the end of 1999, 53.2 % Austrians (4.3 million) had a mobile phone. Three private mobile phone network operators have appeared on the market as competitors for the Telekom-Austria subsidiary Mobilkom (with a market share of 53 %): max.mobil, One and tele.ring, the latter of which began operating in early 2000.

The quality of Austria as a business location has been considerably enhanced by this progress in the field of telecommunications, which is one of the main criteria for defining a good business site. According to an OECD Country Survey published in mid-1999, the cost savings for the economy as a whole generated by the liberalisation of the Austrian telecommunications sector are between ATS 5 and 6 billion. In 1999, the total turnover of all the companies belonging to the Association of Alternative

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In addition to tariff reductions, Telekom-Austria offers Internet and new forms of telephone services

Telecommunications network operators (including mobile phone providers) reached ATS 14.8 billion and, according to the Association, is expected to increase to ATS 22.9 billion in 2000. Around 4,500 people are employed in this sector. In 1999, total investment made by alternative operators stood at around ATS 11 billion.

By 2005 it is foreseen that all official administrative procedures can be conducted via the Internet. Anyone not having private access to the Internet can use this service at their municipal, tax or district office. By 2002 or 2003 the majority of the municipalities should be accessible through the citizens information system HELP, to which a thousand municipalities will initially be linked.

In the area of postal communications, too, extensive market adjustments have been undertaken. ATS 2 billion have been allocated for the modernisation of the branch offices known as New Post Offices and by the spring of 2000 the countrys 1,500 post offices will be equipped with a new computer system interlinking them with one another. ATS 120 million have been allocated for staff training programmes in 2000. By 2003, with the help of investments totalling around ATS 3.5 billion, six modern distribution centres will have been refurbished and equipped with additional sorting systems or will be rebuilt and computerized. The Austrian Postal Services sterreichische Post AG also actively participates in international programmes aimed at developing new postal services, improving quality and harmonising operative processes.

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Alpine power station in the Glockner group, Salzburg

The Energy Sector

In 1998 the Nationalrat enacted the Energy Organisation Act, under which 51 % of the sterreichische Elektrizittswirtschafts AG also known in Austria as Verbundgesellschaft must remain with the Federal Government and the federal provinces. 49 % of Verbundgesellschafts shares were sold off to private shareholders. In February 1999, the EU market opened up to big customers. All consumers of 40 gigawatt hours and above per year now have the possibility of choosing the cheapest suppliers.

Since February 2000, consumers with a yearly demand of more than 20 gigawatt hours will also be able to buy freely on the market and, starting with February 2003, customers with a yearly consumption of 9 gigawatt hours will be able to do the same. There is no EU regulation governing tariff reductions for households and small businesses; tariffs in Austria have already been greatly reduced.

The merger of the Verbund subsidiaries Tauernkraftwerke AG, VerbundkraftElektrizittswerke GmbH and Verbund-Elektrizittserzeugungs GmbH with sterreichische Donaukraftwerke AG led to the creation of the VERBUND-Austrian Hydro Power AG. This company is now Austrias largest energy supplier, accounting for around 40 % of the countrys total production. In a referendum held in the Seventies, Austria voted against the production of nuclear energy.

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sterreichische Industrieholding AG IAG

The history of IAG dates from 1945. Following the end of the war and the Nazi regime, a relatively large part of Austrias business enterprises was placed under the ownership of the Republic of Austria by a law passed in 1946. The nationalised industries at the time focused their activities on primary products, such as iron, steel, nonferrous metals, oil, basic chemical raw materials and coal. In time, they were increasingly subjected to political influence. In 1970 the companies were incorporated into a newly-established holding company, sterreichische

Industrieverwaltungs Aktiengesellschaft (IAG). The IAG remained wholly in the ownership of the Republic of Austria.

In the wake of international changes the developing countries themselves now had their own basic industries, and with their cheap products and low prices the emerging markets presented serious competition for the industrialised countries Austria, too, had to rethink its

One of the most modern steel works in the world in Linz, Upper Austria

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pattern of industrial activity and to undergo restructuring, both in terms of production and organisation and as regards its ownership structure. 1986 saw the start of IAGs privatisation process the Industrieverwaltung being re-named sterreichische Industrieholding AG , which is still not finished today. In April 1997, for example, sterreichische Salinen AG was privatised. In October 1997 followed the stock exchange listing of Austria Tabak AG, with 49.5 % of its shares being sold to national and international investors. A further 9.4 % were sold in March 1999 so that the IAGs share in Austria Tabak now amounts to 41 %. At the beginning of 1998, the sterreichische Staatsdruckerei AG was transferred to the IAG for the purpose of privatisation and the same steps were undertaken for the Dorotheum auction house. In June 1998, shares amounting to 51.94 % were transferred to IAG by the Austrian Airlines Luftverkehrs AG (AUA) and shares to the value of 17.38 % by the Flughafen Wien AG. In early May 1999, when AUA increased the equity capital, the IAG did not use its subscription rights, with the result that its capital now stands at 39.7 %. In September 2000, the sterreichische Postsparkasse AG (P.S.K.) was sold to a consortium, a move that was largely managed by the Bank fr Arbeit und Wirtschaft AG (BAWAG).

Current situation of participations (August 1999): IAG holds 41.1 % in Austria Tabak, 39.7 % in AUA, 38.8 % in VA-Stahl AG, 35 % in OMV, 25 % in Bhler-Uddeholm, 24 % in VA-Tech and 17.38 % in Flughafen Wien AG. The Dorotheum and the sterreichische Staatsdruckerei are at present wholly owned by IAG.

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Development Cooperation
The main aims of Austrian development cooperation.
The Austrian development cooperation forms part of Austrias general and foreign policy and is committed to clear goals, which are to support the countries of the southern hemisphere in their economic, social, democratic and ecological development. The objectives are to help fight poverty, to provide help for self-help and to promote equal opportunities for women and men in an atmosphere of respect and partnership. But development cooperation also means changing the international socioeconomic conditions so that they benefit the poor countries. For only in this way can these countries attain security for their citizens, democracy, economic progress and social justice. However, development in the poor countries cannot be regarded in isolation; universal peace, social security, the conservation of our natural environment and hence of the future of us all are closely aligned to this concept.

A combination of different forces

Less is often more. This is why, since 1993, the Austrian development cooperation has been focusing on certain priorities and on combining different forces. The principle of cooperation and geographical concentration on priority countries has shown significant success: in 1999, 70 % were accounted for by the following countries and regions:

Central America:

Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Senegal Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda

Sahel region/ West Africa: East Africa:

Southern part of Africa: Mozambique, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Republic of South Africa Himalaya-Hindukusch: Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan

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Combining forces also means setting priorities based on different sectors. Austria seeks to provide support in those areas in which it can offer specialised know-how. The concrete selection of the sectors to be targeted is done in each individual country, naturally in consultation with the relevant partners:

Training for specialised staff from the developing countries

Examples: Promotion of trade and industry in Cape Verde: Supporting small and medium-sized enterprises on this African island is a means of counteracting the high unemployment and of providing the jobless with some form of income. Vocational training in Burkina Faso: For a number of years now Austria has been promoting technical and vocational training programmes here. Today, the challenge to be met is that of being close to the labour market and to modern professional profiles in order to benefit broad sections of the population. High mountain ecology and the energy sector in Bhutan: In accordance with the goals set by the Government of Bhutan, the sustainable development of the country is being promoted. Here, in the only priority country in Asia, Austrias efforts are directed towards reducing the risk of eruption of glacial lakes and assisting the construction of the Basochu power station.

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The field of culture is also playing an increasingly important role in development projects. For culture is a part of everyday life and is reflected in the realms of economics, politics and society. Here, too, the basis for cooperation is exchange and dialogue. Another aspect of Austrias contribution concerns the promotion of Ugandas annual Development Theatre Festival.

Combining forces also means setting up co-ordination offices in all the priority countries. This will ensure a closer integration of planning and administration in project activities.

Austria is a part of the multilateral community

Since 1995, Austria has been a member of the European Union and hence not only shares responsibility for the development policies of the Community but also makes considerable financial contributions towards it. In 1999, Austria contributed ATS 1.5 billion to the European Union for development cooperation. As a member of the United Nations, Austria particularly supports the activities undertaken by FAO, WHO and UNICEF. Its closest links in the field of development aid are with UNDP, the most important UN organization as regards the financing of technical support, and UNIDO.

The multilateral payments contributed by the public development cooperation, which in recent years rose from 25 % to over 40 %, are of great significance because certain global issues, such as environmental matters, migration, etc., can only be addressed with multilateral solutions.

The volume of the Austrian development cooperation

In Austria, 1999 saw a slight increase in terms of expenditure on development aid, amounting to 0.26 % of GDP by comparison with the previous year (1998: 0.24 %, 1997: 0.26 %, 1996: 0.24 %). This meant that Austria was marginally above the 0.24 % average of the OECD countries but under the 0.33 % average of the EU Member States (1998). The main emphasis of the Austrian development co-operation lies on a concentration of funds and on quality. The principle of geographical and thematic prioritisation continues to be adhered to.

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Monetary and Financial Policy

In 1999, the Austrian current account deficit grew by ATS 74.6 billion, or 2.8 % of GDP, as against the previous year (1998: ATS 59.7 billion, or 2.3 % of GDP). Merchandise payments, the income sub-account and the capital account showed a deterioration as compared with 1998. In 1999, Austria contributed ATS 25.9 billion to the EU budget, which was ATS 5.3 billion less than in 1998.

In 1998, capital transactions recorded net inflows amounting to ATS 65.8 billion, the main contributors being direct investments and portfolio investments.

All the major Austrian banks and many private financial institutions offer Internet banking. This form of payment transaction has become very popular. The federal stake in the Wiener Brse AG, on the other hand, was already sold off to 30 enterprises listed on the Vienna stock exchange in July 1999. Since the beginning of 1999, all domestic shares have been quoted in euros.

The Finanzierungsgarantie-Gesellschaft (FGG), Brges-Frderungsbank and Innovationsagentur are actively involved in the area of state guarantees for participations. In mid1999, Brges brought out the first profit securities. This means that small businesses, too, now have access to equity capital and that the financier will receive a guarantee for providing such funds.
The Vienna Stock Exchange

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Agriculture, Forestry and Hydropower

During the past few years, farmers had to come to practical terms with Austrias accession to the European Union since agriculture and foodstuffs were the areas most affected by this step. Income losses have been offset by additional compensatory payments, particularly with regard to the Austrian environmental programme PUL. The integration and re-positioning of the Austrian agricultural sector within the single market has also led to a new ecological orientation, which has largely been successful. 70 % of the agricultural enterprises and 90 % of the surface area are participating in the Austrian environmental programme (PUL). On an EU average, this figure is only around 20 %. In the area of organic farming, Austria has attained a leading position in Europe.

A cheese dairy in Vorarlberg

Despite the difficulties engendered by the EU adjustment process and the market problems resulting from the BSE crisis, currency turbulences and the price collapse on the pig market, the exodus from agricultural occupations has now slowed down from over 5 % in the first half of the 1990s to 2.6 % in 1997 and then to 2.4 % during the period 1997 to 1999. In Austria, there are currently around 252,000 farms, of which some 97,000 do not breed cattle.

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About 80,000 agricultural enterprises focus on fodder cultivation and almost 50,000 are dedicated to forestry, while fruit farms and combined farming operations each account for 30,000. An increase of the performancerelated subsidies from public budgets and savings in the operating resources meant that the income per capita decreased by round 3.9 % between 1966 and 1999. In 1999, the volume of final production in the agricultural and forestry sectors amounted to ATS 62.4 billion (1998: ATS 63.1 billion), of which ATS 48.8 billion was accounted for by agriculture and ATS 13.6 by forestry.

Almost 47 % of Austrias total surface area is forested, which corresponds to some 3.9 million hectares of woodland on which every year some 27 million cubic metres of timber is produced. 86.6. % of the countrys forests are privately owned, 13.3. % belong to the sterreichische Bundesforste and 33.4 % are private forestry operations which manage more than 2oo hectares. Die sterreichischen Bundesforste, which employs a workforce of 1,696, has now been converted into a joint-stock company. In 1998 the turnover came to ATS 1.88 billion, while profits stood at ATS 219 Million.

Since Austrias accession to the EU, incomes in the agricultural sector have largely been determined by direct payments and performance-related subsidies. In 1999, around ATS 17.5 billion in terms of public funds were made available to agricultural enterprises, which represents a decline of approx. ATS 5 billion since 1996.

As regards subsidies for organic farmers, in keeping with the environmental programme about one-fifth of the area suitable for farming was cultivated organically or under conditions that were similar. The results were the reduced use of fertilisers or pesticides, the increased application of organic methods and resources and the expansion of crop rotation. The number of organic farmers who now cultivate 272,635 hectares rose from around 1,970 in 1990 to 19,741 in 1999. About one-third of the organic production they generate, totalling some ATS 2 billion, is exported, the main products being cheese, herbs, teas and vegetables.

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In the wake of universal restructuring and preparations for the global market, in the agricultural sector, too, there is a growing trend towards mergers, either at a national level or across Austrias borders. Examples of such cooperation ventures can be seen among Austrias vintners and in dairies.
The grape harvest in Lower Austria

Foreign Trade
In 1999, too, imports outweighed exports. Austria imported goods totalling ATS 888 billion, while its exports amounted to ATS 820 billion. Austrias major trading partners were Germany, followed by Italy, the United States, Switzerland and France.

Austrias foreign trade in 1999

Regions

Export in billion ATS 513,183 57,090 131,930 51,496 46,273 8,310 4,308 819,703

Imports in billion ATS 607,711 33,657 104,105 57,906 67,425 10,731 0,772 888,102

EU EFTA Eastern europe America Asia Africa Australia, New Zeland Total

Trade with Eastern Europe

Since the opening up of Eastern Europe in 1989, Austrias exports to the reform countries have grown much more rapidly than its exports as a whole. In 1999, exports to Eastern Europe totalled ATS 131 billion in terms of value, while in 1988 the figures showed only ATS 35 billion. About one-third of Austrias total foreign investments go to those reform countries that are accession candidates for the European Union. In some of them, one-tenth of foreign direct investment comes from Austria.

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Environmental Protection

As regards environmental policies, Austria is one of the leading countries in Europe. This fact has been acknowledged not only by the OECD in its latest report on the environmental situation in its member countries. The EU, too, has accorded Austria positive ratings when it comes to environmental policies. The report of the EU Commission on the accession of Austria, Sweden and Finland clearly stated that the membership of the Union of these three countries has significantly enhanced environmental standards within the European Union as a whole.

Air
Since 1980, Austria has succeeded in reducing its sulphur dioxide emissions by 88 %; in 1998 they amounted to 46,000 tonnes. From 1980 to 1998 nitrogen oxide emissions receded by 25 % and currently stand at around 170,000 tonnes per year. Since 1988, human-based emissions of volatile organic compounds have gonw down by more than 37 %.

As concerns the reduction of climate-polluting greenhouse gas greenhouse gas emissions by 13 % between 1990 and 2000, Austria has committed itself to fulfilling the "Kyoto Target". This means reducing CO2 emissions by 13 % between 1990 and the period 2008-2012. A national "Climate Protection Programme" will be launched with the aim of reaching this goal. In 1998 Austrias CO2 emissions (the major greenhouse gas) amounted to 66,6 million tonnes.

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Renewable energy
The measures implemented by Austria to reduce CO2 emissions lie in the increased use of renewable sources of energy (sun, wind, biomass) and in the optimisation of heating and thermal systems. In 1994, 26.4 % of the total energy consumption was accounted for by renewable sources of energy (hydraulic power 14.3 %, firewood, wood shavings and warm waste water together 12.1 %). In 1997, 600,000 plants were in operation in which wood was burned, of which 20,000 were automatic heating plants using wood shavings, over 300 biomass heating plants and 70 biogas plants. In early 1997, sun collectors covering a surface area of 1.46 mill. m2 were installed in Austria and wind energy plants with a total output of 11.8 megawatt were in operation.

Water
Like Switzerland, Austria is one of Europes "water reservoirs". Austrias water resources are notable not only for their quantity but also for their quality. The total amount of water available per year is 84 bn. m3. Around one third of the available resources is accounted for by groundwater and a further 29 bn. m3 flows in from other countries. The yearly water consumption amounts to around 2.6 bn. m3, some 700 mill. m3 of which is needed for drinking. These requirements can be met to almost 99 % from groundwater and springwater.

Riverside meadows along the Danube in Lower Austria

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Nitrate is the main threat to groundwater. Around 18 % of measurements show that the threshold value is exceeded by 45 mg/litre. The main cause can be sought in agriculture (overfertilisation). In addition, pesticides containing atrazine also endanger the groundwater. However, this situation is expected to improve as atrazine has been banned in pesticides in Austria since 1995.

During the past few years, the steady increase in the number of sewage and clarification plants has greatly enhanced the water quality of Austrias rivers. Currently, around 75 % of the countrys total waste water is being biologically purified, with the Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, the Environment and Water Management subsidising the construction of sewage and clarification plants.

Prevention of water pollution

Considerable progress has also been achieved in the water quality of Austrias some six thousand lakes, which play an important role in the countrys tourism. A special programme aimed at improving the quality of the lakes, which was launched in the 1980s (construction of sewage clarification plants and circular pipelines to hinder the inflow of waste water), has led to the fact that in most of Austrias lakes the water is potable.
The water in Austrias lakes is almost potable

Austria has spared no efforts to protect its marshlands, which in the past were substantially threatened by drainage. Since 1945, 190,000 hectares of marshland have been drained. Nine of the most ecologically valuable marshlands, covering a surface area of around 103,000 hectares, are subject to the provisions of the international Ramsar Convention on the protection of marshlands.

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Waste
Although the quantity of non-recyclable and recyclable waste is increasing in Austria as a whole, less and less material is landing in the dustbins and refuse dumps. This development can be attributed to the fact that the amount of waste that is being collected and recycled is growing.

The period from 1993 to 1996 saw a 50 % increase in the amount of separated and recycled waste, with the figures rising from 839,000 to 1.263,000 tonnes. The collection rate for plastics rose by 90 %, for organic waste by 97 %, for textiles by 50 % and for metal by 43 %. The figures for paper and glass collections, which were already very high, rose by 26 % and 8 %, respectively.

The amount of non-recyclable waste (in other words, refuse that is not separated but is thrown into the dustbins) has gone down by 13 %, i.e. from 1.488,000 to 1.291,000 tonnes. The amount of waste that lands on the refuse dumps has shown a 8 % drop, decreasing from 1.372,000 to 1.260,000 tonnes, although the total amount of waste produced has increased by 266,000 tonnes (11 %) to 2.780,000 tonnes. This can be attributed to rising population figures, the trend towards single households and to economic growth. From 2004 on, only thermally or mechanically/biologically treated waste may be disposed of in refuse dumps.

In 1998 the mass potential of hazardous waste amounted to 760,000 tonnes. In 1996 some 20,000 tonnes of hazardous waste were imported to Austria, while around 40,000 tonnes were sent abroad. The processing of hazardous waste is documented in an accompanying form.

General concepts drawn up by the Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, the Environment and Water Management and the Economic Chamber of Austria offer enterprises assistance in waste avoidance. Such branchspecific waste management concepts currently exist for leather manufacturers, for the medical sector, for wood

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products, for foundries, for foodstuffs and luxury commodities, for waste from paints and varnishes, for waste products from non-halogenous solvents, for drycleaning firms, for the cellulose and paper industry, for the textile sector, for metal surface polishing, for the car industry, for photographic waste and water products and for used oils and lubricants.

The Waste Treatment Act and trade regulations require that the operators of existing plants draw up a waste management concept if waste is generated by the relevant undertaking and if more than a hundred people are employed there.

Residual waste
The term residual waste applies to old refuse dumps (neglected deposits) and disused industrial sites (contaminated sites) which constitute severe risks, both for the population and for the environment. The register of such old refuse dumps (as at January 1999) lists 2,303 neglected deposits and 173 contaminated sites which could prove to be an environmental hazard.

The cleaning up of such old refuse dumps is financed through special fees that are levied for this purpose. The amount of contributions to be paid by the operators depends, on the one hand, on the condition of the relevant dump and, on the other, on the quality of the refuse filling it.

Between 1990 and 1997 the income generated by old waste dump clean-up fees totalled some ATS 1.9 bn. A step-by-step increase in the contributions by the year 2000 will increase the annual earnings to over ATS 800 million. In 1997 the figures already stood at ATS 447 million.

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Traffic
The burgeoning of traffic over the past decades has in turn brought a marked increase in the energy consumption of transport vehicles. Traffic accounts for almost one third of the countrys overall energy consumption, with two thirds of the petroleum consumed in Austria being used for this purpose. With 81 %, road traffic has the largest share. Around 30 % of the carbon dioxide (CO2)-emissions and over 60 % of the nitrogen oxide emissions are generated by traffic.

Unleaded regular petrol was introduced in Austria as early as 1985. In 1987 the use of a catalytic converter became mandatory. 1991 saw the introduction of more stringent exhaust emission limits for lorries, and since 1993 the use of leaded petrol has been prohibited in general. In 1995 the maximum permissible sulphur content in diesel oil was fixed at 0.05 % and since 1990 this has also applied to petrol. In 1990 the maximum permissible limit for the benzene content in petrol was also fixed at 3 per cent volume. Since 1996 the Austrian crude oil sector has voluntarily been offering extra super-grade petrol with a benzene content of just 1 per cent volume. From 1980 to 1995, thanks to the regular testing of old vehicles and the use of modern engine technology, carbon monoxide emissions could be reduced by 30 %.

The Federal Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, the Environment and Water Management subsidises a number of research and pilot projects aimed at promoting environmentally-friendly transportation systems, such as environmentally-friendly transport to large-scale events, transport management for company staff, car-free tourism and the integration of environmental protection in traffic education.

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Road traffic still causes the most noise. Preventive measures include maximum permissible emission levels for lorries and the ban on night driving for non low-noise trucks. This has considerably accelerated the changeover to "silent lorries". A further measure was the introduction of the eco-points system for cross-boundary truck transit. In 1993 noise regulations were introduced for rail vehicles. The Environment Assessment Act enables affected citizens to have a better say in the planning of large-scale infrastructure projects.

Atomic energy
By signing the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1979, Austria renounced the use of nuclear power. Particularly since the reactor disaster at Chernobyl, Austria has pursued an active anti-atomic policy, with its current goal being the creation of a nuclear power-free Central Europe. At an international level Austria is seeking to strengthen the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as an instrument of control and to increase the funds for nonnuclear energy research within the EURATOM programme. Austria is also endeavouring to ensure that the nuclear power stations in the EU candidate countries are upgraded so that they at least meet Western standards. From the Austrian point of view, it would be irresponsible to allow countries with unsafe atomic power stations to join the European Union. Austria has a comprehensive network of 336 stations equipped for the constant measuring of radioactivity levels.

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S o c i a l S e r v i ce s

The Social Network

The social security systems in Austria can be subdivided into the following areas: Social insurance schemes, especially health, pensions and unemployment insurance Universal systems, especially family allowances and care provisions Needs-related benefits, especially minimum insurance levels for pensions and social assistance Special systems, especially for war victims Private and semi-private forms of social security, especially private and non-compulsory supplementary insurance Claims under labour law and worker protection measures, including continuing pay in cases of sickness

Austria provides a comprehensive system of social security and welfare schemes. The network operates at two levels. First, there is the principle of insurance, which provides cover for all gainfully employed persons, and to a large extent for their dependants in cases of sickness, accident, unemployment, parental leave, and pensions, and, secondly, there are public welfare benefits made available by the federal, provincial and municipal authorities to citizens in need, who are not covered by the insurance system.

The insurance system is financed by social security contributions. These include contributions to pensions, sickness and accident insurance, to unemployment insurance, a supplement to insurance against non-payment in the case of insolvency, the contribution to the family assistance fund (Familienlastenausgleichsfonds FLAF) and the contribution to housing subsidies. These contributions are calculated as a percentage of remuneration. The Federal Chamber of Labour levy is paid only by the employed per-

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son. Correspondingly, the employer pays an obligatory sum to the Economic Chamber of Austria. There are also a number of other contributions applicable, but only to individual groups of employed persons. The rates of contribution relate not only to ongoing wages and salaries but also to special payments (with the exception of housing subsidies and the Federal Chamber of Labour levy). Such special payments include the 13th and 14th annual payments of wages and salaries, which are customary in Austria in addition to monthly salaries, these being taxed differently from ongoing payments.

If the monthly remuneration exceeds the contribution ceiling (1999: 42,600 ATS), amounts above that level are not subject to contributions. Only in the case of the FLAF is there no ceiling on contributions.

Social security benefits

Sickness insurance: Early recognition of sickness, medical examinations of young people and healthy people, treatment of illnesses, medical aid, curative measures and products, institutional care, medical care in the home, rehabilitation, sickness payments, pre-maternity payments, midwifery, care in maternity homes.

Sickness payments: Persons contributing to compulsory insurance schemes may make a claim beyond the period covered by the employer. The period over which sickness payments may be made is at least 25 weeks and at most 52 weeks.

Maternity payments: These are made to pregnant women contributing to compulsory insurance schemes during the last 8 weeks prior to the estimated date of giving birth, on the day of the birth and for the following eight weeks.

Accident insurance: Accident prevention, treatment of injuries, professional care, rehabilitation, prostheses, orthopaedic aids, disability pension, surviving dependants pension, partial repayment of burial costs.

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Rehabilitation centre in Hring, Tyrol

Disability pension: If as the result of an accident at work or an occupational illness lasting more than three months there is a reduction of pay of at least 20 %, a disability pension is payable. This begins once sickness payments cease.

Pension insurance: In Austria, provision for old age is almost entirely via the social security system and/or special systems for civil servants. Company and private schemes play only a small role, since in general the public state pensions are adequate.

The amount of pension received basically depends on previous income, the length of cover and the age at the time contributions commenced. This system is augmented by minimum coverage tailored to individual requirements.

Since 1956, provisions for old age (pension insurance) for blue and white collar workers have been covered by the

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General Social Security Law (Allgemeine Sozialversicherungsgesetz ASVG). Corresponding laws were subsequently passed, applying to farmers, persons pursuing a trade, and individual groups of self-employed persons. The individual clauses have in the meantime largely been brought into line with those of the ASVG. The only notable differences between self-employed and non-self-employed persons relate to financing.

There are special regulations for civil servants, who are covered directly by their employers. The pension systems are also responsible for payments to invalids, orphans, widows and widowers.

The pension deriving from the state insurance system, assuming that cover is largely uninterrupted throughout the earning life of the employed person, provides a relatively high proportion of the income earned if it was below the contribution ceiling (1999: 42,600 ATS per month). Less than 10 % of all those with social insurance have monthly earnings over this ceiling.

For those with low incomes or only short periods of coverage there is a needs-oriented minimum, which guarantees a higher minimum living allowance. Since this minimum insurance is based on family income, maintenance by a partner is of major significance.

Austria has a comprehensive social security and public welfare system

The system of old-age insurance covers practically all wage-earners. Recently in 1996, and again from 1998 on a large proportion of groups not previously covered was included. In 1997, 3 million employed persons were covered by compulsory pension insurance (annual average).

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In Austria, for non-self-employed persons (excluding civil servants) the compulsory insurance system works on the levy principle. Everyone regularly pays a fixed proportion of their pay (employer and employee contribution) and thus may make a claim in the future. At the same time, ongoing payments are used to meet the claims of the current generation of pensioners.

In Austria, too, there is a trend towards a lower age of commencing contributions and, at the same time, higher life expectancy. If this trend is not halted, this will lead to a rise in social security contributions, which will distort competition, or to the compulsory system becoming unfinanceable in the long term. Therefore a reform of the system was made in 1997, which was designed to become effective in the medium term. Thereby, from 2020 on, the 18 best contributing years prior to the legal age of retirement will be taken. From 2020 onward, there should be a unified pension system for civil servants and other wageearners.

The legal pensionable age for men is 65, for women 60. After 35 years of employment, for the time being men may retire at age 60, women at age 55. Working mothers are credited with up to four years free pension contributions per child.

Parental leave: At the request of a female employee, maternity leave is to be granted following the period in which she enjoys protection up to the childs second birthday. If both parents wish to claim parental leave, this may only be divided once. If the father does not claim parental leave, the mother has the right to such leave only for one and a half years. The consequence of this is that children brought up by a single parent can only enjoy one and a half years of such leave. Since this situation is highly debatable, there will probably be changes in the coming years. Simultaneous parental leave for both father and mother is not possible. The father is only entitled to such leave if the mother also has such a claim in principle but does not

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A kindergarten

take it up or cannot do so for reasons of her employment. The father must live in the same household as the child and mainly care for it himself. The monthly parental leave allowance is around ATS 5,700 and the job remains assured. From 2000 on, parental leave may be taken by the parents in instalments up to the 7th birthday of the child. From then on, a maximum of 3 months of the leave allowance may be deferred. This allowance must be taken in blocks of at least one month and in agreement with the employer.

Unemployment insurance: This covers unemployment benefits, emergency assistance, special emergency assistance, parental leave money. The Labour Market Service (Arbeitsmarktservice/AMS) hived off by the public administration not only pays out unemployment money, but is also responsible for a large part of the active labour market policy. Models of AMS employment include placement, training and retraining measures.

Labour law: The rights of wage-earners represent a high standard by international comparison. Membership of the Federal Chamber of Labour is obligatory; it represents its members in all questions of labour law and also has the right to be consulted on all legal matters.

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Working hours: Statutory working hours are eight hours per day and 40 hours per week. Many collective agreements, however, include a 38-hour week. Within this framework there are increasingly flexible working models. Night work for women is legally prohibited, but the number of occupations forming an exception is very high.

Collective agreements: These prescribe minimum wages, and increases are negotiated annually by the social partners. Leave: The legal minimum is five weeks of paid leave per year; after 25 years there is a right to six weeks. Illness: For up to 12 weeks in the case of white-collar workers and up to 10 weeks in the case of blue-collar workers wages continue to be paid by the employer. Thereafter, the respective health insurance company takes over.

Severance: After three years of working for an enterprise without interruption, an employee has the right to severance pay if he/she is given notice by the employer or on permanently ceasing to work. The amount depends on the length of employment within the particular enterprise.

Works council: Every enterprise with more than five employees must accept an elected works council if the staff so requires. This represents the employees and has various rights of consultation with the management, especially the right of information as to the financial situation of the enterprise.

Integration of handicapped persons: The principle of integration means that no special facilities must be created for the handicapped, but that the normal facilities should be made accessible to them. The law on the employment of the handicapped obliges employers employing 25 or more staff to take on one handicapped person. If this obligation is not fulfilled, the employer must pay a compensatory charge which is used for the vocational rehabilitation of handicapped persons. In addition, there are numerous offers of advice and help on the integration of handicapped persons at the federal and provincial levels.

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The Health Service

Austria has blanket coverage with doctors, specialists, out-patients departments and hospitals. The principle of compulsory insurance combined with the co-insurance of children and non-working partners ensures that practically the entire population has insurance coverage. Furthermore, there are private insurance companies which provide additional benefits (doctor of ones choice, smaller rooms in hospital, etc.). Costs for those without means are borne by the community at large. There are also social services, some state-run, others private or run by churches, whose staff are concerned with alcoholics or drug addicts, with the handicapped and with lonely old people.

Medical check-ups for children and young people are available everywhere, particularly in schools. The

mother-child pass provides strong incentives for parents to have infants regularly examined and inoculated according to a medical timetable. Experts consider that the population is giving more thought to making provisions for itself, which is why an increasing number of Austrians are making use of medical check-ups paid for by their health insurance.

A medical checkup, paid for by the health insurance scheme

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In 1997 the financing system relating to facilities for the sick were modified to take into account the benefits actually provided. This should result in savings, without reducing the standard of medical care given to the Austrian population. In 1997, ATS 97 billion were spent on Austrias hospitals. This represents an increase of 2.8 % against 1996. In the preceding years, however, costs went up much more: by about 9.1 % from 1993 to 1994; 5.2 % between 1994 and 1995. The length of hospital stays has also declined.

Consumer Protection
Austria is part of a world-wide information system. When dangerous products come on the market, the local reporting centres are automatically informed.

Consumer protection is concerned with health effects (from food manufacture, animal feeds, e.g. use of antibiotics in feeds, animal husbandry, safety standards in general, competition and technical issues). Consumer interests in terms of financial and public services are pursued, and questions relating to travel or rent (e.g. commission charged by estate agents).

Since its accession to the EU, Austria has successively implemented a number of EU regulations relevant to consumers. To improve the legal situation of the consumer, targeted information and explanations are provided. The Product Safety Law is particularly designed to forestall damage.

Data Protection
In mid-1999 the data protection law was extended so that in future not only automatically stored data are protected, but also data in forms such as manually compiled lists and card indexes. In principle, the processing of sensitive data is forbidden unless the law provides otherwise. The legal situation of persons affected was also strengthened. The person placing the order is obliged to provide information if requested, and the right to information has been made more accessible. Whilst formerly the Data Protection Commission could only investigate the use of data in the public sector, now it may also investigate any use of data in general.

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Womens issues
There are 4.1 million Austrian women, and with 51.5 % they represent the majority of the population. Although equality between men and women is legally anchored, in practice women suffer many disadvantages. Women earn on average a third less than men with similar qualifications. In 1996 women earned on average ATS 19,700 gross, men ATS 25,800. Men with a higher vocational qualification (college) earned 44 % more than women with a similar education. Altogether 64.1 % of Austrian women have jobs (men 81.8 %); 52.6 % of women have a full-time job (77.3 % of men). Whilst among the self-employed the balance is approximately equal, with just over 14 %, as regards part-time work women are well in the lead with 28.8 %, as compared with 4.2 % for men. Also, although the division of labour in the home, i.e. bringing up children and housework, is regarded as a partnership in marriage law, in practice much of it remains the task of the woman.

Socio-political measures in recent decades have led to a relatively balanced level of education, including at colleges of higher education and universities. In 1997 the number of initial inscriptions by women in colleges accounted for 55 %, and in universities 46.7 %. However, in the same year, females accounted for only 21.7 % of university assistants and 3.9 % of professors.

Policy regarding women concentrates on eliminating disadvantages, especially in pursuing a career or in adult life. Since the equality laws were passed, women may bring charges of discrimination or sexual harassment before a non-discrimination commission. If a woman is denied a post despite having equally good qualificaWomen hold their own as managers

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tions, the legal recompense is, however, very small. There is also the institution of a lawyer for questions of equal treatment of women in the private sector of the economy. Specific labour market programmes targeting women have also been launched, as well as projects for extending child care facilities, which, however, are still not adequate. The situation varies greatly from one province to another due to differing competencies. Top jobs occupied by women remain the exception both in the public and in the private sector. Women are also strongly under-represented in middle management.

Of all the cases promoted by the AMS in 1998 the womens share was 50.4 %, which was higher than their share of unemployment overall (45.6 %). Whilst 12 % of men out of work participate in active measures such as training or subsidised employment, the equivalent figure for women is 15.6 % (as of 1998). AMS has also launched a programme called Girls at the Centre for females wishing to return to work. This is aimed at stronger orientation on, and better integration of, young women in vocations hitherto dominated by men. Alongside the Ministry for Social Security and Generations (in charge of womens issues), the Ministry of Finance has in recent years given additional financial support to womens foundations, female company founders, and new models of qualification. Financial support is also provided by private organisations or individual women whose goal is to eliminate discrimination against women.

The right to ones own name allows women to retain their names even after marriage, which is not unimportant for their sense of identity. In 1993 the time devoted to bringing up children was recognised as being equivalent to pension contribution periods. Since 1998, the possibility

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has existed for inexpensive voluntary further insurance covering periods spent caring for relatives in need. There is discussion concerning married womens rights to a pension of their own, and similar rights for mothers not following an occupation.

Since May 1997 new laws have been in force relating to protection against violence within the family. According to these, a violent person may be expelled from the joint home and forbidden to return. It suffices if the police authorities determine that there is the risk of an assault. The ban on returning applies for ten days, and a check is made by the authorities within 48 hours. If the threatened person immediately applies to the court for a restraining order granting longer protection, the ban on return ends only after 20 days. The authorities must document each intervention. The length of the restraining order is extended if a marriage exists and a divorce is applied for within three months. In addition, there are shelters for battered women, and an Austria-wide telephone help-line to help deal with cases of male violence, intervention centres and emergency call services.

Two legal innovations, formulated neutrally in terms of gender, but predominantly affecting women, provide two small pieces of the mosaic in the long path towards equality of opportunity: the compulsory insurance of the minimally employed and one billion schillings for extending child care facilities. Nothing came of a scheme to provide a higher parental allowance only if the mother named the father of the child. In the draft amendment to the divorce law the question of guilt was relativised to the extent that if a woman is the guilty party in a divorce according to the letter of the law, but has no means of her own, she has a right to maintenance.

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E d u ca t i o n S c i e n ce a n d R e s e a r ch

Schooling
The beginnings of the state schooling system go back to the school reforms made by Empress Maria Theresa in 1774, which provided the foundation for schooling for everyone and for six years of compulsory education. In 1869 the duration of compulsory education was extended to eight years. The great reform of Austrian schooling took its impetus from the activities of Otto Glckel in the Vienna Education Council after 1918. Glckel put the case for optimal education of all children, regardless of their gender and social origin. In 1962 a comprehensive Education Law provided a new basis for Austrian schooling and raised the period of compulsory education from eight to nine years. An important innovation from 1993 on was the integration of handicapped pupils into the regular school system.

The Current School System

The legal basis for the current school system derives from the above-mentioned law of 1962, amendment of which requires a two-thirds majority in Parliament. The basic legal framework for the external organisation of schooling is the task of the Federal State, whilst the corresponding implementing measures and their execution are the concern of the individual provinces. Since 1975, state schools have in principle been co-educational. Schooling is free of charge.

Primary and Secondary Schooling

After four years of primary school (Volksschule), the tenyears-olds have a choice of two systems: on the one hand, extended primary schooling (Hauptschule) and, on the other, higher secondary schools providing a general edu-

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cation. After four years at a Hauptschule, a oneyear polytechnic course may be pursued. Subsequently, a start may be made on tuition at a vocational school, accompanied in parallel by on-the-job training. Alternatively, after finishing Hauptschule, pupils may change to the four-year senior course at a general higher secondary school or conclude their training at a vocational secondary school, taking at intermediate level a two-tofour year course, or a five-year course at a higher level. For children with special learning needs various specialised schools are available, or the integrated approach may be employed.

The general higher secondary schools offer an eight-year course. After completing four years at the junior level the pupil may change to an intermediate level or higher level vocational school. Both types of school conclude with the Matura, a form of school leaving certificate, possession of which entitles admission to a university. There are special admission requirements for art colleges and for the Academy of Visual Arts.

Further Schooling
Schools offering secondary education are subdivided into three types: the general secondary school (Gymnasium), the form of secondary school concentrating more on mathematics and science (Realgymnasium), and the business-oriented (Wirtschaftskundliches Realgymna-

sium). Up to the third class these three forms are similar, but from then on the subjects are different (e.g. Latin or foreign languages). At the senior level the distinction lies in terms of different compulsory subjects. Within this system of alternative compulsory subjects, there is also scope for individual focus on a specialised direction.

Vocational education follows two institutional paths. Either the dual system is chosen, involving tuition at a vocational school and parallel on-the-job training, or education is pursued in an intermediate or higher level vocational school.

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140

6.

7.

8.

Austrias E d u ca t i o n Sy s t e m

1.

COMPULSORY EDUCATION 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. AGE 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. GRADE/CLASS POLYSPECIAL SCHOOL SECONDARY SPECIAL SCHOOL APPRENTICESHIP TECHWITH PART-TIME CONTINUED VOLKSSCHULE NICAL SCHOOLING COURSE ADULT VOCATIONAL TRAINING (intermediate and secondary education)

Source: Ministry for Education, Science and Culture

BASIC SECONDARY EDUCATION HAUPTSCHULE TRAINING INSTITUTION FOR SOCIAL EDUCATORS TRAINING COLLEGE FOR KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS FULL-LENGTH SECONDARY VOCATIONAL TRAINING

INTERMEDIATE VOCATIONAL TRAINING

EDUCATOR TRAINING (with final examination: two years)

PRIMARY EDUCATION (VOLKSSCHULE)

FINAL FINAL EXAMINATION EXAMINATION MATRICULATION EMPLOYMENT QUALIFICATION

TEACHER TRAINING TRAINING FOR HIGHER SOCIAL OCCUPATIONS

MATURITA

PRE-SCHOOL LEVEL (GROUP, CLASS) NATURAL SCIENCE SPECIALISATION (REALGYMNASIUM GENERAL SECONDARY EDUCATION (GYMNASIUM OR REALGYMNASIUM)

COLLEGES SPECIAL COURSES PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES UNIVERSITIES

Apart from providing a general education, the task of the vocational schools is to provide more specialised training for vocations in specific areas. A complete vocational course takes two to five years. The choice of vocational schools ranges from commercial colleges and business schools to colleges offering vocational training in social work, as well as agricultural and forestry colleges, and an extremely diverse group of colleges and schools providing training for technical, commercial and artistic professions. Successful conclusion of a course at one of these institutions is recognised as a qualification to pursue the vocation in question. Thanks to a system of bridges and transfers, it is possible to switch from one branch to another within the school system.

As a result of the introduction of autonomy in schools with regard to the subjects German, mathematics and foreign languages, streaming may be initiated to cater for the differing abilities of the pupils. Furthermore, depending on its particular situation, every school may offer special subjects. With the help of autonomous school timetables, schools can create their own specific profiles by emphasising certain subjects, e.g. the arts or sport.

A series of "private schools" under public law exist in Vienna, with tuition given in a foreign language. The Vienna International School and the Danube International School G.m.b.H. teach children from the age of four up to the

The American International School

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baccalaureate. At the American International School and the Vienna Christian School children are taught according to the American system up to the twelfth grade. The French language Lyce Franais de Vienne which by an agreement drawn up between the Republic of Austria and France is a state school is mainly used by the "international community" in Vienna. In addition, there are a number of foreign-language private schools not under public law, such as the Japanese, Arab and Swedish schools. The representatives of China and Russia in Vienna have embassy schools where obligatory schooling requirements can also be met.

Austrian Schools Abroad

Austria currently has German-language schools in Istanbul, Guatemala City, Budapest and Prague. There are also bilingual schools in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Leaving examinations at these schools are recognised in Austria and entitle the student to attend a university. There are also some Austrian teachers in the Austrian schools abroad, and others work in different international schools where German is a language of tuition. In addition, some 2000 Austrian teachers work in Europe as language assistants or in exchange schemes.

Within the framework of the EU educational programme SOCRATES II, in the area of school education (COMENIUS), competence in foreign languages and better understanding of other cultures is especially being promoted. This entails innovative projects on the basis of international partnerships. For instance, schools from three different countries work on teaching projects relating to specific subjects. The language of communication here is English, and the medium used is e-mail. Existing school partnerships form the basis for such joint projects, which are mainly devoted to foreign languages.

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Training of Teachers and Educators

Teachers at primary, secondary and special schools are trained at teacher training colleges over a period of six semesters. The training of teachers for intermediate and higher schools as regards general subjects and the theoretical basis for vocational subjects is mainly at universities. For the practical aspects of vocational training and some theoretical specialities, vocational teacher training colleges exist. Advanced training of teachers is given at pedagogic institutes corresponding to the various types of schools and numerous advanced training programmes are also available.

Adult Education
The organisations responsible for adult education arose almost entirely as a result of private initiatives. Religious communities and others sharing a common interest, professional organisations, vocational groups and cultural societies offer corresponding programmes. Following the principle of life-long learning, state institutions also are increasingly offering adult education courses. Numerous projects, designed to improve the existing range of education and to create equality of opportunities in regional and social terms, are promoted by the Ministry for Education, Science and Culture. The emphasis lies on completing schooling, obtaining university entrance qualifications and acquiring qualifications for specific vocations. Support is also lent to self-study programmes, longdistance learning and regional education.

Principles of Educational Policy

In determining principles of educational policy for the next century, educational administrators consider major trends such as population growth or socio-political changes such as increased individualisation. At the same time, schools are becoming places where social intercourse is learned, i.e. schools must not only provide professional knowledge but also teach pupils how to manage their lives. In the future it will be more important to ask the right questions than to possess and be able to recall encyclopaedic knowledge. Technology and culture have developed in such a way that even small children nowadays have to learn how to cope with the new media. Media education and use of computers and the Internet are part of the

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major extensions to the school syllabus. The increased responsibilities of schools means that they themselves must take certain decisions how to improve their pupils fluency in foreign languages, for instance. The process of modernising the syllabus has brought about certain changes in that knowledge is now divided into two areas: core areas and ancillary areas. Not only must knowledge be conveyed, but in order to develop all-round personalities emphasis is also placed on creativity and the arts, as well as on values that are important to society as a whole. Pupils should not only acquire knowledge, but also social skills and the ability to work as part of a team.

Teaching values and providing information on development trends in our society is done in a cross-disciplinary manner, using principles of teaching relating particularly to the environment, intercultural aspects and political education.

In the school year 1999/2000, some 1,19 million pupils were taught in more than 54,800 classes. In 1999, the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Cultures budget for schooling amounted to ATS 72.7 billion.

European Networking
All Austrian education should be seen in relation to the European educational programme entitled SOCRATES II, which will operate from the year 2000 onwards. Of particular importance are the schooling programme COMENIUS and the GRUNDVIG programme for further and adult education, as well as the language and technology programmes ATLAS and LINGUA. With the aid of these initiatives, numerous trans-national projects will be tackled.

In addition, Austrian schools have the possibility of participating in the network of UNESCO schools. This initiative, started in 1953, covers 3,200 schools in 121 countries all over the world. It includes 30 Austrian schools. They thus have access to a world-wide network and can join in international activities and projects.

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Science and Research

Universities and the Academy of Visual Arts
Austrias universities are institutions both for teaching and for research. Admission to a university, for any subject, is available to every native Austrian who meets the educational requirements (Matura). Apart from this usual qualification, there are, under certain circumstances, possibilities for students not possessing it to be admitted to a degree course, e.g. via an examination entitling them to study or to follow an occupation. At colleges specialising in the arts, appropriate qualifying examinations must be passed before admission.

Austrias universities are institutions for teaching and research

Study at a university is free of charge to native Austrians. Needy students may receive subsidies, if their academic performance merits such. Foreign students with the exception of students from EU countries and developing countries, stateless persons and refugees under the Geneva Convention pay a study fee, provided that Austrians studying in these countries have to pay such fees. University studies conclude with a diploma or Masters degree (Magisterium), and pave the way to pursuing a professional career. A doctorate additionally certifies the academic qualification of the holder.

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As regards conditions for admission, foreign students are treated the same as native students. The prerequisite is that an examination has been passed which is equivalent to the Matura, proof that the applicant would be entitled to study at a university in his or her home country, and an adequate knowledge of the German language. Certain faculties have only a limited number of places available, and in these, foreign students with the exception of EU citizens may not be admitted, or only to a limited extent.

In Austria, there are numerous academies, language courses and seminars specially for foreigners, offering language and other forms of training. For students from developing countries similar courses are available, which are subsidised by the Austrian state.

There are currently 19 universities (or colleges with university status) in Austria, with about 640 courses of study. Below is a list of universities, in order of their date of foundation:

University of Vienna (1365, oldest university in the German-speaking area) University of Graz (1585) University of Salzburg (1619; re-established 1962) University of Innsbruck (1669) Academy of Visual Arts, Vienna (1692) University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna (1767) Technical University of Graz (1811) Technical University of Vienna (1815) Graz Academy of Music and Drama (1815) Vienna Academy of Music and Drama (1817) Mining University, Leoben (1840) Academy of Applied Arts, Vienna (1863) Mozarteum Academy of Music and Drama, Salzburg (1870) University of Agricultural Sciences, Vienna (1872) University of Business Administration, Vienna (1898) University of Linz (1962) University of Klagenfurt (1970) College of Artistic and Industrial Design, Linz (1973) University Centre for Further Education, Donau-University Krems (1994), for postgraduate studies

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In 1999/2000, 220,972 regular students were registered. Of these, 26,331 were from abroad, corresponding to a share of 12.3%. The teaching staff at universities numbered more than 16,000.

The range of education provided by universities has been extended in recent decades by the introduction of new subjects, by the founding of new universities in different regions, and by expanding the existing capacity. In 1975, apart from rationalising university organisation, a major step was increasing democracy. The various groups making up the university (teachers, students, administrative staff) acquired the right to represent their interests within different academic bodies. This ensured the democratic principle of consultation between all parties involved. In 1993, as part of a further organisational reform, the universities acquired additional decisionmaking competencies in terms of staff and budgetary autonomy. The system of involving all the university groups in decision-making was retained. Universities may now themselves make decisions on the employment of academic and administrative staff, budget allocations and internal organisation. By shifting this competency from the Ministry for Education, Science and Culture to the universities, the latter are now able to establish individual profiles in competition with other universities.

The universities are managed at the various levels both by collegiate and by monocratic bodies. This mixed system permits rapid and efficient decision-making, whilst at the same time guaranteeing effective control via collegiate bodies with binding regulatory authority. 1997 saw a reform of the law pertaining to university studies which, apart from some deregulation and decentralisation, simplified administration and tidied up certain legal points.

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In 1999, expenditure on Austrian universities and specialised colleges, including building costs and subsidies for university-related science and research, amounted to ATS 33.04 billion.

Specialised Colleges (Fachhochschulen)

In 1993 there was a move to diversify higher education. Beginning with the winter semester of 1994/95 specialised colleges (Fachhochschulen) were set up, which offer both academic and practical training. Places at these colleges are open to candidates with a Matura and to graduates of the dual vocational system in Austrian schools. After a minimum of six semesters of study, the specialised course is concluded by taking a degree. Following study at such a college, doctoral studies may be commenced at a university. In the winter semester 1999/2000, 56 courses at specialised colleges were offered throughout Austria.

Colleges, Academies and Further University Education

After a pupil has taken the Matura, further training possibilities exist in addition to embarking on a career or a course of study at university. A qualification for a trade or profession may also be obtained at a college or academy. Here there is a choice between ten distinct directions:

Technical colleges Colleges for fashion and clothing technology Colleges of tourism Commercial colleges Business colleges Colleges for training in medical-technical professions Teacher training colleges Colleges for training in social work Colleges for educators Military academy

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In addition, it is also possible to take university courses for further training and education. These courses, each with a fixed syllabus, can be attended by both regular and other students. To make attendance easier for those in employment, most lectures are in the evenings, or are organised as seminars in blocks. University courses are subject to fees, and examinations are set in accordance with the universitys own regulations.

The Austrian Academy of Sciences

The Austrian Academy of Sciences was founded in 1847 and is the largest nonuniversity research establishment in Austria. As such, its emphasis is on basic research. It is an independent body which elects its members. The Academy is divided into a mathematical and scientific section and a philosophical and historical section. There are three types of member: honorary members, regular members and corresponding members. Scholars from Austria and abroad may be elected members. The various commissions of the Academy deal with a range of research projects and a series of institutes, some of which can look back on a long tradition. The research activities of the Academy are regularly subjected to evaluation. Within the framework of the Academy a number of internationally respected research organisations pursue their activities, e.g. the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Comparative Behavioural Research, the Phonogram Archive, the Austrian Biographical Lexicon, various institutes of physics, a space research programme and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA). The Academy of Sciences awards fifteen prizes for scientific achievement.

Libraries and Archives

The origins of the Imperial Library, the predecessor of todays National Library, go back to mediaeval Europe. In those days books belonged among the contents of the Treasury, along with jewels and curiosities. Documents prove that in the reign of the Habsburg Duke Albrecht III, in the second half of the 14th century, there was a treasury also containing books. The National Library still preserves the Book of Gospels of Johannes von Troppau, which is known to have been written in 1368.

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Emperor Friedrich III (1440-1493) had 110 valuable books stored in his castle at Wiener Neustadt, including the first translation of the Bible into German, the Wenceslas Bible, a richly illustrated work, and a copy of the basic law of the Empire, the Golden Bull. His son Maximilian, who increased his inheritance with the precious Burgundian treasury of books, promulgated clear instructions for the care of the books.

Over the centuries, this stock of books grew; many of the Habsburg rulers were also great book-lovers. From 17231726, Karl VI had the Court Library on Josefsplatz erected by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and completed by his son Johann Emanuel. The librarys Grand Hall is one of the most beautiful Baroque rooms in the world. In 1918 the Imperial Court Library was renamed the National Library. It contains more than 5.8 million items, including 2.8 million books. The remainder comprises manuscripts, music, photos and papyri.

The Austrian State Archives, among the most important historical archives in the world, contains not only a rich library and an extensive collection of maps but also five departments which grew up in the course of history. The oldest department is the Aulic Chamber Archive. As early as 1578, a collection was started of important documents for the Aulic Chamber, the central financial authority of the

The Grand Hall in the Austrian National Library

Habsburg monarchy. The most prominent archivist of the Aulic Chamber was the 19th century Austrian dramatist and poet Franz Grillparzer. The War Archive was founded in 1711 at the instigation of Prince Eugene of Savoy, a general and a statesman. The department of the House, Court and State Archives is a result of the administrative reforms of Maria Theresa. In 1749 she institutionalised an archive as the collecting point for all documents relevant to the history and ownership claims of the House of Habsburg and the state. The department of general administration and the archives of the Republic are of a more recent date.

At a regional level, the State Archives are mirrored by the archives owned by the different federal provinces. In addition, many towns and communities have their own archives. There are also rich historical treasures contained in church, monastery and abbey archives, as well as in numerous private collections.

The Austrian Research Scene

Within the organisation of research, the Ministry for Education, Science and Culture plays a central role. As a coordinating body, it is responsible for the legal framework and the development of strategies and is also the umbrella organisation for all university research. In material terms, the majority of research is done outside universities, commissioned by various ministries or carried out by special research institutes such as the Academy of Sciences with its numerous institutes. A major part of research is done by companies.

In Austria, some 25,000 persons work in research and development, in some 2,200 institutions. The organisation of individual institutions is very different, depending on their aims. Apart from purely state research institutions, there are cooperative facilities, such as the Austrian Research Centre at Seibersdorf. The umbrella organisation Forschung Austria (Research Austria) was founded to optimise Austrian research after the opening of the Eastern European countries and Austrian accession to the EU. To this belong the aforementioned Seibersdorf research centre and the major research facility of the province of Styria, the Joanneum Research G.m.b.H. Mention may also be made of such important internationally renowned institutions as the Christian Doppler

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In Austria, some 25,000 people are working in the field of research and development

Society, the Austrian Institute for Economic Research (WIFO) and the Institute for Higher Studies (IHS).

State promotion of research has resulted in the drawing up of guidelines for ad hoc projects, both in terms of fundamental research and for the furtherance of technology. As regards the former, a start-up programme for young scientists has been developed. The valuable Ludwig Wittgenstein Prize permits a maximum of freedom and flexibility in the area of top-level research. The concept is rounded off by targeted research programmes conceived for a five-year period, and special interdisciplinary research areas which are supported for up to ten years, in addition to special emphases on various specific fields. Examples from the period 1995-1999 are: hostility towards foreigners examination of the causes, explanations and counter-strategies, future energy and environmental technologies, research into the cultural scene and long term forecasting of environmental problems.

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International Cooperation in Research

A small industrial country such as Austria depends on networking and cooperation with partners in other countries. In past decades Austria has concluded a series of bilateral agreements on scientific and technical cooperation (e.g. with Bulgaria, China, France, Israel, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain and Hungary). Intensive participation in the EUs Framework Programmes in the fields of research and development presents both an opportunity and a challenge for Austria. It will help to improve quality standards and competitiveness. Both multilateral and bilateral cooperation is desired.

Austria was involved in about 1,150 research projects within the 4th EU Framework Programme (1995-1998), which means that Austrian partners were involved in about 8.8 % of EU-wide financed projects. The Austrian participants were allocated more than ATS 2.18 billion from EU funds. Austria has been involved in the preparatory work for the 5th EU Framework Programme (1992-2002) since 1996 and was able to make a valuable contribution. In December 1998, under the Austrian Presidency, the Ministers of Research of the various EU Member States agreed on the 5th Framework Programme, which has a total budget of 14.96 billion ECU. It comprises the following specific programmes:

Quality of life and management of living resources User-friendly information society Competitive and sustainable growth Energy, environment and sustainable development Confirming the international role of Community research Promotion of innovation and encouragement of SME (small and mediumsized enterprises) participation Improving human research potential and the socio-economic knowledge base Activities via direct actions (via the Joint Research Centre) for the European Community Research and training in the field of nuclear energy Activities via direct actions (via the Joint Research Centre) for the European Atomic Community

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Austria is also participating in COST (Coopration europenne dans le domaine de la recherche scientifique et technique = European cooperation in the area of scientific and technical research) projects (e.g. telecommunications, transport, meteorology, biotechnology) and in the EUREKA programme. The central coordination point since 1993 has been the Office for International Research and Technology Cooperation (BIT).

Apart from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, already mentioned as the central coordination point for fundamental research, other international meeting places for researchers in Austria which enjoy high reputation in their fields include the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP), the International Federation for Automatic Control (IFAC) and the International Erwin Schrdinger Institute for Mathematical Physics (ESI). In the field of liberal arts mention should be made of the International Research Centre for Cultural Sciences (IFK) and the Institute for Human Sciences (Institut fr die Wissenschaften vom Menschen, IWM), which concentrate on research into political and economic ideas in Central and Eastern Europa and gender studies.

An important aspect of Austrian cooperation in research is working with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe with regard to EU enlargement.

Apart from its Framework Programmes, the European Union offers programmes and initiatives which are not legally anchored within the Framework Programme, either because they form part of another range of subjects or because they represent attempts to react quickly to current technological developments and the resultant need for support. Examples in the period 1996-1999 include INFO 2000 (Development of a European Multimedia Content Industry) and MLIS (Multilingual Information Society).

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Cu l t u r e

Literature
A collection of poems, written around 1150 and housed in Vorau Abbey in Styria, marks the early beginnings of Austrian literature. In the 12th and 13th centuries, alongside sacred verse knightly and courtly poetry emerged, which culminated in the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. Written around 1200, the Nibelungenlied is one of the most impressive heroic epics preserved in European culture.

Emperor Maximilian I (1459-1519), the last knight, himself a poet, was a great patron of the arts, particularly of the theatre and dramatic art. In the 17th century the splendid operas and allegorical pageants, which were often performed by the entire court, also led to a flourishing of popular religious drama, which has survived to this day in rural passion plays and other traditional forms. As early as the 16th century the Catholic Church introduced a genre of educational drama which retained its significance as a source of education and religious instruction for broad sections of the population until well into the next century.

Austrian art and culture still bears the imprint left on it by the Age of Baroque. During this era Austria became a centre of European dramatic art. At the Viennese court, splendid operas and ballets were performed.

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Classical Drama and Popular Comedy

Franz Grillparzer can be ranked alongside the great German writers of the Classical and post-Classical periods. His works are characterised by the combination of elements of Austrian and Spanish Baroque drama, on the one hand, and the artistic devices borrowed from popular Viennese theatre traditions and classical drama, on the other. The problems he dealt with and his portrayals of character were ahead of his time and extended beyond the ideas represented by the classical Weimar school.

The triumphal advance of Viennese popular comedy began with the immortal figure of the Hanswurst, created by Josef Anton Stranitzky. The two classical writers of the Viennese brand of popular comedy in the 19th century, Ferdinand Raimund (Der Alpenknig und der Menschenfeind The King of the Alps and the Misanthrope) and Johann Nestroy (Freiheit in Krhwinkel Freedom in Krhwinkel), are still among the most frequently performed dramatists of the German-speaking theatre.

While the strong theatrical tradition had for a long time favoured the creation of dramatic works, with Charles Sealsfield, whose real name, Karl Postl, only became known after his death, and Adalbert Stifter (Der Nachsommer Indian Summer) this situation changed, in that both writers created narrative works that achieved world renown. The stories and novels by Marie von EbnerEschenbach were written with deeply felt social convictions and these, together with the works of Ferdinand von Saar, constitute the highlight of Austrian prose in the late 19th century. Nikolaus Lenau discovered new subject-matter for German-language lyric poetry during his travels to Hungary and other countries.

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Fin de Sicle
In around 1890 major changes occurred in Austrian literature. The writer Hermann Bahr was one of the protagonists of these rapidly changing styles. The most influential of these was the Secession, a movement which paved the way for impressionism in both art and literature. In their portrayals of fin de sicle Vienna, Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Arthur Schnitzler captured the atmosphere of the time in all its subtle nuances.

Hofmannsthal also wrote the libretti for Richard Strausss operas Der Rosenkavalier, Ariadne auf Naxos and Elektra. However, he is probably best known for his revival of the mediaeval mystery play. His Jedermann (Everyman) marks one of the highlights of the annual Salzburg Festival. The psychologically sensitive plays and stories by Arthur Schnitzler show the influence of the Viennese psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. The character of the sweet Viennese girl was also Schnitzlers invention. The
The writer Arthur Schnitzler. Photo from 1915

novels of Stefan Zweig (Die Welt von Gestern Yesterdays World) are brilliant analyses of the subconscious world. He was also known for his biographies of famous historical personalities.

A further reflection of the times was provided by Die Fackel (The Torch), a critical magazine published by Karl Kraus in 1899. The purity of the language portrayed an artistic attitude which demanded truth and simplicity. Another literary magazine was Der Brenner, which was brought out by Ludwig von Ficker in Innsbruck.
The dramatist Hugo von Hofmannsthal

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Alongside Vienna, Prague was the second literary centre at this time and the home of such great writers as the novelist Franz Werfel, the lyricist Rainer Maria Rilke and Franz Kafka, whose compelling parables depicted a cold and totalitarian world.

The Inter-War Period

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 brought considerable changes in Austrias intellectual and literary life. The apocalyptic drama by Karl Kraus, Die letzten Tage der Menschheit (The Last Days of Humanity), gives a critical account of the events of this period. The technique he used a montage of reports, interviews and newspaper cuttings anticipated later dramatic styles.

Joseph Roth and Robert Musil were also writers who focused on the consequences of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in their novels. Roths novels Radetzkymarsch (Radetzky March) and Die Kapuzinergruft (The Capuchin Vault) bear an idealised monument to the dual monarchy. Robert Musil invented the term Kakanien as a cipher for the (k. u. k.) Imperial and Royal Monarchy. His novel Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften (The Mann Without Qualities) provides great insight into the Austrian identity.

Georg Trakl, a native of Salzburg and one of the most important lyric writers of his day, wrote outstanding expressionist poems. Filled with despair by the outbreak of the First World War, he committed suicide. The painter-cum-poet Albert Paris Gtersloh was also an actor and director. The eccentric plays written by Fritz von Herzmanovsky-Orlando (Der Gaulschreck im Rosennetz The Horse Scarer in the Rose Net) present a distorted picture of the Austrian bureaucratic soul that is actually still valid today.

Intellectually, the monarchy only came to an end in 1938, when Austria was annexed by the Third Reich. Until this time, Austrian culture was still dominated by Baroque and Biedermeier elements.

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From 1945 to Present Day

Austrias literary scene after 1945 has been extremely varied. The tendencies towards the international avantgarde juxtaposed with the prevailing conservative elements. Franz Theodor Csokor, Max Mell, Franz Nabl, Paula Grogger and Alexander Lernet-Holenia still clung to tradition. The novelist Heimito von Doderer dominated the first two post-war decades with his works. In his novels Die Strudelhofstiege (The Strudelhof Staircase) and Die Dmonen (The Demons) he portrayed beginnings of the First Republic, when Austria was still intellectually rooted to the Habsburg monarchy. In her novel Jungfrau und Reptil (The Virgin and the Reptile) the author Dorothea Zeemann described her relationship with Doderer with refreshing candour and free from taboos.

One of the last heirs to a declining coffee-house culture composed of Austrian and Jewish elements was Friedrich Torberg. In his collection of anecdotes Tante Jolesch (Aunt Jolesch) he captures much of this atmosphere. Like Torberg, who had emigrated to the United States, Hilde Spiel had to flee to England in the wake of Nazi persecution. As a critic and novelist she was particularly successful with her memoirs Welche Welt ist meine Welt? (Which World is my World?).

In the Fifties, under the aegis of H.C. Artmann, the Vienna Group was formed. Its members came from the circle of avant-garde artists centred around Viennas Art Club. In 1964 this close cooperation came to an abrupt end when Konrad Bayer committed suicide. Other members of the Vienna Group were Friedrich Achleitner, Gerhard Rhm and Oswald Wiener. This period also gave birth to Herr Karl, a typical narrow-minded and petty philistine figure, bent on his own advantage, who was created by Helmut Qualtinger and Carl Merz. Ingeborg Bachmann, who wrote poetry, radio plays and novels (Malina), also came from the ranks of the avant-garde. With her WirklichkeitsMrchen (Tales of Reality), Barbara Frischmuth combines fantasy and social awareness. Hans Weigel and Gerhard Fritsch acted as mentors to this generation of writers.

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Fritz Hochwlder and Elias Canetti achieved international fame with their plays. The lyric works of Christine Lavant and Christine Busta are also known well beyond the borders of the German-speaking world, while Gertrud Fussenegger made a name for herself with her novels on Bohemian history. Paul Celans poem Die Todesfuge (Fugue of Death), which is dedicated to the victims of the Nazi concentration camps, is one of the most moving works ever written.

The most frequently performed and published writer of the Eighties was Thomas Bernhard, whose metaphoric plays, stories and novels revolve around an extremely pessimistic view of the world, which is reminiscent of Samuel Beckett. His plays Ein Fest fr Boris (A Party for Boris), Die Jagdgesellschaft (The Hunting Society), Der Theatermacher (The Theatre-Maker), Ritter, Dene, Voss and Heldenplatz (Heroes Square) manifest a negative approach to life coupled with baroque eloquence. Thomas Bernhard was strongly influenced by the Anglo-Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein and his critique of language.

The works of Peter Handke in the Sixties and Seventies were marked by introspection, reflecting a period in which many writers turned to superficial political statements. Wunschloses Unglck (A Sorrow Beyond Dreams), the story of his mothers life which ended with her suicide, has become a classic of world literature. Handke achieved great popularity with his plays Publikumsbeschimpfung (Offending the Public) and Kaspar. His later dramas such as ber die Drfer (About Villages), Spiel vom Fragen (The Game Of Asking), Die Stunde da wir nichts voneinander wussten (The Hour When We Knew Nothing Of Each Other) a play without words and Zurstungen fr die Unsterblichkeit (Preparations For Immortality). As a translator, Handke has popularised the work of two fellow Carinthian-Slovene writers: Florjan Lipus and Gustav Janus .

Another contemporary playwright, Wolfgang Bauer, combined elements of the traditional popular Viennese theatre with dialect. In the 1960s his play Magic Afternoon challenged conventional artistic and moral attitudes.

As a consistent proponent of the critical popular play, Peter Turrini caused quite a stir with his early play work Rozznjogd (Rat Hunt). Later on, he made a name for himself on television with his TV series Alpensaga (The Alpine Saga, co-author: Wilhelm Pevny) and Arbeitersaga (The Workers Saga, co-authors: Rudi Palla and Dieter Berner). Other writers who dealt with the problems of

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working-class life were Franz Innerhofer, Gernot Wolfgruber, Helmut Zenker and Michael Scharang.

The tradition of Austrian creativity and sensitivity in the use of language was continued in the prose works of Ilse Aichinger, Julian Schutting, Alois Brandstetter and Peter Rosei. The poems written by Ernst Jandl and Friederike Mayrcker also bear witness to linguistic experiments. Theodor Kramer uses social criticism in his poems about village outsiders, while for many people Erich Frieds political poetry served as a kind of public conscience.

Many of the authors who wrote during the inter-war period were only discovered much later on. The critical popular plays by dn von Horvth unmasked the petty bourgeois in all his malignance. Jura Soyfer was one of the most prominent political writers of the Thirties. Today his cabaretlike plays are performed mainly on small stages. It was during the 1980s that the lawyer Albert Drach became known at a ripe age with his sarcastic novel Das grosse Protokoll gegen Zwetschkenbaum (The Great Deposition Against Zwetschkenbaum), which he had written as early as 1939. Leo Perutz and his historic novels have also enjoyed a renaissance.

Elfriede Jelinek

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Alongside the two great protagonists of the literary scene, Handke and Bernhard, a number of younger authors have also been very successful. Christoph Ransmayrs novels Die letzte Welt (The Last World) and Morbus Kitahara were enthusiastically received by critics all over Europe. In her critical emancipatory plays and novels (Lust Desire), Elfriede Jelinek uncovers the crippling role of women in society. With his set of novels Die Archive des Schweigens (The Archives of Silence), Gerhard Roth seeks to portray the intellectual feeling in Austria. Felix Mitterer is a productive playwright, who deals with topical issues in a dramatically effective way. Johannes Mario Simmel, one of the most successful best-selling authors in the German-speaking world (Es muss nicht immer Kaviar sein It Need Not Always Be Caviar), also has a strong sense of social commitment, although he is sometimes criticised for his popular approach. Marianne Fritz, Elisabeth Reichart, Erich Hackl, Josef Winkler, Michael Khlmeier and Marlene Streeruwitz are some of the most promising young writers on the contemporary literary scene, and Werner Schwab was the most successful contemporary dramatist in the German-speaking countries.

Publishing Houses
In 1999, 6,487 new publications were brought out in Austria, of which 3,455 were available in book-shops, being subdivided into 3,337 single works, 85 periodicals and 33 non-book-materials (CD Roms, diskettes, microfiches, etc.). Some 690 publishing companies with regular productions are registered in Austria.

In the period between the wars, Zsolnay Verlag became the leading publishing house for belletristic literature. After the end of the Second World War it was joined by numerous others. Most of them are Vienna-based, but there are also some in Salzburg, Graz and Innsbruck. Among them are Carl Ueberreuter in Vienna, Residenz Verlag in Salzburg, which particularly focuses on the Austrian avant-garde works and has been taken over by sterreichischer Bundesverlag. In addition, there are the Springer Verlag in Vienna, which specialises in scientific works, Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt Graz, which is famous for its facsimile editions of old works, and Styria Verlag in Graz. The publishers Lcker and Picus in Vienna specialise in cultural works, while Drava Verlag in Klagenfurt (Carinthia) brings out publications in both German and Slovenian.

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The Grand Staircase in Viennas Burgtheater

Theatre and Musicals

After the Second World War the Austrian theatre quickly regained its former international standard. Viennas Burgtheater on the Ringstrasse is one of the best-known theatres in Europe. The Theater in der Josefstadt, founded in 1798, cultivates the modern style of acting and speaking evolved by Max Reinhardt. In 1929 Max Reinhardt founded the Reinhardtseminar, which today forms part of the Vienna Academy of Music and Drama. This drama school is located in Palais Cumberland vis--vis Schloss Schnbrunn and is equipped with its own studio stage. Other theatres of note in Vienna are the Volkstheater, the Kammerspiele, the Schauspielhaus and the Akademietheater, which, like the Burgtheater, the State Opera and the Volksoper, now belong to the BurgtheaterHolding. In 1999 the federal theatres became independent and part of a Limited Company. With this action, which had been planned for quite some time, all the theatres are now legal entities in their own right and enjoy full financial and personal autonomy.

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The re-opening of the Vienna State Opera in 1955

For the first decade following the Second World War, the historic Theater an der Wien became the temporary home of the State Opera, which had suffered considerable bomb damage. Since 1965, it has been used mainly for the performance of musicals and in May and June serves as a venue for events within the Vienna Festival. Other theatres at which musicals are performed are the Raimundtheater and the Ronacher.

A number of private theatres offer their own individual themes: the small theatre in Drachengasse specialises in feminist issues, Serapionstheater presents dream worlds, Gruppe 80 takes a socio-critical approach, Viennas English Theatre performs plays in English, Studio Molire in French, while Neue Oper Wien presents promising young opera singers, etc. The theatres located in the provincial capitals offer performances in a wide variety of styles.

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Film
Austrias first feature film Von Stufe zu Stufe (From Stage to Stage) was made as early as 1908. Two years later Count Sascha Kolowrat became the countrys first major film producer. One of Austrias greatest film directors was Axel Corti, who was the first winner of the Austrian Staatspreis for Film Art in the Seventies. Despite frequent setbacks, the great endeavours of Austrian film-makers, inventors, distributors and the Austrian industry have resulted in Austria occupying an acknowledged position among major film-producing countries.

In March 1998 the Graz Opera House provided the magnificent setting for the re-launching of the Austrian Film Festival. The opening film Suzie Washington, directed by Florian Flicker, received a lively response, as did numerous other highlights among the approximately 160 films presented from the past two years.

Since his film dbut Der siebente Kontinent (The Seventh Continent) in 1989, Michael Haneke has consistently focused on the theme of violence in our present-day society. In 1996 he made a film version of Franz Kafkas Das Schloss (The Castle), and his production Funny Games won him an invitation to participate in the competitive International Film Festival in Cannes. The noticeable rise of the Austrian film to an international position within the arts world is due to a number of Austrian film-makers whose works are presented in various international film festivals and an increasing number of EU Film Weeks in
Barbara Alberts film Nordrand

many parts of the world. Robert Dornhelm presented the erotic fairy-tale Der Unfisch (The Monster Fisch), while Andreas Gruber, whose film Hasenjagd (Hare Hunting) about the escape of Soviet officers from Mauthausen concentration camp met with a very positive international response, then completed his political parable Die Schuld der Liebe (The Debt of Love). Among the most popular feature films produced during the past few years are Michael Glawoggers Ameisenstrasse (Ant Street), Michael Kreihsls Charms Zwischenflle (Charms Incidents), Paulus Mankers Der Kopf des Mohren (The Moors Head), Christian Froschs Totale Therapie (Complete Therapy) and Stefan Ruzowitzkys new genre film Die Siebtelbauern (The Peasants). Goran Rebics film Jugofilm can almost be termed a documentary in that the director, who was born in Serbia, recounts a sensitive story outlining the immediate effects of war on a group of people in Vienna, who come from different parts of former Yugoslavia. Barbara Alberts film Nordrand, which was premired at the 1999 Viennale, tells the story of five young refugees from former Yugoslavia who support each other in the unfamiliar new surroundings of their country of refuge.

Documentaries and Avant-Garde

The group of artistic documentaries about the war in former Yugoslavia include Das Jahr nach Dayton (The Year After Dayton) by Nikolaus Geyrhalter and Ethnische Idyllen (Ethnic Idyls) by Christian Berger, who recently scored a success with his film Mautplatz (Tollgate). Film-makers like Franz L. Schmelzer, Hubert Sauper and Egon Humer are steadily gaining ground in the realm of political documentaries. The latter made an indelible impression at the Jewish Film Week held in Vienna in 1997 with his interview film Emigration N.Y. die Geschichte einer Vertreibung (Emigration to New York -The Story of an Exile). In 1998 Egon Humer presented his film portrait of Leon Askin, who, after reaching the pinnacle of his acting career in the USA, returned to Vienna in 1994 and starred in Houchang Allahyaris film Hhenangst (Aerophobia). Avantgarde films are another special feature of Austrian film production; Peter Kubelka, winner of the Austrian Staatspreis, as well as Ferry Radax, Franz Schmidt Jr., Valie Export and Kurt Kren, have made valuable contributions to this cineastic sector.

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Cinematic Arts versus Multiplex Centres

The burgeoning number of multiplex cinema centres on the city outskirts, as well as the steady streams of visitors they attract, lead, in addition to the reduced variety of programmes they offer, which are often limited to a small number of overseas blockbusters, to a cineastic desolation of the cities themselves. An increasing number of cinemas in the city centre are being forced to close down. To counteract this trend the federal government and the provinces are providing special subsidies for art cinemas and independent movie theatres that fulfil certain quality standards. Experience has shown that this concept is successful, even if the subsidies granted are relatively low, since the amount of art cinemas and movie projects in the provinces has grown, along with the number of cinema-goers. In addition, twelve Austrian cinemas have become members of the EU media programme Europe Cinemas.

The number of Austrian films shown in Austrian cinemas is still relatively low. The 15 or so films produced every year do not usually succeed in attracting audiences that go beyond the art cinemas and film clubs. The share of Austrian films shown in Austrian cinemas is still only 6 %. However, despite the predominance of US films, Austrian audiences are showing an increasing interest in films produced by their own country, which trend is borne out by the successes of the past few years such as Tafelspitz by Xaver Schwarzenberger (1993), Indien (India) (1993) a satire by Paul Harather, Freispiel (1995) by Harald Sicheritz, Ein fast perfekter Seitensprung (Almost Successful Infidelity) (1996) by Reinhard Schwabenitzky and Franz Antels Bockerer II sterreich ist frei (Bockerer II The Liberation of Austria) (1997). That many Austrians sometimes also want to see films with problematic themes is demonstrated by such titles as Der Schler Gerber (The Pupil Gerber) by Wolfgang Glck (1983) and Hasenjagd (Hare Hunting) by Andreas Gruber (1995), which drew 130,000 visitors to domestic cinemas. However, Niki Lists parody on detective stories and musicals

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of 1986, Mllers Bro (Mllers Office), climbed the charts of the past few decades with around 450,000 tickets sold, being outdone only by Harald Sicheritzs Film Hinterholz 8. This story about the trials and tribulations of amateur house-builders proved to be the most successful Austrian film of latter years (Super Golden Ticket), drawing crowds of 600,000 and being topped only by the box-office hit Titanic.

The Austrian film does not only focus on niches in the field of low-budget documentaries and experimental films. There are also cooperation projects which are carried out at a European level, particularly on the basis of the EURIMAGES co-production fund. Examples for this are two high-quality films, which were produced in cooperation with Germany and drew large audiences: Schlafes Bruder (The Brother of Sleep) (1995), directed by Joseph Vilsmaier, based on the novel by the author Robert Schneider from the province of Vorarlberg, and Comedian Harmonists (1998).

The most important cinematic event of 1999 was the Diagonale film festival. This presentation of the entire years film production including avant-garde short films for TV and videos attracted 20% more viewers as compared with the previous year and increased interest on the part of foreign journalists, producers and film-makers. In addition, a meeting was held with representatives of international film magazines, as well as a co-production meeting with producers from Switzerland and Germany. With over 600,000 viewers registered, Harald Sicheritzs film Hinterholz 8 about DIY home-building proved to be the most popular Austrian film in recent years and was awarded the Super Golden Ticket. After the box-office success Titanic, Hinterholz 8 recorded the second-highest number of visitors. Other popular films were Drei Herren (Three Gentlemen) by Nikolaus Leytner, with 100,000 viewers registered, and Eine fast perfekte Hochzeit (An Almost Perfect Wedding) by Reinhard Schwabenitzky. Another film that deserves mention is Megacities by Michael Glawogger, which began its career at the Film Festival in Locarno and culminated in an invitation to the high-calibre US Independent Film Festival in Sundance. The invitation extended to Barbara Albert to show her film Nordrand at the 1999 Venice Film Festival rounds off the successes enjoyed at festivals by Austrian films.

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Changing Film Structures

One of the major events of 1997 was the restructuring, expansion and relocation of the Film Archive Austria (formerly known as Austrian Film Archive) to the audiovisual centre in Viennas Palais Augarten. These archives were greatly expanded by the addition of the collections of scientific documentaries from the Austria Film und Video Ges.m.b.H., as well as by private contributions. In 1998 the archives launched a retrospective exhibition about Georg Wilhelm Pabst, which took place in a cinema situated in a large tent, adapted from a historic model.

Among important institutions in Austrias art film scene are the Austrian Film Museum with its high-quality showings and presentations of mainly international films in the Invisible Cinema in Viennas Albertina, the Austrian Film Commission and the Film Script Forum. The Austrian Film Institute grants subsidies based on the Film Promotion Law, which has recently been expanded to include the promotion of reference films.

Artistic Photography
For the past decade, artistic photography has regularly been subsidised by the federal government as an independent means of artistic expression. Since October 1998 the web site www.fotonet.at has been providing comprehensive information on the programmes and brochures issued by the subsidised photographic institutions.

Madame dOra, pioneer of artistic photography. Portrait by Alma Mahler

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In addition, biographies and works by numerous artists can also be accessed from the Internet. The same applies to the acquisitions made by the federal government and the province of Salzburg, which can be viewed at the Salzburg Rupertinums Austrian Photo Gallery. This collection currently comprises some 14,000 exhibits by several hundred artists and is constantly being expanded by new acquisitions. These works supply exhibitions both in Austria and elsewhere with material on every subject. The range of subsidies, designed to cofinance projects, exhibitions and publications, in addition to covering state grants, seminars abroad and prizes, as well as lending support to the yearround activities of photographic institutions, has been extended in 1999 by the creation of a government grant to cover the theory of photography. The aim of this subsidy is to promote scientific research into photography, as well as the exploration of the history and theory of photography.

Music
Opera
In the Age of Baroque the genre of opera, which originated in Italy, made its way to the rest of Europe. The first operatic productions north of the Alps took place in a stone theatre at Schloss Hellbrunn in Salzburg. In Vienna, too, the opera soon became very popular as a means of court representation, showing splendid performances. 1667 saw a highlight with a performance of the opera Il pomo doro by Marc Antonio Cesti, a grandiose spectacle staged to celebrate the wedding of Emperor Leopold I.

With his coronation opera Costanza e fortezza, Johann Joseph Fux, court kapellmeister to Emperor Karl VI, created a masterpiece of this genre. As composer to the imperial court in Vienna, Christoph Willibald Gluck began his opera reform and made dramatic expression the focal point of his works. Orfeo ed Euridice and Alceste are the bestknown operas which Gluck wrote in Vienna.

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As a counter-balance to Italian opera, the enlightened emperor, Joseph II, sought to promote the national German-language genre of singspiel, a good example of which is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts The Abduction from the Seraglio. Other operas written by Mozart, such as The Marriage of Figaro and Cos fan tutte, based on libretti by Lorenzo da Ponte, were premired at the former Burgtheater on Michaelerplatz, which today no longer exists.

The Vienna State Opera

The tradition of Viennese opera performances was also continued during the bourgeois 19th century. In 1869 the former Court Opera, the forerunner of todays State Opera, was opened in Vienna.

The premire in Vienna of Richard Wagners The Mastersingers was a turbulent event. His opera The Ring of the Nibelung was first performed in 1879 and was followed by Tristan and Isolde in 1883. High-calibre singers assured Viennese opera life lustre and prestige. The guest appearance of Giuseppe Verdi, who himself conducted Aida and his Requiem, caused a sensation. As Director of the Vienna Court Opera, Gustav Mahler brought new stimuli. Aided by the stage designer Alfred Roller, whose lighting effects had already been put to use in the new opera house at Bayreuth, he created a new style of staging. In 1919, together with the director Franz Schalk, the composer Richard Strauss took over as Director of the Vienna State Opera, a post he held until 1924. His opera Rosenkavalier, which was written together with the librettist Hugo von Hofmannsthal, painted a congenial picture of Vienna at the time of Empress Maria Theresa.

Ballet performance at the Vienna State Opera

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Among the most successful innovations performed during the Strauss era were Erich Wolfgang Korngolds opera Die tote Stadt (The Dead City). Later on, when Schalk directed the Opera House alone, Ernst Kreneks jazz opera Jonny spielt auf (Jonny Strikes Up) almost brought the house down. The premire of Kreneks twelve-tone opera Karl V, which was scheduled for 1934, did not materialise for political reasons. The result was that the Austrian premire only took place in 1949 in Graz.

Alongside Ernst Krenek, the main proponents of Austrias operatic scene in the 20th century were Julius Bittner, Franz Schmidt and Franz Schreker, a highlight being reached with Alban Bergs Wozzeck. After the Second World War, Gottfried von Einem became the countrys best-known opera composer with works like Der Prozess (The Trial), Dantons Tod (Dantons Death), Der Besuch der alten Dame (The Visit of the Old Lady) and Jesu Hochzeit (Jesuss Wedding). Friedrich Cerha also scored a big success with his opera Baal, which was first performed at the 1981 Salzburg Festival, while his opera Der Rattenfnger (The Ratcatcher) was premired in 1987 in Graz.

The splendid ensemble performances by the Vienna State Opera have greatly contributed towards cementing Viennas world-wide renown as a city of music. Despite heavy losses brought about by the war and the ensuing hardships experienced during the post-war period, within a very short time the State Opera regained its artistic traditions. The Opera House itself, built by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Nll as one of the most magnificent buildings lining the Vienna Ringstrasse, was badly damaged by bombs shortly before the end of the war. After the war ended the reconstruction work began. On 5 November 1955 the Vienna State Opera was opened for the second time with great pomp before an international audience with a performance of Ludwig van Beethovens Fidelio.

While the building itself was being restored, operas continued to be performed under the directorship of Franz Salmhofer in a temporary home in Theater an der Wien. In 1954, Karl Bhm, who during the war had for a short time been Director of the Opera, took over as Artistic Director. From 1956 to 1964 he was succeeded by Herbert von Karajan, who succeeded in changing the ensemble structure into that of a star company. Another famous con-

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ductor who became Director of the Vienna Opera was Lorin Maazel, who occupied this position from 1982 to 1984. He was followed by Egon Seefehlner. In 1986 Claus Helmut Drese took over as Director, aided by Claudio Abbado as Musical Director. Beginning with the 1991/92 season, the State Opera, together with the Volksoper, which also forms part of the Bundestheaterverband (Federal Theatre Association), came under the co-directorship of Eberhard Waechter and Joan Holender. Following Waechters death in 1992, Holender continued in this position alone. In the meantime, the Volksoper has found a new director in Dominique Mentha.

The Age of Viennese Classicism

Towards the end of the 18th century Vienna became a meeting place for great composers, with Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven creating works that went down in musical history as Viennese Classicism. Stimulated by the musical atmosphere of their city and by the magic of the surrounding landscape, they wrote their immortal music.

Born in Salzburg, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart scored his first success as a musical wunderkind in Viennas Schnbrunn Palace, when he played before Empress Maria Theresa. Following this, he joined his father, Leopold Mozart, on concert tours, achieving renown throughout Europe. When disputes with his employer, the Archbishop of Salzburg, led to his dismissal from service, Mozart moved to Vienna and there wrote his great operas

The Mozart family

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The Abduction from the Seraglio, The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and Cos fan tutte. Into his last opera The Magic Flute he incorporated some symbols used by the Freemasons, to which he himself belonged.

Alongside numerous symphonies, string quartets, operas and masses, Joseph Haydn, for many years kapellmeister at the court of the Esterhzy family in Eisenstadt, also wrote his two main works The Creation and The Seasons. Mozart dedicated to Joseph Haydn as an older, but intimate friend, his Haydn Quartets.

Originating from Bonn in Germany, Ludwig van Beethoven came to Vienna to study under Haydn. Contrary to the musicians employed by the Viennese court, after Mozart Beethoven was the first freelance composer to earn his living solely with his music. In 1805 his Third Symphony, the Eroica, was performed for the first time in Vienna. That same year also saw the unsuccessful premire of his opera Fidelio at the Theater an der Wien. In a former suburb of Vienna that is now part of the 19th district the house still can be seen in which the composer wrote his last will, the Heiligenstdter Testament, when his increasing deafness had plunged him into the depths of depression.

The Age of Biedermeier found its counterpart to these three composers of the Classical period in the person of the Viennese composer Franz Schubert, whose works of chamber music represented a highlight of the Romantic period. He created the lied as a new musical genre, which was reflected in the well-known cycles Die schne Mllerin (The Millers Beautiful Daughter) and the Winterreise (Winters Journey).

The outgoing 19th century was characterised by the works of Anton Bruckner, organist in the abbey of St. Florian near Linz, Hugo Wolf, whose work was immortalised in his songs, and Johannes Brahms, the epitome of ClassicalRomantic music. These composers continued the tradition of the Classical masters. Gustav Mahler, who from 1897 to 1907 was also Director of the Vienna Court Opera, can be regarded as one of the great symphonic composers at the onset of Modernism.

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The Music of the 20th Century

Arnold Schnberg was the great musical revolutionary of the 20th century, developing the theory of the twelve tones that only relate to one another that soon gained universal recognition. Schnberg was a pupil of the late Romantic composer and conductor Alexander von Zemlinsky.

Alban Berg, too, whose opera Wozzeck was still an if not completely pure atonal composition, became an adherent of the twelve-tone techniqe with his unfinished opera Lulu. It took half a century before Lulu, after its completion by Friedrich Cerha based on Bergs notes, was premired at the Paris Opera in 1979. While Bergs music, with its expressionistic intensity and emotions, can still be described in terms of conventional Romantic aestheticism, Anton Weberns music bordering on silence, condensed to aphoristic paucity, opened up new perspectives for the world of music. Independently of Schnberg, the Viennese composer Josef Matthias Hauer had already evolved his own twelve-tone technique. Other twelve-tone composers were Egon Wellesz, Ernst Krenek, Hans Erich Apostel, Hanns Jelinek, Friedrich Wildgans and Robert Schollum. The works of Karl Heinz Fssl, whose opera Dybuk was first performed in 1970 in Karlsruhe (Germany), and Erich Urbaner are also largely based on the twelve-tone technique.

Joseph Marx was for a long time the doyen of the traditional late Romantic Austrian composers. However, most composers cannot simply be classified under a particular heading. This is especially true of Gottfried von Einem, who also wrote ballets, and mainly created his instrumental music in response to commissions for well-known American orchestras. Jen Takcs, Cesar Bresgen, Paul Kont, Gerhard Wimberger and Paul Angerer should also be mentioned here. A particularly striking representative of this style is Friedrich Cerha, who works with complicated and subtly individual sound structures. The Hungarian-born composer Gyrgy Ligeti also belongs to the successful composers of the avant-garde generation, along with Kurt Schwertsik and Otto M. Zykan. Ivan Erd attracted attention with his opera Die Seidenraupen (The Silk-

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worms). The Greek Anesthis Logothetis, who settled in Vienna, developed his own form of graphical musical notation. The works of Roman HaubenstockRamati show similar notation methods. The late Friedrich Gulda played an important role in the fields of jazz and classical music, both as a pianist and as a composer.

Jazz, Improvisation and Folk Music

During the Seventies, no other European shaped the course of jazz as much as the Viennese Josef (Joe) Zawinul and his band Weather Report. Other internationally acclaimed jazz pianists are Fritz Pauer and Uli Scherer, while the trumpeter Franz Koglmann successfully combines the compositional techniques of the Second Viennese School (Schnberg and Webern) with the tranquility of cool jazz. The spiritual father of Austrian saxophonists is Hans Koller (tenor, soprano), whose renowned musical styles range from cool jazz to improvisation. The tenor saxophonist Harry Sokal for a long time worked closely with the American trumpeter Art Farmer, who spent many years in Vienna. The alto saxophonist Wolfgang Puschnig seeks to combine jazz with Austrian folk music in the project alpine aspects. The violinist Toni Stricker and the guitarist Peter Marinoff became known for their interpretations of Pannonian Ballads and Viennese Dances. Austria has more brass bands than tourist destinations! This regional form of folk music is a universal best-seller.

The Viennese musician Anton Karas, who played at the heurigen, or wine taverns, became a legend in his time with his zither melody The Harry Lime Theme from the film The Third Man (1950). But undoubtedly the most famous folk music to have emerged from Austria was the Christmas carol Silent Night, Holy Night, which was composed in 1818 in Oberndorf near Salzburg and which translated into over 300 languages and dialects is an integral part of Christian Christmases all over the world. The assistant priest Josef Mohr wrote the words and the teacher Franz Xaver Gruber set them to music. The chapel bearing the same name as the carol is still a living memory to the first occasion on which the carol was sung and is frequented by visitors, not only at Christmastide.

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Famous Orchestras
The New Years Concert given by the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra is televised throughout the world from the Goldener Saal of the Musikverein. With its unique acoustics and architecture by Theophil Hansen, this room also provides the setting for other major events that go to make up Viennas concert life. This is also the venue of the traditional Sunday morning Philharmonic concerts. The Orchestra is composed solely of members of the State Opera Orchestra.
New Years Concert by the Vienna Philharmonic

At the time of Brahms and Bruckner the Vienna Philharmonic was the only instrumental organisation that existed in Austria. Since the turn of the last century, social changes rendered music so popular with wide strata of the population that further orchestras were formed. Today, the Wiener Symphoniker, the Radiosymphonieorchester Wien, the Philharmonisches Orchester Graz, the Bruckner-Orchester Linz, the Mozarteum-Orchester Salzburg, the Niedersterreichisches Tonknstlerorchester, the Neue sterreichisch-Ungarische Haydn-Philharmonie and the Gustav-Mahler-Jugendorchester enjoy international

renown with their performances of both classical and contemporary music.

The numerous chamber orchestras and ensembles, such as the Volksopernorchester, the Alban-Berg-Quartett, the ensemble die reihe, the Frauenkammerorchester, the Vienna Art Orchester, the Camerata Academica of the Salzburg Mozarteum and the Concentus Musicus, which, with its conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt, strives to interpret music with historic authenticity, are also of a high artistic quality.

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The Johann Strauss Orchestra

The Viennese Operetta

The latter half of the 19th century, when the cultural and intellectual life of Vienna as the imperial capital flourished in parallel with the period of economic growth known as the Grnderzeit, saw the development of the Viennese operetta. This popular form of lyric drama soon symbolised Viennese theatrical culture per se. Directed by the satirist Johann Nestroy, in 1860 Jacques Offenbachs operetta Orpheus in der Unterwelt (Orpheus in the Underworld) had its Viennese premire at the Carltheater. The Golden Age of the Operetta was launched by Franz von Supp, among whose great successes are Die schne Galathee (Lovely Galathea) and Leichte Kavallerie (Light Cavalry). The French operetta tradition was finally banished by the genial Waltz King, Johann Strauss the Younger. With his masterpieces Die Fledermaus (The Bat), The Gypsy Baron and A Night in Venice, the Viennese operetta started its triumphal march throughout the world. Other great masters of the genre of Viennese operetta were Karl Millcker with Der Bettelstudent (The Beggar Student) and Gasparone, Karl Zeller with Der Vogelhndler (The Bird-Trader) and Richard Heuberger with Der Opernball (The Opera Ball).

The Silver Age of the Operetta was initiated around the turn of the last century and was enhanced by the addition

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of folk and gypsy music. With his wealth of operettas the successful composer Franz Lehr surpassed everything hitherto known, also incorporating Bohemian, Moravian, German, Hungarian, Slovakian and Italian elements into his works. Der Zarewitsch, Land of Smiles and particularly The Merry Widow are among the most popular works of this genre. In almost all Lehars premires the star was the tenor Richard Tauber, known from the world of the cinema. The operetta tradition was continued by Edmund Eysler with Die goldne Meisterin (The Golden Lady), Leo Fall with Der fidele Bauer (The Jolly Farmer), Oscar Straus with Ein Walzertraum (A Waltz Dream) and Fred Raymond with Saison in Salzburg (A Season in Salzburg). The last master of the Viennese operetta was Robert Stolz, whose works Wenn die kleinen Veilchen blhen (When the Violets Bloom), Zwei Herzen im Dreivierteltakt (Two Hearts in Three-Four Time) and Tanz ins Glck (Dance into Happiness) are sung throughout the world. Many of his songs have become so popular that they have virtually become folk songs.

The Vienna Boys Choir

In 1498 Emperor Maximilian I founded a boys choir as part of the Court Orchestra, which every day sang during the service and sometimes also at festive dinners. Among the best-known choristers were Joseph Haydn and Franz Schubert. Anton Bruckner was organist to the Court Orchestra.

The downfall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 brought with it the dissolution of the Court Music Orchestra and, consequently, of the boys choir. In 1924 the Vienna Boys Choir was founded to revive this old Austrian tradition. Since the 1950s, these singing ambassadors have successfully been propagating Austrian musical culture with their performances both at home and abroad.

Schools of Music
A number of music schools in Austria ensure the training of musical talents from the first school year on: the Academies of Music and Drama in Graz and Vienna, the Mozarteum in Salzburg, the Vienna Conservatory and the Bruckner Conservatory in Linz. The International Summer Academy organised by the Salzburg Mozarteum has proved particularly popular with foreign students from abroad. In addition, there are a number of other institutes in Austria which offer musical tuition.

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Festivals
Held in May/June, since 1950 the Vienna Festival has been an annual event and with its programme of events covering different aspects of visual and dramatic art constitutes a highlight of Viennese cultural life. Since 1982, an international Ballet Festival has also taken place in the Austrian capital.

A performance of Hofmannsthals Jedermann at the Salzburg Festival, 1948

Based on an idea by Max Reinhardt, Richard Strauss and Hugo von Hofmannsthal, in 1920 the Salzburg Festival was founded. The main venues for the festival are the Cathedral Square, which provides the setting for the mystery play Jedermann (Everyman), the Winter Riding School and part of the former stables, which now serves as a Festival Hall. Following the great successes scored by Arturo Toscanini from 1934 to 1937, the festival area was expanded to include the Large Festival Hall, which, since 1960, has taken into account modern demands. The Festival still mainly focuses on the works of Mozart, but is at the same time accompanied by the compositions of contemporary composers, as well as by theatre performances and concerts.

Every summer, other festivals such as the International Academy Weeks, the International Summer Academy for the Visual Arts and, since 1970, the Fest in Hellbrunn take place in Salzburg. In 1967 Herbert von Karajan founded the Easter Festival, which offers a programme of operas and concerts, and since 1973 a series of Whitsun concerts has also completed the programme. Until his death in 1989 Herbert von Karajan directed the Salzburg Festival. His successor is Gerard Mortier.

The focal point of the Bregenz Festival is the lakeside stage with its performances of operas, operettas, musicals and ballet.

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In Graz and in other towns in Styria, every autumn Austrias biggest avantgarde event, the Styrian Autumn Festival, takes place. Every summer, Linz in Upper Austria plays host to the Ars Electronica, a festival of technology and society. Since 1985, the styriarte music festival, directed by Nikolaus Harnoncourt, has also been a main feature of Austrias musical programme. The Carinthian Summer festival, held every year in Ossiach and Villach (Carinthia), as well as the International Bruckner Festival in Linz (Upper Austria), the Schubertiade (Schubert Festival) in Feldkirch (Vorarlberg), the Wien modern festival of contemporary music and the Haydn Festival in Burgenlands capital, Eisenstadt, are also worthy of mention. A highlight of Lower Austrias cultural summer is the Danube Festival.

Operetta Festivals are held in Bad Ischl in the Upper Austrian part of the Salzkammergut, in Baden near Vienna and in Mrbisch on Lake Neusiedl in Burgenland. In addition, numerous large and small festivals take place in every province throughout the country.

The Visual Arts and Architecture

Archaeological excavations provide strong evidence for Austrias importance as a country that is steeped in culture. The most important of these finds are the Venus of Willendorf, a rare example of a sculptured figure dating from the Old Stone Age, the artistically interesting animal sculptures of the Hallstatt Age, the historicocultural and Roman finds on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia, in the Roman settlement of Carnuntum on the Danube (Lower Austria), in Aguntum (Eastern Tyrol) and in Lavant (Carinthia), where the foundations of an early Christian basilica have also been uncovered.

Before the end of the first millennium AD, Western Christian culture spread to this area, thus playing an important role in its cultural development as the intersection of major trading routes. This culture was reflected in the monasteries and abbeys of the period, one rare and precious example of early mediaeval goldsmiths art being the Tassilo chalice and, as evidence of the art of book illumination, the 8th century Cutperch Gospel.

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Romanesque
The art of the Romanesque period (from around 1050 to 1250) is mainly characterised by Christian culture. Its most important centres were the bishoprics of Salzburg, Passau (Germany) and Brixen (Italy), the monasteries and abbeys of Melk, Gttweig, Klosterneuburg, Heiligenkreuz, Zwettl, Seckau and Gurk, which were founded by the Benedictine, Augustinian and Cistercian monks who colonised the country right up to the eastern border of present-day Austria. The stylistically purest reminders of this period are the Cathedrals of Gurk in Carinthia and Seckau in Styria. Monumental sculptures have been preserved, above all in the grand portal of Gurk Cathedral, in the cloisters of Millstatt Abbey and at the entrance to St. Stephens Cathedral in Vienna.

Remarkable examples of smaller works of art are the Wilten chalice, the folding chair in Nonnberg Convent (Salzburg), a vestment in Gss Monastery and the

The crypt of Gurk Cathedral, Carinthia

Verdun Altar, called after its master Nikolaus of Verdun and housed in Klosterneuburg Abbey. The illumination of manuscripts was also a major art during this era, two of the most representative examples being the giant bible stored at Admont Monastery and the antiphonary from St. Peters Church in Salzburg. The most significant monument to Romanesque frescoes in Austria is to be found in Gurk Cathedral and dates back to the second half of the 13th century.

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Gothic
In the Gothic period (13th to 15th century) the new way of life was also accompanied by a new architectural style, emanating from the West. Its proponents were the mendicant orders and the Cistercian monks. The former kept to the Italian Gothic design found in the churches of Friesach, Retz, Imbach and Krems, while the Cistercians built their churches in the French Gothic style, as can be witnessed in the monasteries of Heiligenkreuz, Lilienfeld and Zwettl. A characteristic feature of Austrian Gothic is the hall church with aisles of an almost identical height, such as is manifested in St. Stephens Cathedral, St. Augustines Church and the Church of the Minorite Friars, all of which are located in Vienna.

Austrias most representative Gothic building is St. Stephens Cathedral, which was begun in 1304. In this project, the Viennese church masons guild cooperated closely with those of Regensburg and Strassbourg. Their influence still dominates the Gothic churches of Eastern Europe. The builders participating in the construction of St. Stephens Cathedral were known to be Ullrich Helbling, Meister Wenzla, Hans and Peter von Prachatitz, Meister Anton Pilgram and Hans Puchsbaum.

Among the works of Gothic sculpture which, contrary to those of the Romanesque era are not attached to the wall, mention should be made of the Klosterneuburg Madonna, the so-called Servants Madonna in St. Stephens Cathedral and the beautiful Madonna from Krumau (today in the Czech Republic). These acted as models for sculptors throughout the country. In the late Gothic era the paintings and sculptures in the winged altars, e.g. that of St. Wolfgang in Upper Austria, created by Michael Pacher, are excellent examples of such works of art. Austrias most important secular buildings of the Gothic period are the Kornmesserhaus in Bruck an der Mur, the Bummerlhaus in Steyr and the Goldenes Dachl in Innsbruck.
The house with the golden roof in Innsbruck, Tyrol

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Renaissance
The reign of Emperor Maximilian I (1493-1519) is closely linked with the onset of the Renaissance style north of the Alps. The emperor brought scholars and artists to his court. It was at his instigation that the tomb in Innsbrucks Hofkirche was built. In the early days of the Renaissance Austria played a leading role in the realm of painting. To the Danube School belonged Rueland Frueauf the Younger (Leopold Cycle in Klosterneuburg), Max Reichlich and Wolf Huber, as well as Lukas Cranach and Albrecht Altdorfer (altar in the Abbey of St. Florian) from Regensburg. A typical feature of this school was the discovery of landscapes in the presentation of religious themes. With the advance of Protestantism, which did not attach much importance to paintings, Austrian art began to see a decline. The Catholic Church, especially the emperor, therefore called in artists from the south. Their work did not simply lie in transcribing the Italian style onto Austrian buildings but rather, strongly influenced by the local atmosphere, to combine their own individual style with a native touch. Good examples of this are Salzburgs Residence and Cathedral, as well as Ferdinand IIs mausoleum in Graz. For the design of secular buildings, too, architects were called in from Italy. During this era, castles were replaced by palazzi. Examples of these are the Rosenburg in Lower Austria, Burg Hochosterwitz and Schloss Porcia in Spittal an der Drau in Carinthia.

Baroque
The Baroque style is often described as being the quintessence of the Austrian character and this heyday of Austrian art has left its imprint on all branches of culture up to the present day. After the final defeat of the Turks in the last third of the 17th century, architecture, in particular, showed a tremenduous upswing, as visitors to Vienna can see for themselves.

The best-known proponent of Baroque building was Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, who succeeded in blending foreign primarily Italian elements with a national, Austrian style. The Collegiate Church in Salzburg, Palais Trautson and the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene of

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Savoy (today the Ministry of Finance) in Vienna bear witness to this attractive mixture. Fischer von Erlach also built the former court library (now the Austrian National Library) and St. Charless Church in Vienna.

The second great architect of this Baroque period was Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt, whose works in Vienna include Belvedere Palace, the former summer residence of Prince Eugene of Savoy, Palais Schwarzenberg, St. Peters Church and the Piaristenkirche. Other works include Gttweig Monastery, situated on the Danube in Lower Austria, and Schloss Mirabell in Salzburg.

Melk Monastery, Lower Austria

The third big name in the architecture of this time was Jakob Prandtauer, architect of the town of St. Plten, whose main claim to fame lies in the splendour of Melk Monastery, towering over the Danube in Lower Austria. His ideas continued to be put into practice by his nephew Joseph Mungenast and can be seen in the monasteries of Herzogenburg, Altenburg and Drnstein in the province of Lower Austria.

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The most renowned sculptors of this period were Georg Raphael Donner, whose best-known work is the fountain adorning the square of Viennas Neuer Markt, and Balthasar Permoser, whose apotheosis of Prince Eugene is to be found in the Baroque Museum located in the lower part of Belvedere Palace. The splendid architecture of the High Baroque period also attached importance to the design of the interior part of the building. The walls and ceilings of ceremonial rooms are hence decorated with splendid frescoes. Fischer von Erlach particularly favoured Johann Michael Rottmayr, but Daniel Gran should also be mentioned in this context.

This era also saw the heyday of painting. In his works Franz Anton Maulbertsch combined the mastery of the use of colour and light with an intensity of expression. Other well-known painters of this period were Paul Troger and Martin Johann Schmidt, who became known as the Schmidt from Krems. During the reign of Maria Theresa a later form of Baroque emerged in the Theresian style, as a contrast to the South-German and French Rococo styles.

Classicism and the Biedermeier Period

The pragmatic and realistic style of Classicism dominated the period from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century. Buildings in Vienna that still testify to this style today are the Technical University, the Scottish Monastery and the Mint Office. The major artists of this epoch were the sculptor Franz Anton Zauner, the creator of the statue of Emperor Joseph II in front of the Austrian National Library, and the painter of historic scenes, Peter Krafft.

The period between the Congress of Vienna in 1814/15 and the Revolution of 1848 is referred to as pre-March, known in artistic terms as the Age of Biedermeier. The rigid censorships imposed by State Chancellor Prince

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Hochosterwitz Castle, Carinthia. Painting by Rudolf von Alt

Metternich prompted a general withdrawal from public life, which consequently led to a flourishing of the arts. In the Age of Biedermeier it was primarily painting that flourished, particularly in the works of Ferdinand Georg Waldmller and Friedrich Gauermann, whose landscape and genre paintings reflect the ambience of the times. Mention should also be made of Friedrich von Amerling, Franz Eybl and the well-known watercolour painter Rudolf von Alt.

The cultural ambitions of this era, which mainly centred on the home, were reflected in the building of theatres, concert-halls and libraries. However, it was particularly the residential buildings that mirrored the intimacy and withdrawal of this epoch, with the cosily furnished Biedermeier rooms signalling the onset of upper-class prosperity. Until today, Biedermeier furniture has still remained characteristic for Vienna.

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The Age of Commercial Growth

The latter half of the 19th century was dominated by the reign of Emperor Franz Joseph I. During this time the monarchy developed into a modern nation. Vienna became the centre of an economically balanced multinational state.

Viennas Ringstrasse, which was created in place of the former city walls which were demolished in 1858, is characterised by an ambience of prosperity and a new aura of self-confidence. Both Austrian and foreign architects built along this magnificent boulevard representational buildings emulating different historical styles. The negative attitude towards this period, which prevailed for a long time, has today been revised by art historians.

Heinrich von Ferstel built the Votiv Church, Theophil Hansen the Parliament, Friedrich von Schmidt the City Hall, Eduard van der Nll and August Sicard von Sicardsburg the State Opera, and Gottfried von Semper and Carl von Hasenauer the Burgtheater. The painting scene in this ostentatious Ringstrasse era was dominated by Hans Makart, whose pompous studio soon became a model for many an upper-class drawing-room. Makart also depicted the famous procession in historical costumes along the Ringstrasse to celebrate the Silver Wedding of the imperial couple Emperor Franz Joseph and Empress Elisabeth. The genre painters August von Pettenkofen and Anton Romako, whose pictures already bore signs of the approaching expressionism, are other famous artists emanating from this period.

Jugendstil
In 1897 some of the artists from the Knstlerhaus broke away to form the Secession. This marked the beginning of an artistic revolution which was mainly based on aesthetic principles.

The representatives of Jugendstil, or Art Nouveau, such as Gustav Klimt and Otto Wagner, had emerged from the

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Fassade of a Jugendstil house by Otto Wagner, Vienna

late historical movement, but were at the same time ahead of their times and pioneers of the Modern Movement that was yet to come. Klimts later works led directly into expressionism, while the architecture of Otto Wagner (Post Office Savings Bank, the church at Steinhof with interior design by Kolo Moser), Joseph M. Olbrich (Secession) and Josef Hoffmann (the Purkersdorf Sanatorium) already bore the features of a Neue Sachlichkeit, or new functionalism, whose chief exponent was Adolf Loos (the Loos building on Michaelerplatz). From here the way led to the socially and artistically innovative municipal housing projects during the First Republic (Karl-Marx-Hof).

During this period particular importance was attached to handicrafts, which inspired the founding of the Wiener Werksttte. One of the most versatile protagonists of this movement was Josef Hoffmann. His Palais Stoclet in Brussels is the most fascinating building preserved from the fin de sicle era. It is a striking example of the endeavour to produce a comprehensive work of art that offers a harmonious blend of external appearance and interior decoration.

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Ganz rechts lebendige Natur. Painting by Max Weiler, 1973 (256 x 608 cm)

Modern Painting
Austrian painting at the beginning of the 20th century today ranks as one of the most important trends that went to make up the international Modern Movement. The Viennese Secession marks the turning-point between the historic styles and the approaching modernism. Its significance is due in part to its artistic attempt to combine architecture, painting and handicrafts into a comprehensive work of art, and also to the works of its most prominent representatives: the painters Gustav Klimt and Kolo Moser, and the architects Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann and Joseph Maria Olbrich. The new elements in the paintings of Klimt and Moser are the emphasis on the painting structure, and on the ability to make ornaments and lines immediate means of expression, thereby combining abstract painting with expressionism. The Austrian brand of early expressionism, which was characterised by a strong emphasis on colour and by psychological themes, began in 1905. Egon Schiele, Oskar Kokoschka and Richard Gerstl were the chief exponents of this style.

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The painting of the inter-war period showed great diversity. On the one hand, various international isms were adopted and reinforced with specifically Austrian features. Expressionism, in many different forms, was represented by Herbert Boeckl, Anton Kolig, Franz Wiegele and Albin Egger-Lienz; realism by Rudolf Wacker and Sergius Pauser; futurism, cubism and abstract painting by the group of artists around Franz Cizek and L. W. Rochowansky, Alfred Wickenburg, Carry Hauser and others; and Czanne-ism by Gerhart Frankl, Anton Faistauer and Georg Merkel.

A specifically Austrian feature was the artists-cumauthors, such as Alfred Kubin, Albert Paris Gtersloh and Fritz von Herzmanovsky-Orlando, whose works contain surrealistic elements.

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At the same time, the traditions of the 19th century, late impressionism and the fin de sicle style of art (e.g. Ferdinand Andri, Leopold Blauensteiner, Rudolf Hermann Eisenmenger) were carried on and eventually became the starting point for the direction that was to become the dominant form of national art under the National Socialist rule.

Austrian painting after 1945 was marked by continuity and the establishment of new relationships with the international art world. The Art Club, which was founded in 1947 as a kind of reservoir for all the artists who were associated with abstract painting or surrealism, played a key role during this period. The group of artists around Albert Paris Gtersloh, which would later be referred to as the Vienna School of Fantastic Realism, propagated a style that lay midway between surrealism and mannerism, its salient feature being its meticulous artistic execution. Its main representatives are Rudolf Hausner, Ernst Fuchs, Anton Lehmden, Arik Brauer and Wolfgang Hutter. Friedensreich Hundertwasser occupied a somewhat special position, uniting surrealistic and abstract-ornamental elements in his work.

Different positions developed within the realm of abstract art: an abstract expressionism (e.g. Hans Staudacher), a geometrical non-objectiveness (e.g. Carl Unger, Johann Fruhmann) and the refined informal tendencies around the group of painters making up the Gallery near St. Stephens (Wolfgang Hollegha, Josef Mikl, Markus Prachensky, Arnulf Rainer), as well as Maria Lassnig and Oswald Oberhuber. Since the 1950s, the Gallery near St. Stephens, founded by Monsignore Otto Mauer, has been a melting-pot for the Austrian avant-garde, also incorporating poetry, film, architecture and design.

The Viennese Actionism sought to shake the foundations of middle-class society. The incorporation of the artists bodies, as in the happenings initiated by Otto Mhl, Gnther Brus and Rudolf Schwarzkogler, as well as the disembowelling of animals in Hermann Nitschs Orgien Mysterien Theater, provoked public scandals. Adolf Frohner has found an expressive way of painting female bodies; Christian Ludwig Attersee, who is strongly influenced by

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pop art, has developed his performances and pictures into a colourful form of painting; Peter Weibel and Valie Export are experimenting with new visual media.

The pluralism of the Sixties and Seventies manifested itself in Austria in forms of visual poetry (Heinz Gappmayr, Friedrich Achleitner etc.), in exact art (e.g. Roland Goeschl) and in realism centering around the group Wirklichkeiten (Franz Ringel, Wolfgang Herzig etc.).

The international movement of the Junge Wilden in the 1980s, which concentrates on expressive painting, is successfully represented in Austria by Siegfried Anzinger, Hubert Schmalix, Alois Mosbacher and others. Contemporary art is characterised by the disappearance of the traditional genres and by the extension of painting into the media of installation, video, computer art and plastics. Herbert Brandl, Ernst Caramelle, Peter Kogler and Walter Obholzer are some of the artists who have achieved international recognition in these fields.

Sculpture
Austrian sculpture before 1938 was marked by three main movements. These were reflected in an expansion of the turn of the century (e.g. Franz Barwig and Michael Powolny, by a partly monumental expressionism, whose main proponent was Anton Hanak, and, since the 1920s, in abstract tendencies which were adopted by Albert Bechtold and the school of Eugen Steinhof. With Josef Thorak, an artist of the National Socialist regime, Austria made an infamous contribution to the history of sculpture.

In 1945 Fritz Wotruba returned from his exile in Switzerland to become one of the most influential and widely respected Austrian sculptors. As a teacher, he influenced whole generations of artists, such as Joannis Avramidis, Wander Bertoni, Otto Eder, Rudolf Hoflehner, Alfred Hrdlicka, Heinz Leinfellner, Josef Pillhofer and Andreas Urteil. Wotruba had studied under Hanak and had inherited his principles of a material-oriented stone

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sculpture. From the representation of the human shape he evolved a constructively abstract canon of forms which assumed monumental dimensions in his design for a church in the Vienna district of Mauer. In the early Fifties, Oswald Oberhuber, a representative of informal sculpture, sought to abolish all the formal aspects and questioned the definition of space as volume, which is one of the major concerns of 20th century sculpture. Informal sculpture occupies a singular position in the history of Austrian sculpture, but plays an important role with regard to contemporary plastic art in Austria. One example is the meditation stones by Karl Prantl, the founder of the sculptors symposium in St. Margarethen (Burgenland).
A church in Mauer, Vienna, designed by Fritz Wotruba

The Sixties brought an intensive involvement with classic modernism and, in parallel, with present tendencies. In addition to his pneumatic prototypes, Walter Pichler developed an archaic form of sculpture, while Bruno Gironcoli transformed his sculptures into huge static machines. As a teacher, Gironcoli has become a mentor for the new generation of Austrian sculptors.

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As in the realm of painting, classical sculpture is increasingly being replaced by extended forms of plastic production, such as video sculpture or installations. Franz Graf, Willi Kopf, Brigitte Kowanz, Franz West, Heimo Zobernig and many others represent the new generation of Austrian artists at international exhibitions.

Architecture
The early part of the 20th century was dominated by three great names in architecture: Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann and Adolf Loos. Wagner designed the major Viennese Jugendstil buildings (the church at Steinhof, the Post Office Savings Bank) and, as a teacher, influenced the next generation of architects. Josef Hoffmann was a co-founder of the Wiener Werksttte and built "Palais Stoclet" in Brussels as a comprehensive work of art. Adolf Loos became world-famous as an indefatigable opponent of ornamental art. He invented the room plan and designed the Loos building opposite the Hofburg. The great Viennese municipal housing schemes (e.g. Karl-Marx-Hof, designed by Karl Ehn), representing the social demands of Socialist Vienna, were initiated between the two World Wars and paved the way for future social housing projects. Clemens Holzmeister, the architect of the Festival Hall in Salzburg and the government quarters in Ankara, evolved a style of building that combined expressionist tendencies with traditional Alpine elements. Ernst Plischkes design for the labour office building in Vienna-Liesing is one of the few examples of functionalist architecture. Josef Frank and Oskar Strnad greatly influenced Austrian residential architecture and the Austrian Crafts Society. The Viennese Crafts Society Community, a project in which international architects also participated, is one of the most eminent examples in the history of architecture.

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The National Socialist regime wielded a much stronger influence on the development of architecture than on that of painting. Major architects were forced to emigrate: Plischke went to New Zealand, Frank to Sweden, Holzmeister to Turkey, to mention but a few. After the period of reconstruction in the Fifties, the 1960s and 70s brought a number of interesting projects for Austrian architects, many of whom began to acquire an international reputation. Roland Rainer, the doyen of Austrian architects, designed Viennas Civic Centre and, subsequently, those in Bremen and Ludwigshafen (both in Germany). Based on his philosophy of the condensed low building, he joined the campaign for more humane living conditions (e.g. in his housing scheme in Puchenau near Linz, Upper Austria). Karl Schwanzer designed the Austrian Pavilion for the 1958 World Exhibition in Brussels, which housed the Museum of the 20th Century in Vienna until 2000. Schwanzer also designed the Austrian Embassy in Brasilia.

With its designs for a church in Salzburgs Parsch district, the College of St. Josef in Salzburg and the pastoral centre Steyr-Ennsleiten, which was constructed in cooperation with Johann Gsteu, the Arbeitsgruppe 4 (Wilhelm Holzbauer, Friedrich Kurrent, Johannes Spalt) caused quite a stir. They shared a new approach towards constructive thinking, based on the famous seminars held by Konrad Wachsmann at the Summer Academy in Salzburg.

Gustav Peichl gained international recognition with his concept for the studios of the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF) in the federal provinces. In Germany he had already made a name for himself with the annex to the Stdelsches Kunstinstitut in Frankfurt and the art and exhibition hall in Bonn. Wilhelm Holzbauer designed the Town Hall and the Opera House in Amsterdam. In addition to the planning of the Vienna underground, Holzbauer carried out other projects, such as the Town Hall in Bregenz, the University of Salzburg and the IBM building in Vienna.

Hans Hollein, who received the Pritzker Prize for the design of the legendary Retti candle shop in Vienna, made a name for himself in the early 1960s with utopian architectural designs. After re-designing numerous shops

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and businesses (e.g. Feigen Gallery in New York), he was awarded his first big commission, the Abteiberg Museum in Mnchengladbach, Germany, which was followed by the Museum of Modern Art in Frankfurt. With Holleins HaasHaus on Stephansplatz, the Austrian capital received its monument to to the post-modern age. Ottokar Uhl developed interesting models for participation, in which the future tenants were involved in the planning process. This subject was also of interest to Eilfried Huth, who in the 1960s was Gnther Domenigs partner and, together with him, designed the Catholic Academy of Education in Graz (Styria). In the 1970s Domenig constructed the striking building of the Zentralsparkasse bank in Vienna-Favoriten with its organic aluminium facade. Like Klaus Kada, Volker Giencke and Karla Kowalski/Michael Szyszkowitz,

Domenig belongs to the Graz School, which tries to break up regionalism by modern tendencies, much in the same way as the Vorarlberger Bauknstler.

The group of architects Coop Himmelblau (Wolf D. Prix and Helmut Swiczinsky) and Haus-Rucker & Co. (Laurids Ortner, Gnther Zamp, Klaus Pinter) emerged in the late 1960s with a pneumatic, utopian form of building.

Coop Himmelblaus buildings, e.g. the Funder-Werk in St. Veit (Carinthia), rank among the best-known examples of deconstructivism internationally. Laurids Ortner won the competition for the design of the museum area in Viennas Messepalast, the largest cultural complex of the Second Republic.

Hermann Czech, who designed restaurants which have since become institutions of Viennese gastronomy, typifies a specifically Viennese form of architecture that is rooted in the traditions set by Frank and Loos.

Helmut Richter designed a residential building in ViennaBreitenfurt, for which he combined a high-tech glass faade with individual living units. Adolf Krischanitz used steel elements with vibrant colours for the art hall on Viennas Karlsplatz.

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Museums and Collections

Austrias major museums not only house splendid examples of its cultural heritage but are also important research centres. The former imperial collections form the core of todays state museums. The Museum of Fine Arts, with its wide range of exhibits covering a period from classical antiquity to the 19th century, is world-famous, particularly for its collection of Breughel paintings. This is the first museum which, based on the new Federal Museum Law, became a legal entity in its own right and on 1 January 1999 was transformed into a federal research institution. The Secular and Ecclesiastical Collections of the Treasury, located in the Hofburg, contain the crown jewels and insignia of the Holy Roman Empire and the former Austrian rulers, the Habsburg dynasty. The part of the Hofburg complex known as Neue Burg houses a collection of old musical instruments, the imperial hunting collection and armoury, as well as the Ephesos Museum, which was established in 1978. Famous special exhibitions of the Fine Arts Museum are on show in Palais Harrach and in the Knstlerhaus. The Wagenburg in Schnbrunn Palace is also part of the Fine Arts Museum, as are the collections at Schloss Ambras, the museums branch in Innsbruck, Tyrol.

Situated opposite the Fine Arts Museum on Viennas Ringstrasse is the Museum of Natural History. It boasts a large collection with numerous unique exhibits and is one of the most significant institutions of its kind in the world.

The Albertina Graphic Collection houses more than one million graphic works, including drawings by Albrecht Drer, and is the worlds largest collection of graphic art. During the period in which the Albertina is closed due to reconstruction work, the Akademiehof on Karlsplatz is being used for special exhibitions. The Copper Engravings Collection at the Academy of Fine Arts, where visitors find an extensive collection of paintings, contains as well a great number of interesting graphic works.

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The Austrian Gallery in Viennas Belvedere Palace houses a unique cross-section of Austrian art from the Middle Ages and the Baroque era, as well as exhibits of Austrian and international art from the 19th and 20th centuries. The Gustinus-Ambrosi-Museum, located in Schloss Augarten and containing the artists former workrooms, also forms part of the Austrian Gallery and is primarily dedicated to exhibitions by young artists. Halbturn Palace in Burgenland is another branch of the Austrian Gallery.

The

Austrian Theatre

Museum,

located

in

Palais
The Leopold Museum in Viennas Museum Quarter

Lobkowitz, displays 1.5 million exhibits and is the leading institution of its kind in the world.

Viennas Museum of Modern Art (Ludwig Foundation) was located in two buildings: Palais Liechtenstein and the 20th Century Museum. Both displayed unique examples of Austrian and international art from this century.

In

mid-2001

the

newly

erected

Museum Quarter will be ready to house the collections of the Leopold Museum (emerging from Austrias best-known private collection of Austrian art of the 19th and first half of the 20th century), the Museum of Modern Art (Ludwig Foundation), which is one of the largest European collections of modern and contemporary art, and the Vienna KUNSTHALLE, a municipal exhibition room displaying international contemporary and modern art. With a total surface area of 60,000 m2, the Museum Quarter will form one of the ten largest cultural districts in the world.

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The Museum of Applied Arts (MAK) was founded as early as 1864. The oldest museum of its kind in Europe, it houses an outstanding collection of arts and crafts from Europe and the Orient, as well as examples of contemporary architecture and design. Large-scale exhibitions are held in the two-storeyed building in Weiskirchnerstrasse, which also belongs to the MAK, while the MAK Gallery on Stubenring shows varying exhibitions of contemporary international art. Geymllerschlssel in Vienna-Ptzleinsdorf is a branch of the MAK which houses the Sobek collection and where annually changing exhibitions on special subjects are shown. In August 1994 the MAK Center of Art and Architecture in Los Angeles was founded for the purpose of promoting the international exchange between contemporary art and experimental architecture. Since 1995, the MAKs contemporary art depot housed in a turret on Arenbergpark and covering an area of 1,400 m2 has offered a further possibility for viewing a substantial part of the museums collection of modern art.

Alongside its permanent collection, Viennas Jewish Museum shows varying exhibitions on Jewish history and culture.

The Museum of Ethnology not only displays a unique collection of exhibits from all non-European civilisations, but also carries out constant extensive fieldwork.

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Following a complete renovation, Viennas Technical Museum was re-furbished and opened its doors again on 17 June 1999 with an exhibition on Transportation, which was followed by others, such as Nature and Knowledge, Images of Technology, Heavy Industry, Steam Engines and Mining and Musical Instruments.

The entrance hall of the Technical Museum Vienna showing the Etrich pigeon

The Austrian Museum of Folklore in Vienna is dedicated to the scientific preservation of folklore with particular emphasis on Austria. Like the Ethnographic Museum in Schloss Kittsee (Burgenland) which focuses on the folklore of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, the Austrian Museum of Folklore is run by a registered society.

Located in the former arsenal, the Museum of Military History in Vienna is also referred to as the Second Treasury. Alongside trophies, it exhibits the car in which the successor to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was shot in Sarajevo in 1914.

The collection of wax figures in the Josephinum is a rarity of medical, historical and artistic interest. The Pathological-Anatomical Federal Museum in the Narrenturm (fools tower) of the old General Hospital houses a collection of unrivalled variety.

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During the past few years private institutions, such as the Vienna Kunsthalle, the Bank Austria Art Forum, the Bawag Foundation, the Vienna KunstHaus, the Generali Foundation, the Raiffeisen insurance company and the Kunsthalle Exnergasse, have begun to contribute to Viennas exhibition scene in a big way.

The lnder also have outstanding artistic and scientific collections: the Historical Museum of the City of Vienna, the Museum of Lower Austria in St. Plten, the Museum of Burgenland in Eisenstadt, the Francisco-Carolinum

Museum of Upper Austria in Linz, the Rupertinum Museum in Salzburg, the Joanneum Museum in Graz, the Museum of Carinthia in Klagenfurt, the Ferdinandeum Museum in Innsbruck, the Museum of Vorarlberg and the Jewish Museum of Hohenems, also in Vorarlberg, are complemented by a variety of other museums which often focus on special subjects.

International Cultural Exchange

Cultural Agreements
The upheavals in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989 have necessitated extensive changes in the field of cultural cooperation. As a result, some of the agreements made with Central or Eastern European countries have expired, while in other cases the partner countries no longer exist in their original form (Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Soviet Union).

The existing or pragmatically extended cultural agreements have generated a new, qualitative form of cooperation. This means that, in the future, such agreements will only provide the framework for extremely flexible partnership structures. This new quality of cultural agreements and protocols will thus enable a targeted and more efficient cultural exchange, avoiding possible bureaucratic hurdles.

In the realm of arts, the Verein KulturKontakt Austria (Association for Cultural Contacts) contributed significant-

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ly to the re-organisation process in those countries affected by the political changes of 1989. In addition to substantial logistic and financial support for specific art projects, attention is also focused on the education of cultural managers at the International Centre for Culture and Management in Salzburg and to supplementary training in the field of cultural sponsoring.

Austrian experts participate in all cultural projects of the cultural committee within the framework of the Council of Europe, with Austria playing a key role in cultural matters. Austria also lends valuable support to the cultural sector of UNESCO, especially as regards international contributions in the field of music, such as the annual world cultural report. In addition, a number of studies in various fields of art were carried out for UNESCO, and Austria also participated in the Aschberg Bursaries System for Artists by inviting two visual artists, two dancers and two musicians from the UNESCO regions of Africa, Asia and Latin America to take part in a short-term educational project in Austria.

The Federal Chancellerys Departments for Visual Art and Photography offer a great variety of Artist-in-ResidenceProgrammes in Austria for young artists from all over the world, as well as workshops for Austrians abroad. Overall, it should be pointed out that a lively short-term and international exchange is taking place between artists in Austria and in many other countries, which meets the tendency towards globalisation while at the same time maintaining ones own national cultural identity.

Austria participates in all the cultural programmes organised by the European Union, which provide Austrian artists both at home and abroad with valuable stimuli and financial support. The impending EU enlargement will also have a positive impact on the realm of culture. Austria was instrumental in inciting the accession candidates from Central and Eastern Europe to play a more active role in the cultural dialogue, which, starting with autumn 2000,

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has already led to their increased participation in the EUs Culture 2000 programme. The expansion of this programme has generated many new possibilities for the Austrian cultural scene. Several Central and South-Eastern European countries have already expressed their interest in conducting a cultural exchange with Austria and, in turn, Austrian artists can now give free rein to their longstanding wish to implement joint projects with their partners from the candidate countries.

Cultural Institutes and Representative Offices Abroad

The Austrian Cultural Institutes in Agram, Budapest, Istanbul, London, Milan, New York, Paris, Prague, Rome, Teheran and Warsaw, which are subordinated to the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, were established for the purpose of intensifying cultural links on a long-term basis and of conveying an up-to-date picture of Austrian culture.

These institutes are responsible for providing conceptual and organisational support for cultural and scientific exchange and seek to reach the broad public with a variety of information activities and events devoted to Austria and its cultural and intellectual heritage (symposia, concerts, poetry readings, exhibitions, film presentations, German language courses, lectures, publications, scholarships and fellowships, advice to and promotion of scientific/academic projects, assistance to journalists etc.).

The Cultural Institutes have considerable freedom of action. Here, special importance is attached to cooperation with individuals and institutions representative of the host country and its cultural scene and the broadest possible coverage.

A special project in this context is the establishment of Austrian libraries, which has been promoted since 1989. This project is based on partnership activities and is designed to set up mini cultural institutes, in other words regional centres for the dissemination of Austrian

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culture. Austrian libraries have been set up in Olomouc, Cesk Budjowice, Znojmo, Troppau, Liberec, Plzen, Brno, Kosice, Bratislava, Poznan, Pr emysl, Opole, Wroclaw, Krakw, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nishny Novgorod, Minsk, Alma Ata, Vilnius, Tallinn, Lvov, Cernovice, Kiev, Charkov, Sofia, Veliko Tirnovo, Bucharest, Temesvr, Szeged, Pcs, Szombathely, Debrecen, Osijek, Tuzla, Maribor, Udine, Trento, Sarajevo, Pristina, Novi Sad, Jerusalem, Shkoder and Tiflis.

In places where no Cultural Institutes have been set up, the Austrian diplomatic missions are responsible for cultural and scientific interchange. In countries where these matters are of particular significance, the embassies or consulates have on their staff a special officer for cultural and scientific affairs.

Bilateral organisations such as the Circolo di Cultura ItaloAustriaco in Triest or the Anglo-Austrian Society in London, which are subsidised by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, also play an important part. Other centres dedicated to the promotion of cultural and scientific contacts are university institutes and cultural associations, which the government supports through the provision of documentation and assistance (including financial support) in organising events devoted to various aspects of Austrian life and achievements.

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Sport
Sport in Austria is carried on both competitively and as a leisure activity; it also forms part of the school curriculum. As regards competitive sports, Austria rates very highly at an international level, both in terms of top performances in various disciplines and of the ratio of active sportsmen and sportswomen to the population as a whole. Leisure-time sports are primarily undertaken for purposes of relaxation and play a major part in maintaining physical fitness and good health. Sports that form part of the school curriculum encourage young people to play and perform well, and also influence the way in which they will choose to spend their leisure time later on in life.

Encouragement of Sports
According to the Austrian constitution, sport is the responsibility of the federal provinces, but sporting activities are very actively promoted by the federal authorities, too. In 1999 the federal budget allocated ATS 610.4 million to the promotion of sport. Of this sum, ATS 400 million was devoted to specific sports promotion (tax revenue from the

Hermann Maier, the Herminator

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pools and sports lotteries) and ATS 210.4 million to general sports promotion. These federal funds also finance sports facilities, e.g. sports hostels, sports schools and a sport centre, as well as the training of sports coaches, trainers and teachers. Sports clubs are also assisted through subsidies granted by local authorities.

27,500 Sports Clubs

The Austrian Federal Sport Organisation is the co-ordinating body for 27,500 sports clubs. It comprises the Federal Sports Council, which embraces three umbrella associations: the General Sports Association of Austria (ASV), the Working Group for Sports and Physical Training in Austria (ASK) and the Austrian Gymnastic and Sports Union (SPORTUNION), as well as the Federal Specialist Sports Council, which unites the 53 recognised specialist sports associations in Austria.

A look at the list of the ten largest sports organisations in terms of members shows which are the most popular sports practised in Austria: mountaineering, football, tennis, skiing, curling, gymnastics, swimming, golf, cycling and shooting.

Host Country for International Sporting Events

Austria is a popular host for major international sporting events. Twice, in 1964 and in 1976 the Tyrolean capital, Innsbruck, was selected as the venue for the Winter Olympics, and the good reputation Austria enjoys throughout the sporting world is also evidenced by the fact that it has hosted a series of European and world championships. These include the Alpine Skiing World Championships in Saalbach/Hinterglemm (Salzburg) in 1991, the Ice Hockey World Championship in Vienna in 1996 and the Nordic Skiing World Championships in the Ramsau (Styria) in 1999, to mention but a few. In addition, Austria has played host to several important sports conferences and will also be the scene of the Alpine Skiing World Championships to be held in St. Anton am Arlberg (Tyrol) in 2001.

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World Cup ski races are held in a number of major winter sports resorts every year, the best-known of these being the Hahnenkammrennen in the Tyrolean skiing mecca Kitzbhel. Other traditional sporting events include the ski-jumping competitions on Bergisel near Innsbruck and in Bischofshofen (Salzburg) as part of the Four-Jump Competition, as well as the International Tennis Championships in Kitzbhel and the Grand Prix Tennis Tournament in Viennas Stadthalle.

Skiing as a National Sport

As well as being attributable to the ideal landscape and climate, the pleasure Austrians take in skiing also has a historical aspect. Matthias Zdarsky (1856-1940) wrote the first ski instruction manual In 1897, invented the first practical ski binding and, in 1905, organised the first slalom competition in skiing history on the slopes of the Muckenkogel, near Lilienfeld in Lower Austria.

Since then, Austria has been recognised as the leading country for Alpine skiing, both in terms of theory and of methods. The Arlberg technique, named after the first ski school in the Tyrolean village of St. Anton am Arlberg, is well known to all skiers. This tradition has been maintained for many years in the Federal Skiing College at St. Christoph am Arlberg, which is the centre of the renowned state training scheme for ski instructors in Austria. This training scheme also constantly generates new stimuli for innovative skiing techniques.
Ski touring

Making the mountains accessible via cable cars and ski lifts, which is an important aspect in skiing, has been actively pursued since the end of the Second World War. Whereas in 1945 only 12 cable railways, 8 mountain railways and 6 ski lifts existed, by 1998 there were some 3,300 lift facilities in all. Thanks to the installation of numerous means of ascent, eight glacier regions in Austria have also been made available for summer skiing.

Toni Sailer, Karl Schranz, Annemarie Moser-Prll, Franz Klammer, Petra Kronberger and Hermann Maier are all internationally known names in the world of skiing. They and other Austrian skiers have won numerous Olympic medals, world championships and World Cup titles.

Other winter sports practised in Austria are ski-bobbing, ski-jumping, the Nordic combination (ski-jumping and cross-country skiing), cross-country skiing, bob racing and tobogganing.

Soccer
The Austrian Football Federation is the sports association with the most members in Austria. It comprises 2,317 clubs with 387,300 active players. The top league is the Federal League, which consists of the 1st and 2nd Divisions. Ten clubs are admitted to each Division, with the best-known clubs internationally being Sturm Graz, Rapid Wien and Austria Wien.

Among the biggest successes scored by the Austrian national football team since 1945 are that of gaining third place in the 1954 World Cup and reaching the concluding rounds of the 1978, 1982, 1990 and 1998 world championships.

Apart from football, there are a number of other sporting disciplines in which Austrians have come to the fore in international competitions. These include judo (Peter Seisenbacher was an Olympic medallist in 1984 and 1988), handball, canoeing, rowing, shooting, tennis (Thomas Muster ranked No. 1 in the world), sailing, table tennis (Werner Schlager and Karl Jindrak are world-class players) and show-jumping (Hugo Simon won the World Cup in 1979, 1996 and 1997).

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Motor Sports
Motor racing, motorcycle racing and speedway are very popular in Austria and the countrys red-white-red colours are to be seen at many international events. Austria offers two racetracks which are very attractive to world-class racing drivers: the A-I-Ring near Spielberg in Styria and the Salzburg-Ring in the province of Salzburg. Austrians have been particularly successful in motor racing: Jochen Rindt, who suffered a fatal accident in 1970, became the Formula 1 world champion posthumously, and Niki Lauda won this same title in 1975, 1977 and 1984.

Cycle-Racing in the Mountains

Some important races are run in Austria that do not rely on engines, but just on pedals. The highlight is the Tour dAutriche, which covers a total of 1,500 km and is cycled in stages through the heart of the Austrian mountains. This event has taken place every year since 1949.

Sports for the Handicapped

Austria is always well represented at major events, such as the Paralympics for the physically handicapped and the Special Olympics for the mentally handicapped and persons with multiple disabilities, with Austrian athletes gaining excellent results in the World and European Championships.

Mass sports are being promoted through specifically targeted basic and advanced training programmes. Here, special emphasis is placed on the work with children, young people and senior citizens.

Leisure and Fitness

About three million people in Austria actively pursue sports in 27,500 clubs. In addition, there are hundreds of thousands who use sports facilities without belonging to a club. A number of sports are very popular leisure activities in Austria. These include swimming, Alpine and crosscountry skiing, cycling, tennis, football, running, riding and golf.

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Wildwater canoeing

Special keep-fit programmes, or Fitness Campaigns, appeal to people of all ages who want to indulge in physical activity. Numerous organisations concerned in some way with public health participate in these nationwide campaigns, which are organised by the Federal Sports Organisation. The idea of fitness is promoted every year with the National Cross-Country Skiing Day, the Vienna Spring Marathon and the National Cycle Touring Day, as well as with the Fitness Run and Fitness March, which take place on 26th October, the Austrian National Day.

Land of Mountains
Hiking and mountaineering are popular leisure activities with the Austrians. Almost 450,000 people belong to the ten Alpine and mountaineering clubs, which are united by the umbrella organisation of the Austrian Union of Alpine Associations (VAV). The largest of these clubs are the Austrian Alpine Association (OAV), the Friends of Nature and the Austrian Tourists Club.

Austria has a network of hiking paths covering thousands of kilometres, which extends from the Vienna Woods in the eastern part of the country to the Bregenz Forest in the west. 730 mountain huts and refuges are available to the hiker. There are ten long-distance hiking paths and three of the long-distance European trails cross Austria and are maintained by the Alpine clubs.

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Famous Alpine mountaineers have been involved in nearly all the expeditions seeking to climb the worlds highest, and most difficult summits. Austrians were frequently to be found on first ascents in the Himalayas and the Andes.

Austria: the land of mountains

Sports in Austrias Schools

Physical education plays an important role within the Austrian school system, with physical training being a compulsory subject from the first to the twelfth class. In many schools, additional forms of sport are available on a voluntary basis.

One of the main tasks of physical education is to prepare people for sporting activities later on in life. This is achieved with the help of school ski courses, school sports and swimming weeks, and all-day hikes. In addition, there are school leagues which further oncoming talent in football and volleyball. Stamina training is encouraged via competitions in cross-country running and cross-country skiing.

In order to promote children with a particular talent for sport, Austria has incorporated special sports schools at various levels into the school system. These centre around two types of school:

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Schools with general sporting aims, in which the theory and practice of sport is taught, and Schools with a sporting emphasis, e.g. skiing schools, both academic and vocational. Of these, the bestknown is probably the College of Skiing in Stams (Tyrol). The latter type of school offers talented young sportsmen and sportswomen the possibility of finishing their schooling with a leaving certificate, despite intensive training and frequent participation in competitions. The pupils also have the opportunity of taking their final exams later than usual due to the sporting demands being made of them.

University institutes specialising in sports are to be found in Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck and Salzburg.

Sports Facilities
Sports facilities blending into the beautiful landscape offer the possibility of practising many forms of sport. Tennis courts and swimming pools are found not only in the larger towns, but also in tourist centres and smaller communities. Golf courses can be found in every province. Modern football stadiums exist in all the provincial capitals and in many other towns also. Austrias biggest stadium is the Ernst Happel Stadium, located in Viennas Prater and offering a capacity of 62,900 seats, while the Vienna "Stadthalle" can accommodate 16,000 spectators and is one of the best-equipped multi-purpose halls in the world. Viennas indoor stadium provides a 240 m wooden track for cycle-racing and a 200 m circular track for athletic events, as well as facilities for other sports, such as indoor football, volleyball and tennis. It seats 5,800 spectators.

The Austrian Sports Facilities Plan has ensured that the population is supplied with adequate opportunities for pursuing sports as a source of recreation, pleasure and health in places that are both attractive and wellequipped.

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Mass Media

Current Media Analysis

The 1999 media analysis was compiled with data taken from 79 printed media, 18 print combinations, television (Austrian and foreign channels), the cinema, posters and the Internet. Taken as a whole, the media trends of the Austrian population above the age of 14 can be expressed as follows:

Coverage Daily newspapers, in total (read yesterday) Television in total (seen yesterday) Austrian channels, in total ORF 1 ORF 2 Foreign channels, in total Posters (daily) Visits to the cinema (during the past 7 days) Internet (yesterday)

in % 76,1% 77,7% 65,1% 34,1% 46,2% 34,7% 37,1% 4,6% 7,5%

in 1,000 5.066 5.778 4.336 2.274 3.076 2.310 2.469 309 498

Print Media
Daily Newspapers and Magazines
Following the principles of parliamentary democracy, in Austria there is freedom of opinion and of the press, without any censorship.

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With a circulation of about 3.1 million copies, the Austrian newspaper market is relatively small by international comparison. The Wiener Zeitung, which was founded in 1703, is the oldest newspaper in the world that is still being published. A large number of periodicals can also be accessed via the Internet.

The coverage given in the following listings shows what percentage of the Austrian population over the age of 14 regularly read a particular paper or other periodical (Source: Press Handbook 2000/ Media Analysis 1999).

Daily newspapers Neue Kronen Zeitung

Place of publication Vienna, Graz, Klagenfurt, Linz, Salzburg Vienna Vienna Graz Linz Vienna Tulln Innsbruck Klagenfurt Salzburg Schwarzach Graz Klagenfurt Vienna Bregenz Vienna Salzburg Linz

Coverage in % 1999 42.5 12.7 12.0 9.2 8.2 5.8 5.1 5.1 4.9 4.5 4.5 3.4 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.

Kleine Zeitung, combined editions Graz Kurier Tglich Alles Kleine Zeitung Obersterreichische Nachrichten Die Presse Der Standard Tiroler Tageszeitung Kleine Zeitung Salzburger Nachrichten Vorarlberger Nachrichten Neue Zeit Neue Krntner Tageszeitung Wirtschaftsblatt Neue Vorarlberger Tageszeitung Wiener Zeitung Salzburger Volkszeitung Neues Volksblatt

(Print run in 1999: 21.472) (Print run in 1999: 12.320) no data

(Source: Pressehandbuch 2000/ Media-Analyse 1999)

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Some major magazines News Profil trend Wiener Die Wirtschaft

Frequency of appearance weekly weekly monthly monthly monthly

Coverage in % 1999 19.4 8.7 8.1 5.4 3.7

(Source: Pressehandbuch 2000/ Media-Analyse 1999)

Press Subsidies
The main argument of proponents of state subsidies for the press was that the free press in a democratic society fulfils a public task and that the state should therefore be interested in maintaining as large a number of newspapers as possible, thus guaranteeing maximum variety of opinion. The principle that despite subsidising the newspapers the state should avoid any influence in editorial policy was regarded as self-evident. Since 1975, this principle has been observed. Subsidies in 1999 amounted to ATS 265.8 million. In addition, since 1972, there has been a so-called periodicals subsidy. For this purpose, in 1999, the sum of ATS 7.1 million was allocated from the budget. The publications in question receive the subsidies only if they fulfil certain prerequisites.

People reading newspapers in a traditional Viennese caf

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The Media Law

From the legal point of view, media activities in Austria are governed by the Basic Law of 1867 and its constitutional provisions concerning the right to free speech and the freedom of the Press, the International Pact on civil and political rights of 1966 (1978), which guarantees the unhindered procurement of information, regardless of national boundaries, the right of free speech anchored in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950 (1958, since 1964 part of the Austrian Federal Constitution), the ban on censorship adopted by the Provisional National Assembly in October 1918 and the Federal Constitutional Law of 1974 safeguarding the autonomy of the broadcasting service, which contains the definition of the term broadcasting and lays down general conditions, as well as the freedom of art guaranteed under constitutional law (1982).

This general foundation provides the basis for the Media Law of 1981 (Federal Law governing the Press and other journalistic media) and the Broadcasting Law of 1974. The Media Law applies to all forms of media. The main items of the Law are the mandatory provisions for the media proprietor (editorial staff, disclosure of ownership, obligation to denomination), provisions concerning criminal law (journalistic obligation to exercise due care) and sanctions, provisions governing the profession of a journalist and, in particular, regulations pertaining to the protection of the individual, i.e. the citizen, from defamation, contempt and libel through a medium, including claim to compensation, as well as the ban on recording public court hearings for television, the radio or as a film.

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Electronic Media
The Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF)
Austrias first broadcasting service was established on 1 October 1924. In those days it was called RAVAG (RadioVerkehrs AG). RAVAG was dissolved when Austria was annexed to Hitler-Germany in 1938 and broadcasting was then taken over by the German national company (Deutsche Rundfunkgesellschaft).

As soon as the war had ended, in April 1945 the former employes of RAVAG started resuming broadcasting operations. In parallel with the division of Austria into four occupation zones, in the summer of 1945 four broadcasting groups were set up which were controlled by the Allied Powers. Following the conclusion of the State Treaty in 1955, broadcasting activities came back into Austrian hands. In 1957, the sterreichische Rundfunk-G.m.b.H. was founded, its partners being the Republic of Austria and the lnder. On 1 January 1958, the radio service was supplemented with one television programme. In 1967 the sterreichische Rundfunk (ORF) was reformed following a referendum and since then it has been politically and economically independent. In 1974 there was a further reform, which turned the ORF into an autonomous business undertaking. The objectivity and impartiality of reporting, the respect for variety of opinion, balanced programming and the independence of the management of the ORF are guaranteed by a constitutional law.

The ORF is headed by a Director General. Three directors are responsible for programme planning: one for radio and two for television (one for information, one for programming). There are also directors for each of the nine provincial studios. A technical director is in charge of technical matters, and a business director is responsible for administrative affairs.

The ORF executive board, consisting of 34 members, must be consulted for decisions of major importance. Other ORF bodies include a council representing viewers and listeners (37 members) and the Control Commission

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(3 members), which must annually audit the management of the concern. A further commission consisting of 16 members monitors adherence to the Broadcasting Law.

In 1973 an Editorial Statute was concluded which defines the independence of reporting and the freedom of journalists to pursue their profession. This Editorial Statute was brought into line with the 1974 Broadcasting Act in 1976. The Broadcasting Act specifically states that the broadcasting service must respect the independence and responsibility of all staff engaged in the production of programmes and the freedom of all journalist staff in fulfilling the needs entailed by the tasks they perform.

The programmes that are broadcast include land-based programmes, two TV and four radio programmes, and one satellite programme (TW1).

Television
The two television programmes, ORF 1 and ORF 2, are so structured that the viewer can choose between entertainment, information and sophisticated programmes 24 hours a day. The starting times of the individual programmes are carefully co-ordinated. On ORF 2, each of the nine provinces has its own regional programmes. The ORF also offers a teletext programme comprising about 1,800 pages.
The newsroom at the headquarters of the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF), Vienna

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Since 1984 cable TV subscribers in Austria have been able to receive a satellite programme run jointly by the ORF, the German ZDF (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen) and the Swiss SRG (Schweizerische Radio- und Fernsehgesellschaft). In 1993 the German Broadcasting Corporation (ARD) was also added. This 3-sat programme, which is available in the German-speaking countries, is designed as a counterpart to the English- and French-language satellite programmes.

The ORF also owns 50 % of the digital channel TW 1, which, since the end of 1997, has broadcast across Europe programmes on tourism, weather forecasts and news. Since mid-1997 a supplement to the daily radio and television programmes has been provided in the form of the on-line service ORF on.

The Cable and Satellite Television Broadcasting Law provides the legal basis for media undertakings to transmit, without any special licence, television programmes via the existing cable TV networks through and for private persons. Cable TV programmes may be broadcast with the permission of the Private Broadcasting Authority.

Radio
The ORF broadcasts four radio programmes:

sterreich 1 (1) offers a high quality programme, with emphasis on music, literature, science and information. sterreich 2 (2) offers local and regional programmes put together by the nine provinces and catering for popular forms of entertainment. sterreich 3 (3) offers a progressive entertainment programme with frequent news broadcasts. FM4 has a (multilingual) programme featuring entertainment and news coverage.

Apart from these four radio programmes, the ORF also operates Radio Austria International, which, under its own director, transmits a short-wave foreign service commissioned by the Austrian government and funded by the Republic of Austria. Its task is to present a contemporary picture of Austria abroad. The programme is broadcast

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throughout the world and round the clock in German, English, French, Spanish, Arabic and Esperanto.

The Regional Radio Law has opened up the areas of regional and local radio to private broadcasting stations. Cable broadcasting only requires the notification of the Private Broadcasting Authority. This Private Broadcasting Authority, which comprises twelve members, has granted a total of 54 private broadcasting licences. Of these, ten are allocated for the regional radio - one for each federal province and two for Vienna - and 44 licences are available for local radio stations. This urban or regional radio can be received in limited areas within a province or in fringe areas of two or more provinces.

Cinema
In 1999 about 15.9 million people saw films on 410 screens all across Austria.

Associations and Institutions

The Austria Press Agency (APA)
The work of the Austria Press Agency (APA) provides the basis for the daily news published in newspapers, heard on the radio and seen on television in Austria. With the help of a dense information network and in constant contact with the countrys decision-makers, APA journalists themselves research the events of the day (politics, business, events, culture and sport) at first hand. At the same time, editors sift and edit the news coming in from all over the world.

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In addition, the APA has succeeded in establishing itself as a modern information company in the fields of politics and business. With an exemplary world-wide hi-tech concept, APA-Online combines real-time information with research databases. Within a very short time APA has thus become the largest Austrian supplier of data.

International Press Centre

The International Press Centre is also located within the APA building in Vienna. It provides facilities for press conferences, seminars and meetings, as well as offices for foreign journalists.

Concordia Press Club

The main aim of the Concordia Press Club is to represent the interests of the journalists and writers who belong to it. The Concordia House in Vienna is a highly reputed centre where journalists can meet representatives from the fields of politics, business, science, the arts and society.

The Austrian Press Council

This body was set up for the purpose of subjecting the Austrian press to voluntary self-supervision. It was founded in 1961 by the Association of Austrian Newspaper Publishers and the Austrian Journalists Union. Its members are not bound by instructions from the publishers or the government.

The Press Council is responsible for seeing that professional ethics are maintained and ensuring that the freedom of the press is not violated. It must also do everything in its power to uphold the reputation of the press. Its tasks are to determine failings in the press and to demand their elimination, as well as to represent the interests of the press vis--vis the law, the administration and the public.

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Anyone may turn to the Austrian Press Council who believes that a newspaper or periodical, or a radio or television programme has abused the freedom of the press, or that an article or broadcast represents an affront to public decency, an intrusion into the private sphere, disregards the obligation to provide honest and accurate reporting or any other principles of journalism. In this context, the Council has drawn up a catalogue of guidelines enumerating such principles.

The Press Council has no sanctions at its disposal with which it can compel a newspaper to publish a decision. However, practice shows that the findings of the Council are respected by almost all the media affected and are consequently published.

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Bildnachweise:
Allgemeine Unfall-Versicherungsanstalt, (128) American International School, (141) APA-Bildarchiv, (54) Austria Center Vienna, (85) Austrian Airlines, (105) BMW Motoren GmbH., (101) Buenos Dias, (Titelseite) Bundespressedienst, (5, 6, 26, 27 , 46, 56, 177) Contrast Photo GmbH, (113, 133, 135) Foto Haslinger, (31) Graphische Sammlung Albertina, (187) GRAPHI-OGRE, (2) Hausmann Luftreportagen Wien, (101) Heeresbild- und Filmstelle, (Titelseite, 63, 64, 80, 87, 150) Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Wien, (30) Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien, Foto Meyer KG, (178) Internationale Pressebildagentur Votava, (53) Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum Salzburg/Anrather, (173) Leopold Museum-Privatstiftung, (199) Mark Art, (Titelseite, 2, 90) Foto Peter Mertz, Innsbruck, (163, 189, 194) Museum Deutsch-Altenburg, (25) Franz Nabl Institut fr Literaturforschung, Graz, (161) sterreichische Bundesbahnen, (106) Oesterreichische Nationalbank, (90) sterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv, (28, 29, 35, 37, 41, 44, 157, 164, 169) sterreichischer Rundfunk - ORF, (219) sterreich Werbung, (Titelseite, 1, 129, 208, 216) Fotographen: Bohnacker, (12, 16) Carniel, (Titelseite) Fayer, (171) Hajek, (121) Herzberger, (19) Lechner, (7) Loebl-Schreyer, (120) Mallaun, (20, 100, 211) Markowitsch, (8, 13, 92, 109, 116, 118, 183, 185, 212) Maxum, (10, 21) Schumnik, (14) Sochor, (17) Trumler, (23, 182) Wiesenhofer, (9) sterreichisches Forschungszentrum Seibersdorf GmbH, (152) sterreichisches Institut fr Zeitgeschichte, Bildarchiv, (45, 180) Parlamentsdirektion, (Titelseite) Polyfilm Verleih, (165) Siemens AG sterreich, Information and Communications, (145) Sony DADC Austria AG, (Titelseite, 94) Stadt Wien, Magistratsabteilung 11, (131) Steyr-Daimler-Puch Fahrzeugtechnik GesmbH., (103) Foto Sndhofer, (206) Technisches Museum Wien, (201) Telekom Austria, (108) VOEST-Alpine Stahl Linz Ges.m.b.H./Pictures Fotostudio Groh, (110) Max Weiler, Ganz rechts lebendige Natur (1973), VBK, Wien 2000, (190 u. 191) Wiener Brsenkammer, (115)
In Klammer die Seitenangaben fr die Bilder.

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